← Volver a la ficha del textoPALI GRAMMAR
V. PERNIOLA
The Pali Text Society
Oxford
Pali Text Society
PALI GRAMMAR
By
VITO PERNIOLA S.J.
Published by
THE PALI TEXT SOCIETY
OXFORD
1997
I
i
First published
1997
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PREFACE
This Grammar of the Pali Language represents the research work
done during the ten years (1955-1965) 1 was lecturer in Pati and
Buddhism at Aquinas College of Higher Studies (Colombo) prepar-
ing the students for the General and the Honours Degrees of the
University of London, My research came to an end when the Sri
Lankan Government stopped all foreign examinations and so the
Grammar is not exhaustive, It is based on the language of the
Dhamma and Vi nay a Pitakas, It was composed for my students, but
even research workers will find it useful for their further studies
of the language of the Abhidhamma Pi taka and of the Atthakathas.
Vito Perniola SJ,
Kandy, Sri Lanka,
10 April 1996
//
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a. Grammatical Literature
Bloch J. : LTndo-Aryen du Veda aux temps modernes (Paris 1934)
Burrow T.: The Sanskrit Language (London 1955)
Geiger W,; Pali Literatur und Sprache (Strassburg 1916)
Hendriksen H.: Syntax of the Infinite Verb-forms of Pali
(Copenhagen 1944)
Macdonnel A. A,: A Sanskrit Grammar for students (London 1950)
Macdonnel A.A.: A Vedic Grammar for students (Oxford 1955)
Pischel R,: Grammatik der Prakrit Sprachen (Strassburg 1900)
Rhys Davids T.W. and Stedc W.: The Pali Text Society ’s Pali-
English Dictionary (London 1952)
b, Pali Books
AN
Anguttara Nikaya
Pali Text Society edition
Dpd
Dhammapada
The Minor Anthologies of the Pali
Canon (London 1931)
DN
Digha Nikaya
Pali Text Society edition
Itv
Itivuttaka
tt ti it tt
' MN
Majjhima Nikaya
a a a a
$N
Samyutta Nikaya
tt it n it
Sn
Sutta Nipaia
Lt tt a it
Theri
Theri Gatha
Li LC ii Li
Ud
Udana
a h a
VP
Vinaya Pitaka
a ii a a
N.EL In the quotations, the Roman number refers to the volume,
the other two numbers refer to the page and the line
respectively. If the book is in poetry, the reference is to
the stanza.
III
CONTENTS
Preface 1
Bibliography and abbreviations II
1 The alphabet 1
2 Phonology 4
3 Declensions 29
4 Pronouns 52
5 Numerals 59
6 The verb 70
7 Indeclinable words 129
8 Derivation of nouns 135
9 Nominal compounds 157
10 Verbal compounds 175
11 Evolution of the vowels 180
12 Evolution of the consonants 196
13 Evolution of the declensions 228
14 Evolution of the pronouns 245
15 Evolution of the numerals 253
16 Evolution of the verbal system 257
17 External sandhi 285
18 Agreement 289
19 Syntax of the cases 302
20 Syntax of the verb 338
21 Syntax of the sentence 383
I :
I
CHAPTER I
THE ALPHABET
The Pali alphabet consists of 42 letters divided into 8 vowels,
33 consonants, and a nasal sound,
1. THE VOWELS. The 8 vowels are a, a, i, i, u, ii T e, o.
a). The vowels may be divided into
short vowels; a f i, u
long vowels: a, 1, u
vowels of variable length: e, o
A short vowel contains one matra while a long vowel contains
two matras,
The vowels e and o are long when they Occur at the end
of a syllable as in e-so ‘this*, do-so ‘fault*; and they are short when
they are followed by a consonant with which they make syllable
as in met-ta Move’, pot-thakam ‘book*.
/i
■?
2
b). Further the vowels may be divided into
pure vowels: a, a
sonant vowels: /, u, u
diphthongs:
Ci o
;l
A pure vowel
is one that is
always used as a vowel.
A sonant vowel is one that can serve both as a vowel and as
a consonant. The sonants I, u, d remain vowels when followed
by a consonant, but are changed into their corresponding semivowel
y and v when followed by a vowel:
vi-kaioti
vikaroti
changes
vi-akasi
vyakasi
changed
$u-kam
sukara
easy
$u-akara
svakara
of good disposition
A diphthong results from the
vowel. In Pali both a-/, a-j give
rise to o;
union of a pure and a sonant
rise to e, while a~u, a-u give
pa-ikkhati
$aha-udara
maha-udadhi
pekkhati
sahodara
mahodadhi
looks on
brother
the ocean
To understand some phonetic changes, wc have to take into
consideration the Sanskrit sonant r which in Pali is replaced by one
of the vowels
i: a, i, u:
km
kata
done
h'gala
sigaia
jackal
prcchati
pucchati
asks
The semivowel of r is r
:
2. THE CONSONANTS. The consonants may be divided as
follows:
a
I
3
1
2
3
4
5
Gutturals
k
kh
g
n
Palatals
c
ch
j
jh
■■■■
n
Cerebrals
t
th
d
dh
n
Dentals
t
th
d
dh
n
Labials
p
ph
b
bh
in
Liquid consonants: r, /, /, jii
Semivowels: y } v
Sibilant: s
Aspirate: h
Niggahita: m
N.B. a). According to the organ of articulation, the consonants are
divided into gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, labials.
b) . The consonants under 1,2, 3, 4 are callet|bcclusive or mute
consonants since in Sanskrit they are unexploded by them-
selves but can be pronounced together with a following
vowel.
The consonants under 5 are called nasal consonants,
c) . According to their quality, the consonants under 1 and 2
and s arc hard consonants; all the other consonants are soft.
d) . The consonants under 2 and 4 and h are aspirate conso-
nants, while all the others are unaspirale consonants.
JA
CHAPTER II
PHONOLOGY
3. THE SYLLABLE. A word is articulated in syllables. A
syllable is a sound made lip of a vowel or a group of sounds made
up of a vowel and one or more consonants. In the word apajjad
there are four syllables: a-paj-ja-ti. Of these the fist syllable is made
up of a vowel; the second of a consonant, a vowel and a consonant;
the third and fourth are made up of a consonant and a vowel.
A vowel by itself can form a syllable since it can be pronounced
alone. But a consonant cannot form a syllable since it cannot be
pronounced without the help of a vowel.
A syllable may be open or closed
light or heavy
A syllabic is open if it ends in a vowel.
A syllable is closed if il ends in a consonant or niggahlta.
In a-paj-ja-ti the first, the third and the fourth syllables are
open since they end in a vowel: a-, -ja-, - ti ; while the second syllable
is closed since it ends in a consonant: -pa/-.
5
A syllable is light if it ends in a short vowel.
A syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or in a consonant
or niggnhita. in u-pa-n all Ihe syllables arc light since all end in
a short vowel; in a -dic-co all the syllables arc heavy since ii-/-co
end in a long vowel, and -die- ends in a consonant,
in Pali a closed syllable containing a long vowel was considered
too heavy; hence the vowel was shortened. Thus in the formation
of the future tense of the root da- we should have dassami, in
which the syllable das- is heavy because it has a long vowel and
it is still heavier since it ends in a consonant. Hence the vowel is
shortened: dassami becomes dassami, Similarly raj-na becomes
rajina/ranm, ad Hsu m/a dams u,
A closed syllable with a short vowel and an open syllable with
a long vowel are both heavy syllables and are equivalent to each
other from the point of view of the time taken in pronouncing them
since both contain two matras. Thus the syllabic dat- in datta and
da- in datum are equivalent. This equivalence has led to several
changes in Pali:
a) . A long vowel in an open syllable is sometimes shortened
and the following consonant is doubled:
mahaphaiam / mahapphalatn much fruit
suyali / suyyati is heard
diyati / diyyati is given.
b) , A short vowel in a closed syllable is sometimes lengthened
and the following group of consonants is simplified:
kattabbam > katabbam should be done
kattum > katum to do
samrago > sarago passion
ud-hand > uhanti he cuts off
kad-puriso > kipuriso a low man
1
6
c)< A vowel followed by a nasal consonant or by niggahita is
sometimes substituted for a long vowel in an open syllable,
and also for a short syllable and its following consonant
in a closed syllable;
a-kS-sum / a-kam-su they did
gac-chi / gan-chi lie went
vi-dasseti / vi-dam-sstr he shows
4. Vowel Gradation. The building up of words in Sanskrit is
characterized by the vowel gradation, called also quantitative alter-
nation, or apophony, or ablaut, This vowel gradation is found in
Pali though its occurrence is much less frequent than iu Sanskrit.
The vowel gradation was originally due to the shift of the accent
from one syllable to another. It consists in the fact that the vocalic
element of a root or of a suffix appears in one of the following
three grades: normal or guna grade, lengthened or strengthened or
vrddhi grade, weak or reduced or zero grade.
The basic vowel' gradation is a:a:zero, in which the vowel a
represents the normal grade, a represents the lengthened grade, and
the absence of the vowel represents the zero grade;
as-/ : as-i : s-anti.
This simple vowel gradation is somewhat complicated when the
vowel a is preceded or followed by a sonant which may serve as
a vowel or as a consonant according to the general rule (1).
The following alternations usually occur:
ay/e ; ay/e : j
av/o : av/o : u
*r ' & ; r (Pali; a, i, u)
ya : ya ; i
va : va ; u
chsdtti ; accbecchi (Ski acchaltstt) : chiiwa
savaiuya/sotabba : savcti/asso&i (Skt. asrausit) : suta
karoti ; karst i ; kata (Skt krta)
yajati ; y&jeti ; ittha (yittha)
vacati ; vacsti ; uccati (vuccati)
In a few cases the vowel a represents the normal grade and
alternates with the zero grade: tha-tuni : thdta.
In a few cases the weak grade has an originally long vowel:
nayati : nay aka ; nit a
tar at i : tart it : tinna (Skt. tlrna).
5. SANDHI, In building up words, he. in joining together a
root with its prefixes and suffixes, with its case or personal endings,
and in joining together two or more words to form compounds, the
final and initial sounds of the two consecutive elements or words
are combined according to certain rules called Sandhi rules.
These sandhi rules may be divided into
vowel sandhi rules
consonant sandhi rules
mixed sandhi rules.
Vowel Sandhi
In the formation of a word, when two vowels come together,
they are generally not allowed to remain, but
a) , they are contracted into one, or
b) . one of them is elided, or
c) , a sonant vowel is changed into its corresponding semi-
vowel, or
d) a consonant is inserted between them.
8
Contraction
a). When two identical vowels come together, they are con-
tracted into one long vowel of the same kind; i,e.
a/a + a/a
i/i + i/i > i
u/u T ii/u > is
punsa-a
punsa
yatha-abhirantam > yathabhirantam according to one's
pleasure
ati-ita >
bahu-upakaro
atita
bahu-upakaro > bahupakaro great help
According to the general rule already given (3), when a vowel
is in a closed syllable, it cannot be long. Hence the long contracted
vowel has to be shortened:
kala-antare > kalantare > kalantare at once
raja-ahganam > rajanganam> rajafiganain royal court
Sometimes, however, in the formation of compounds, there is
a long vowel in a closed syllable:
sa-attha > sattha with its meaning
salt ha
sa-akkhara > sakkhara
with its letters
This way of spelling seems to be due to the influence of the
Sanskrit sandhi rules on the scribe,
b), Sometimes the vowel a / a, followed by a sonant vowel
i/i or u/u, is contracted with it to e and o respectively:
punsa -i
pa-ikkhati
saha-udara
> punse
in the man
pekkhati looks on
sahodara
brother
inaha-udadhi >
mahodadhi the ocean
9
7. ELISION: When two different vowels come together, usually
the first is elided and the second vowel is lengthened if it happens
to be in an open syllable:
purha-cna > purisena with the man
ditthi-ogho > ditthogo a flood of false doctrines
ditthi-anusayo. > ditthamisayo inclination to speculation
buddha-uppado > buddhuppado the arising of a buddha
raja-upabogho > rajupabhogo fit for the use of the king
mano-indriyam > manindriyam the faculty of the mind
but
cakkhu-indriyam > cakkhundnyani the faculty of the eyes
dvi-aham > dvihani for two days
ti-aham > tiham for three days
catu-ahairi > catuham for four days
8 SEMIVOWELS.
a) . The sonant vowels i / u, followed by a vowel different
from themselves, are sometimes changed into their corre-
sponding semivowel y / v:
vi-asamm > vyasanam misfortune
su-agatam > svagatam welcome
nadi-a > nadya > najja of the river
jati-o > jatyo > jacco births
b) . The diphthongs e / o, followed by a vowel, are resolved
into their component elements:
e > a-i / a-r and o > a-n / a-u, and then the vowel i / u
is changed into its corresponding semivowel:
nc-ati > na-i-ati > nayati leads
> nayako leader
ne-ako > na-i-ako
10
agge-o > agga-i-o > aggayo fires
bho-ati > bha-a-ati > bhavati becomes
so-ako > sa-u-ako > savako disciple
bhikkhu-o > bhikka-u-o bhikkhavo monks
c). The vowels i/I and u/u in the declension of the feminine
stems are changed into iy / uy respectively when followed
by a vowel:
jati-a > jatiya of birth
nadl-am > nadiyam in the river
dhenu-o > dhcnuyo cows
vadhu-a > vadhuya of a widow
fhe vowel u of the root hu- is changed to uv- before a vowel:
ahu-am > abuvain I was
9. INSERTION OF A CONSONANT. In the formation of a
samasa, sometimes a consonant is inserted between the final and
the initial vowel of the two words that are joined together:
su-anayo > su-v-anayo > suvanayo easy to lead
atta-atthani > atta-d-attham > attadattbam one’s own welfare
sotapatti-ahgani > so tapa tti -y-ahgani > sotapattiyahgani
the factors of attaining the stream
Somelimres, however, it is not a case of inserting a consonant
but of restoring a Sanskrit final consonant which drops when it is
final of a word, and re-appears in combination: thus cha 'six 1 appears
in combination as chaf- / saf - / chad-:
chalabhihha / chadabhinha * the six higher powers
salayatanam the sixfold sphere
N.B. In the formation of a satnasa there are found cases where
two vowels are retained side by side, and this not only in poetry
but in prose also:
11
sa-uddesatn
sa-uttaracchadam
with its explanation
together with its covering
ji-tva
ni-tva
> jctva
> nctva
10. FURTHER VOWEL CHANGES.
a) . The vowels i/i and u, followed by a double consonant,
are sometimes changed into c / o respectively:
chid-tva > chctva having cut
ji-tva > jetva having won
nl-tva > nctva having led
bhuj-tva > bhutva / bhotva having eaten
Similarly the vowel / + y y sometimes changes to e and the
following y is doubled:
pujanlya / pujaneyya should be worshipped
dassaniya i dassaneyya should be seen
b) . The group aya / ava are usally contracted to e / o re-
spectively:
kathayati / katheti
navati
avatarati
/ ncti
otavati
ajjhayana / ajjhcna
avakaso / okaso
speaks
comes down
education
leisure
In the word avahnatabba, ava is changed to o and this vowel
is shortened to u :
avahnatabba > ohhatabba > uhhatabba should not be
dishonoured
The vowel e is somtimes expanded to aya:
seti / sayati sleeps
senasanam / sayanasanam bed
/ accayati
goes beyond
12
In verbal forms the groups aya/aya/aya are often contracted
to e:
pa lay a ti /
paled runs
nayami /
nemi I lead
bhayami I
bhemi I am afraid
Avi is sometimes contracted to e
and aya to a
bhavissati
> ha vis sad > hessad
will be
abha visum
> aha visum > ahesum
were
abhinhaya
> abhiima
having understood
chain ay a
> chamii
on the ground
c) , Sometimes a vowel is weakened when preceded by an
accented syllable:
dakkhati / dakkhid will see
kahad / kahiti will do
d) , When a word begins with i / u, often the corresponding
semivowel is prefixed:
uccad
> vuccad
is said
utthita
> vutthita
climbed
ittha
> y ittha
sacrificed
Similarly we find oropeti and voropeti ,
e), At the end of a word the group as > o:
manas > mano mind
In the second person singular of the aorist, we may find as
giving rise to a/ o: adas > add / ado.
13
Consonant Sandhi Rules
II. PHONETIC CHANGES, The various phonetic changes
which groups of consonants undergo in Pali can be classified under
the following headings:
a) . Assimilation
b) . Adaptation
c) . Metathesis
d) , Kpenthesis
e) . Aspiration
f) . Simplification
a). Assimilation, Assimilation consists in making two conso-
nants similar to one another:
tap-fa > tafta burnt
sat-kaw > sakkaro good treatment
dur-ga > dugga difficult road
agam-ya > agamma having come
sak-noti > sakkod he can
Assimilation can be progressive
regressive
reciprocal
Assimilation is progressive when the first consonant assimilates
the second to itself:
agam-ya > agamma
sak-noti > sakkoti
Assimilation is regressive when the second consonant assimi-
lates the first to itself:
dur-ga
tafta
dugga
14
Assimilation is reciprocal when both consonants are modified
in adapting themselves to one another:
labh-ta > laddha obtained
□
raj-nit > ranna with the king
budh-yati > bujjhati he awakes
is-ta > ittha desired
i J J
I i
In labh-ta the second consonant becomes soft like the preceding
one and then the first consonant is assimilated to it:
labh-ta > labhda > laddha
In raj-na the second consonant becomes palatal like the pre-
ceding one and then the first consonant is assimilated to it:
raj-m > rajha > mnna
In budh-yati the first consonant becomes palatal like the second
and then the second is assimilated to the first:
budh-yati > bujhyati > bujjhati
In is-ta the dental consonant is cerebraiized under the influence
of the previous sibilant preceded by the vowel /' and then the sibilant
is assimilated to it and aspirated:
is-ta > is-ta > ittha
t
b)> Adaptation: When a nasal consonant is followed by a mute
consonant, the nasal consonant is adapted to it in so far
as it passes to the nasal consonant of the varga of the
, following consonant:
sam-titthati > santitthati stands
H ' 3
f
T
sam-carati > sancarati goes about
sam-thamm > santhanam position
Assimilation also takes place when a mule consonant is followed
by another mute consonant of different quality or by a sibilant in
such a way that a hard consonant must be preceded by a hard
consonant and a soft consonant by a soft consonant:
a
I
15
bhed-ssati > bhet-ssati > bhecchnti will break -■
c) , Metathesis or interchange of two consonants:
gah-nati > ganhati takes
oruh-ya > oruyha having come down
papurati > panipati dresses
d) , Epen thesis or insertion of a vowel between two consonants:
raj-no > rajino of the king
brahm-no > brahmuno of Brahma
e) . Aspiration of a consonant:
as-fi > attbi is
is-ta > ittha desired
f) . Simplification of a consonant group or the reduction of
three consonants to two, and of two consonant to one:
bhed-$sati> bhet-ssati> bh&t~$ati> bhecchati he will break
kar-tum > kattuirt > katum to do
kar-ssami> kasssami> kassami> kasami> kahami I will do
12. GENERAL RULES: In Pali the consonants can be divided
according to their strength or power of resistance. This strength
decreases in the following order: mutes, sibilant, nasal, l t v,y,r.
The consonant h is found in a few combinations while the
consonants 1, Ih are not found in combination.
When two consonants come together:
a) , if both consonants arc of the same strength, the first is
assimilated to the. second:
sat-karo > sakkaro good treatment
tap-ta > tatta burnt
b) . If the two consonants arc of different strength, the weaker
is assimilated to the stronger:
16
kar-tum > kattum to act
agam-ya > agamma having come
c) . No aspirate consonant can precede another consonant; hence
if one of the consonants is aspirate, the new group has the
aspiration in the second consonant:
arabh-ya > arabbha
d) When one of the two consonant is s, the new group has
the aspiration in the second consonant:
as-ti > atthi is
is-ta > ittha desired
e) . When two mute consonants come together, the first must
be adapted to the second; i,e. a consonant must be soft if
followed by a soft consonant, and it must be hard if followed
by a hard consonant:
bhed-$sati> bhet-ssati and then further changes take place lead-
ing to bhecchati.
*S|
T
Though these rules apply to most of the changes that occur when
two or three consonants come together, yet each group of consonants
will be treated separately as follows:
1. Mute consonants:
1
a) , mute - mute
b) . mute - sibilant and sibilant - mute
c) . mute - nasal and nasal - mute
d) . mute - 4 v, y } r and 1, v, y, r - mute
e) . .mute - h and h - mule
2. Sibilant consonants:
a) , sibilant - sibilant
b) . sibilant - nasal and nasal - sibilant
c) . sibilant - 4 v, y, r and 4 v, y, r - sibilant
17
3. Nasal consonant:
a) , nasal - nasal
b) . nasal - 1, v t y t r and r - n, r - m
c) . nasal - h and h - nasal
4. 4 v, y f r
r - h
13. MUTE CONSONANTS:
a). Mute - mute: when two mute consonants come together,
the first is assimilated to the second since both are of the
same strength:
yuj-ta > yutta joined
mad-ta > mafia intoxicated
tad-karo > takkiro
he who
does that
sat-puriso > sappurlso
good man
The consonant f however, preceded by
consonants gh t dh, bh> is first softened to
takes place:
one of the soft aspirate
d and then assimilation
labh-turn > labh-dum
> laddhum
to obtain
lubh-ta > lubh-da
> luddha
greedy
budh-ta > budh-da
> buddha
enlightened
Sometimes the consonants j and c/i cause the cerebralization
and aspiration of the following dental, and then assimilation
takes place:
osuaj-ta > ossaj-tha
> ossattha
released
. maj-ta > maj-tha
> mattba
H ■
polished
ij-ta > ij-tha
> y ittha
sacrificed
pucch-ta > puccb'-tha
> puttha
questioned
18
b)> Mute-sibilant : when the guttural consonant k is followed
by s t the weaker consonant is assimilated to the stronger:
sak-ssati > sakkhati will be able
When c is followed by s, the palatal consonant is changed to
the guttural and then assimilation takes place:
vacs s at i > vak-ssati > vakkhati will speak
bhoj-ssati > bhokssati > bhokkbati will eat
moc-ssati > mok-ssati > mokkhati will be released
The mute consonants t / p, with a following s, give rise to
the palatal group cch:
labh-ssati > lap-ssati > lacchali will obtain
ched-ssati > chet-ssati > checchati will cut
l
acc hed-si > acchct-si > acchccchi cut
The final consonant of the prefix ud follows the general rule
ud-sango ut-sahgo ucchango the hip
ud-sadanam ut-sadanam u cchadanam massaging
ud-sittha utsittha ucchittha left over
In all other cases the final d is assimilated to a following s:
ud-sankha ussahkha with ankles midway
ud-saho ussaho strength
sam-ud-sayo samussayo body
Sibilant-mute: The sibilant, followed by a mute consonant, is
assimilated to it:
as-ti atthi is
adas-tha adattha you gave
In some cases the sibilant cerebralizes a following dental consonant
t and then is assimilated to it:
19
pa vis-fa
pavis-ta
pavittha entered
kjlis-ta
kiiis-ta
kilittha soiled
is-ta
is-ta
ittha desired
The cerebralization of a following dental takes place when the
sibilant is preceded by the vowel i / u, or by one of the vowels
a, i, u derived from Sanskrit f. In the s- and is- florists, however,
the sibilant never causes the cerebralization of the' following dental:
cintayis-tha
cintayittba
you thought
ahus-tha
ahuttha
you were
agamis-tha
ag a mitt ha
you went
pvcchis-tho
pucchittho
you asked
In forming compounds nis and dus never cause the cerebralization
of a following dental:
dus -tar a
dut tam
difficult to cross
nis-tarati
nittharati
crosses over
The final sibilant of dus
following mute consonant:
never causes the aspiration of a
dus-tara
dut tam
difficult to cross
dus-kara
dukkara
difficult to do
dus-cari tam
duccari tam
! evil life
The final sibilant of nis sometimes causes the aspiration of
a following mute consonant, and sometimes does not
nis-cala
niccak
motionless
nis-kodha
nikkodha
free from anger
nis-purisa
nippudsa
without men
but
nis-car ati
niccharati
goes out
nis-cinati
nicchinati
examines
i
20
nis-patti nipphatti
nis-pajjati nlpphajjati
accomplishment’
accorn
nis-kcimati nikkamati / nikkhamati goes out
nis-patati nippatati / nipphatati falls out
The sibilant drops when il occurs between two mute consonants:
alabh-s-tha aiap-s-tha alap-tba akttha he obtained
c), Mute-nasal: When a mute consonant is followed by a nasal,
the usual assimilation takes place;
sak-noti sakkotl he can
lag-na kgga slicking
The consonant j f however, followed by a nasal, is first changed
to g and then assimilation takes place:
bhaj-m
samvij-na
bhag~na
bhagga
broken
sam vig-na sam vJgga agitated
nunug-na
nimuj-na nimug-na nimugga plunged
In the declension of rajan, the consonant j palatalizes the
following nasal and becomes assimilated to it:
raj-na raj-na raiina
or the consonant group is split up by means of a vowel:
raj-na raj-i-na rajina
The consonant d is assimilated to a following nasal:
ud-nado
ad-mag go
sio-na
unna do
ummaggo
nismna
shout
wrong way
seated
Nasal-mute: a nasal consonant, followed by a mute, is adapted
to it, he. it is changed to the nasal of the varga of the following
mute consonant:
21
sam-gacchati sangacchati he meets with
sam-janati sanjanati recognizes
sam-thanani santhanam position
sam-pajjati sampajjati happens
When the root kr and its derivatives are compounded with sam,
then an s is inserted:
sam-karoti sain-s-karoti sankharoti he puts together
d). Mute and l>v,y,r: When a mute consonant is preceded or
followed by one of the consonants l,v,y f r, the usual as-
similation takes place:
kup-yati kuppati is angry
kar-tabbam katiahbani ought lo be done
dvr-bala dubbala weak
nir-gacchati mggacchati disappears
The denial consonants, however, l, th f d, dh + y give rise to
a palatal group:
t-y cc th-y cch
d-y jj dh-y jjh
ati-anta atyanta accanta continuous
budh-yati bujjhad is awake
Even the consonant f of pati gives rise to a palatal group
when the following i is changed to y:
pati-ahgam paty-angam paccangam small limb
The consonant d of the prefix ud is assimilated to a. following
ud-yunjati uyyunjati goes away
ud-yari uyyati goes out
22
e). Mute and h; The consonant d of the prefix mJ is dropped
before an h and the previous vowel is lengthened:
ud-hanati uhanati cuts off
h + t give rise to jh with the lengthening of the previous
vowel:
muh-ta
mujha
gone astray
ruh-ta
mjha
climbed
but
duh-ta
duddha
milked
nah-ta
naddha
bound
dah-ta
daddha
■ H
burnt
14. SIBILANT CONSONANTS
a) , Sibilant-sibilant: When two sibilants come together, they
give rise sometimes to ks > kkh , and sometimes to ts >
cch:
paves-ssati paveksati pavekkhati will enter
das-ssati daksati dakkhati will see
vas-ssati vatsati vacchati will abide
b) . Sibilant-nasal: When the sibilant precedes a nasal conso-
nant, the sibilant is changed to h, and then it is transposed
after the nasal:
adasma adahma adamha we gave
agamis-ma agamihma agamimha we went
In some words, however, the change of s to h is optional:
agarasma / agaramha from the house
rukkastnim / rukkamhi under the tree
asmi / amhi I am
asms / amha
we are
23
When a nasal precedes the sibilant, it is changed to niggahita:
sam-saro samsaro transmigration
c)< Sibilant - l, v, y, r: When the sibilant precedes or follows
the consonants l,v,y,r, the usual assimilation takes place:
nas-yati nassati perishes
tejas-vin tejassin shining
When r is assimnilated to a following sibilant, the consonant
group is sometimes simplified:
vihar-sit vihassit vihasi he dwelt
15. NASAL CONSONANTS:
a) . Nasal-nasal: A nasal consonant, followed by another nasal
consonant, is assimilated to it:
sam-nisidati sanmsidati he sinks down
b) , NasaM»v,y,r:
n-y > nn
man-yati
manna ti
thinks
akincan-ya
akincamia
nothingness
> nv and sometimers nn:
anu-eti
anveti
follows
anu-aga
anvaga
went after
anu-aya
anvaya
conformity
dura ini- ay a
durannaya
difficult to find
sam-anu-agata
samannagata
endowed with
> mm, my, nn;
agam-ya
agamma
having come
sam-yogo
samyogo/sannogo
bond
24
m-r > mr or the m is dropped and the preceding vowel is
lengthened:
sam-ruhati
samruhati
grows
sam-rambho
samtambho / sarambho
impetu osity
> II
sam-Iapo
sallapo
conversation
satn-Iina
sallina
sluggish
m-v > mv
sam-varo satnvaro
restraint
r-n > fin
piir-na puiina filled
tir-na tinna crossed
But the final r of dut does not cause the eerebralization of
the nasal'
dur-niggaha dutmiggaha difficult to restrain
dur-nivaraya dunniviraya difficult to check
r-m > mm
kar-im kamma action
dhar-mo dhammo law
c). h-nasal: When h is followed by a nasal consonant, it
changes place with it:
gah-nati ganhati takes
16. l t v,y t r
i-y > ly f II
kal-ya kalya / kalla well
dussil-yam dvssilyam wickedness
v-y > vy vi-anta vy-anta vyanta end
v-y > by vi-akaroti vyakaroti / byakaroti explains
i
25
v-y > bb siv-yati sibbati sews
v-y > viy vi-akta vyatta and viyatta experienced
v-y > v vi-adta vatta opened wide
r-r the first r is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened:
dur-rama durama difficult to enjoy
diu rakkha durakkha difficult to protect
r-y > ry kar-ya karya should do
r-y > r with the lengthening of the preceding vowel;
kir-yaii kirrati klrati is done
r-y > yy mir-yati miyyati he dies
r-y > riy pakir-ya pakiriya having scattered
r-y > yir kar-ya kayra kayira ought to do
r-y > // pari-anko paryanko and pallanko couch
vi-pari-aso viparyaso vi pa] la so change
r-v > bb nir-vindati nivvindati nibbindati becomes weary
r-h > h with the lengthening of the preceding vowel:
nir-haro niharo manner
h-y > yh oruh-ya oruyha having come down
h-v > vh bahu-abadho bahv-abadho bavhabadho great
suffering
17. SIMPLIFICATION OF CONSONANT GROUPS:
a). Simplification of groups of two consonants: Sometimes
two consonants are reduced to one with the lengthening of
the previous vowel:
kar-tum knttum katum to do
dassasi dasasi dahisi he will give
26
21
b). S implication of intervocalic groups of three consonants: In
Pali there are no groups of three consonants; hence when
three consonants come together, they are reduced to two
consonants, and sometimes even to one consonant only with
the lengthening of the preceding vowel:
ched-ssati chet-ssati chetsati checchati will cut
har-ssasi har-sasi hassasi hasasi hahasi / hahisi
you will carry
The only exceptions seem to be
hantva having struck
gantva having gone
indriyam sense faculty.
In composition wo have
aggi-agaram aggyagaram agyagavam fire house
aggi-antarayo aggyantarayo danger arising from fire
18. INSERTION OF A VOWEL. Sometimes two or three
consonants are not assimilated but a vowel is inserted between them.
The vowel inserted is usually i, but the vowels a, ir, o are also
found:
raj-na
rajina / ram a
with the king
nisinc-ya
nisinciya
having sprinkled
brahm-no
brahmuno
of Brahma
brahm-ni
brahmani
in Brahma
golmika
golomika
like a cluster
Mixed Sandhi Rules
19, Restoration of a consonant group; When a word in Sanskrit
begins with a consonant group, in Pali these consonants arc assimi-
lated according to the general rules already mentioned and then only
one consonant is retained. The consonant group, however, usually
reappears when preceded by a prefix or by another word ending in
a vowel:
jnata > nhata > data known
but in the aorist, with the prefix a, becomes annasi he knew
Similarly in compound verbs
nit a
abhinMta
renewed
suta
bahussuta
much heard of
ganhati
aggahesi
took
20. Group -as: The group
-o:
-as at the end of a word becomes
m anas
mano
mind
tejas
tejo
splendour
purisas
puriso
man
In the aorist, second person singular, the group -is
to -a and sometimes even to -o. adas > ada / ado
gives rise
The pronoun sas usually becomes so, but the form
found in poetry.
sa is also
2L Loss of occlusion. Sometimes a soft aspirate
loses its occlusion and retains only the aspiration:
consonant
rudhira
/ ruhira
red
bhavati
/ havati > hoti
becomes
narebhi
/ narehi
with men
pabhuta
/ pabuta
abundant
dha-
> hita
in the past participle.
12. Loss of final consonant In Pali no word ends in a full
consonant; hence when a nasal consonant comes at the end of a word,
it is changed into niggahita while any other consonant is dropped:
■
1
28
rupa-m
ivpasp
object
vasant
vasan
vasan i
abiding
adasit
a da si
gave
In composition, however, a final consonant is often restored:
puna but punar-puna > punappuna again and again
23, Hap lo logy; A case of haplology is found in
ajja-junha > ajjunha this moonlight night
29
CHAPTER III
DECLENSIONS
24, Declension. A declension is the inflection of a nominal
siem by means of endings that indicate the gender, the number, and
the case. In Pali there are
three genders: masculine, feminine, neuter
two numbers: singular, plural
seven cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, ablative,
genitive, locative.
The gender in Pali is distinguished by the ending of the nomi-
native case, independently of the meaning of the word; hence it is
called grammatical gender as opposed to the natural gender. The
words maggo, vattani, vatu maw are respectively masculine, femi-
nine and neuter in gender, yet all of them mean road. In the
inflection, the masculine and the neuter nouns are declined in the
same way with the exception of the nominative, vocative and accusative
singular and plural. The feminine nouns have different case endings.
30
The adjectives are declined in all the three genders just like
the nouns of the masculine, feminine and neuter gender. The ad-
jective kusala is declined like pun so in the masculine, like vanita
in the feminine, and like nlpam in the neuter: kusalo , kusala,
kusalam.
The case endings are added to the stem of the noun. A stem
may end in a vowel or in a consonant; hence the division into vowel
and consonant stems. The stems that end in the vowel a- are called
thematic stems.
Declension of vowel stems
The stems that end in a vowel may be divided into two groups:
masculine and neuter stems
feminine stems.
The masculine and neuter stems are subdivided into:
stems in -a
stems in -i, -u, -u
stems in -o
The feminine stems are subdivided into:
stems in -a
stems in -i, -i, -u, -ii
25, Stems in -a: purisa ‘mao’ (mass,); rupa ‘material object*
(neuter).
Singular Plural
N
puli so
-s
purisa
-as
V
purisa
purisa
-as
A
pur is am
-m
purise
-e
I
purisena
-ena
purisehi
-eh;
Ab
purisa
-ii
purisehi
-ehi
purisasma
-sma
purisamha
-m ha
31
purtsassa
-$$a
punsanam
-nam
purise
-j
puriscsu
-esu
purkasmim
-smin
purisamhi
-mhi
rupani
-m
rupani
-ill
In the other eases, the neuter stems are declined like the
masculine stems: rupena, rupassa, rupasma, rupasmim, riipvhi . etc.
a). In a few eases there is found a nominative singular in
-e both in the masculine and in the neuter stems: purise
‘man’, ma/msse ‘man \putte ‘son’, pandits ‘learned man’.
bale ‘foolish man’, nage ‘elephant’, si gale ‘jackal 1 , jivite
‘life’, sukhe ‘happiness’, dukkhe ‘sorrow’, satnyoiane
‘bond’.
b). In the nominative plural of the masculine stems there is
sometimes the ending -a sc, especially in poetry: panditase
‘learned men’, upasakase ‘disciples’, gatase ‘gone’, ivkkhase
‘trees’.
c) . In the neuter stems there is sometimes a nominative plural
in -y and an accusative plural in -e; rupa, rape instead
of rupani.
d) . The instrumental singular is sometimes formed with the
ending -ii added to the stem cither directly or by means
of the consonant -s-: sahattha ‘with one’s own hand', pada
‘with the foot’, uppada ‘with the arising’, vegasa ‘in a
hurry’, balasa ‘with strength’,
c). There are a few instances of a case in -ay a corresponding
to the Sanskrit dative case: hitaya ‘for the welfare’, sukhaya
for the happiness’, dassanaya ‘to see’, saipvaraya ‘to
control 5 .
O' The ablative singular is also formed with the suffix -to:
dfimto ‘from afar’, gharato ‘from the house’, gamato
bom the village’, dukkhato ‘from suffering’.
t
32
g). In ihe formation of the cases:
- in the nominative singular the final vowel of the stem -a with
the ending -$ gives rise to -o: purisa-s > puriso
- in the plural the vowel -a with -as gives rise to a: purisa -
ns > purisa
- the final vowel of the stem is lengthened before the endings
beginning with n-:
puma-nam > purisanam; ntpa-ni > rupani
- the final vowel of the stem is dropped before an ending
beginning with -c: punsa-ena > pun sen a; purisa-ehi > purisehi;
purisa-esu > purisesu
26. Stems in -i, -u: aggi ‘fire\ taru ‘tree’ (mase.), akkhi ‘eye’
cakkhu ‘eye 7 (neuter).
Singular:
N.V.
aggi
taru
A
aggi ip
tarum
-m
I
aggina
taruna
-na
Ab
aggim
taruna
-na
aggisma
tarusma
-sma
aggimha
tarumha
-mba
G
aggino
taruno
-no
aggissa
tarussa
-ssa
L
aggismim
tarusmim
-sttiim
ageimhi
tarumhi
-mhi
Plural:
N V A aggayo taravo
aggi taru
-o
33
\ Ab
agglhi
taru hi
-hi
G
agglnam
taruna m
-nam
L
aggJsu
tar li su
-su
Sbgul
ar
Plural
N V
A akkhi c
akkhini cakkhuni
-
akkhi m c
akkhum -m
akkhi cakkhu
In
the other cases
i the neuter
stems are declined like
mnsculine stems: akkhina, cakkhuna, akkhisma, cakkhusma, etc.
a) . In the N V A plural the vowel of the stem is lengthened
before the ending o, i.e. the vowel -j is lengthened to
-e and the vowel -u to “O:
uggi-Q > agge-o > aggayo
iniu-o > taro-o > taravo
b) . Before the case endings of the plural, the final vowel of
the stem is lengthened:
aggi -hi > aggthi, aggi-nam > agglnam, chakku-su > chakkusu.
c) . In poetry sometimes the accusative takes the ending -nam:
nidhinani for nidhitn treasure
bhikkunatp for bhikkhum monk.
d) . The ablative is sometimes formed with the suffix -to: aggito,
cakkhu to.
lie fu 'cause' has an ablative form hetti besides hetuna and
hetusma. There is further an ablative in -so used as an
adverb: adiso ‘from the beginning 1 , Aefuso ‘by way of
cause 1 ,
o ). In the locative case adi 'beginning 1 has sometimes ado
besides the ordinary form adimhi; pamsu 'sand’ has
patnsuni, There is also a locative form divi ‘in heaven 1 .
bo
rj
34
0- In poetry the nominative plural sometimes lakes the ending
-no: aggino for aggayo ‘fires’, sumatino for sumatayo
‘wise’, mahesino for mahasayo ‘sages’.
g) . In the vocative plural bhikkhu has both bhikkhavo and
bhikkha ve; the latter form is more common.
h) . In the genitive plural bahu ‘much’ has bahu twain.
i) . The stem sakhi ‘friend’ is found almost exclusively in
wf'
poetry, while in prose it is usually replaced by the word
sahayaka, Sakhi has a variety of forms of which the
following are the more common ones;
In the singular A' V sakha, A sakharam and sakham, I and Ab
sakhina, Ab sakharasma, G sakhino.
In the plural N V A sakharo I Ab sakharehi, G sakhinam and
sakhanam , L sakhSresu.
27 Stems in -u: abhibhu ‘conqueror’ (masc.)
Singular Plural
N V abhibhu N V A abhibhuno abhibhu
A abhibhunam
abhibhum
I Ab abhibhuna I Ab abhibhuhi
G abhibhuno G abhibhunam
L abhibhusmim L abhibhusu
a) . 1 he declension of these stems differs from that of the stems
in -u only in the N V A.
b) . Like abhibhu are declined vidu and lokavkiu ‘knower
of the world’, paragu ‘he who has gone to the oilier shore’,
vedagu ‘he who has mastered the Vedas’, abhijjhalu ‘covetous’,
aviddasu ‘ignorant 5 .
Stems in -o: go ‘cattle’ (masc.)
I
S:
ingular
Plural
N V
go
gave ga vo
A
gavam
gavam
gave ga vo
I
gavena
ga vena
gohi
Ab
gava
gava
gohi
gavasma
gavamha
G
gavassa
gavassa
gavam gonam
gunnam
L
gave
gave
givesu gave su
gosu
zavasmim
gavasmim
Go is the only stem that ends in -o. In the singular, with
I lie exception of the nominative, it is declined like purisa with the
vowel of the first syllable either long or short. In the plural the group
-ava- has been contracted to -o-, hence gohi , gonam, gosu. Further
in the genitive plural the vowel - o - has been shortened to -u- and
(he consonant has been doubled; gomun and gunnam.
29. Stems in -a: van /fa ‘girl’ (femin.)
Singular Plural
N vanita N V A vanitayo -yo
vain iti
V vanite -/
A van it am -m
I Ab van it ay a -ya
G vanitaya - ya
L vanitayam - yam
vanitaya
vanita hi -hi
vanitanam -nam
vanitasu ~su
36
a) . In the singular the ending - aya is sometimes contracted
to -a: chaw a for chamaya ‘on the ground’, sikkha for
sikkhaya ‘by means of training *.
b) . The ablative singular is sometimes formed with the suffix
-to be! ore which the final vowel of the stem is shortened:
navato ‘from the boat \ jivhato ‘from the tongue*. There
is also an ablative in -so used adverbially: mattaso ‘with
moderation’.
c) . In the vocative singular amma ‘mother* has both amma
and amma.
30. Feminine stems in ~i, -i, -u, -ti: jati ‘birth*, nadi ‘river’,
IU ‘co
w’, vadhu
‘daughter-in-
law’
S i n g u
J a r
N V
jati
nadt
dhenu
vadhu
A
jatim
nadim
dhenum
vadhu m -m
I Ab
jatiya
nadiya
dhenuya
vadhuya -ya
G
jatiya
nadiya
dhenuya
vadhuya -ya
L
jahyam
nadiyam
dhenuyam
vadhuyam - yam
jatiya
nadiya
dhenuya
vadhuya
P 1 u r
a 1
N V A
l jatiyo
nadiyo
dhenuyo
vadhuyo -yo
1 Ab
jatlhi
nadi hi
dhenuhi
vadhii hi - hi
G
jatlnam
nadimm
dhenunam
vadhunam -nani
L
jitisu
nadisu
dhenusu
vadhusu -su
a) . In the singular the final long vowel of the stem is shortened
before the endings -ya and -yam: nadiya, nadiyam ,
b) . In poetry instead of nadiya and nadiyo f sometimes
tracted forms are used: najja and najjo. Similarly
con-
jati birth jacca and jacco
sammuti consent sammucca
nikati deceit nikatya and nikacca
rati pleasure ratya
pathavi earth pathavya
pokkharani pond pokkhamhho
bhumi earth bhumya
Further, a new nominative plural has been formed from najja,
i.e, najjsyo,
c). The ablative singular is sometimes formed with the suffix
-to: Barinasito ‘from Benares’, ahgulito ‘from the fijiger*.
There is also an ablative iii -so used adverbially: yoniso
‘carefully*, dhatuso ‘according to one’s nature*.
d). The stem bhu ‘earth* has bhuvi in the locative singular
while ratti ‘night’ has unto in the expression diva ca ratio
ca ‘by day and by night’.
31. Declension of the adjectives: The adjectives are declined
in each of the three genders just like a stem of the masculine, of
the neuter and of the feminine gender: digho t digham, digha ‘long’,
paheamo, paheamam, pancawl ‘fifth’
S i n g u / a r
N
digho digham
digha
v r
digha digham
dighe
A
digham digham
digham
t
dighena
dighayi
Ab
digha
dighayi
dighasma
G
dighassa
digit ay,
38
L
dighe
dighayam
dig ha swim
dighaya
Plural
NV
digha dighani
dighayo
A
dighe dighani
dighayo
I Ab
dig he hi
dlghahi
0
dighanam
dighanam
L
dighesu
dighasu
In the masculine and in the neuter an adjective is declined in
the same way with the exception of the nominative, vocative, accusative.
When the adjective ends in the adjective is declined like
nadL
Declension of consonant stems
The stems ending in consonants may be divided into
root stems
stems in -s
stems in -nt (-ant, -vant, -mant)
stems in -in
stems in -a/]
stems in -ar
32. Root stems: In poetry there are a few remnants of the
Sanskrit root stems declensions:
A Sg
pansatim
from pari sad
assembly
I sg
vaca
from vac-
word
pad a
from pad-
foot
Ab sg
di$o
from dis-
region
G sg
jag a to
from jagat-
world
L manasi
a) . These stems are often declined like neuter stems in -a:
Manam, manena, manasmi , manassa, maimmhn, manani ,
manehi, mananam, manesu.
b) . The comparative adjective in -yas: scyyas, papiyas , bhiyyas ,
etc, have nominative, vocative and accusative in -o: seyyo }
pfipiyo, bhiyyo. In the other cases they are declined like
the stems in -a. The adjective bhiyyo has an instrumental
case bhuyyena in the word yebhuyyena,
c) . There is a masculine stem in -as: camiiimis ‘moon’ which
lias ohandima in the nominative singular, For the rest it
40
is declined like pur iso: amdimam, candimcna , candimassa,
etc.
d). Two stems in -vas appear only in the nominative singular:
vidva 'knowing’ and dassiva ‘seeing 1 .
34. Stems in ^nt; silavant ‘virtuous 1 (mase.)
S i n
g u 1 a r
Plural
N V
s Hava
N V A silavanto
A
silavant am
l Ab
si lava ta
G
s Hava to
st la vat am
L
silavati
Like silavant are declined bhagavant “fortunate’, ba la van t
‘strong’, niahant ‘great’ etc, There are no forms for the instrumental,
ablative and locative plural, with the exception of sabbhi which
is the instrumental and ablative plural of sani ‘good’.
These
like purisa,
stems may be fully declined like the stems in -a, i.e.
S i n
i g u 1 a r
Plural
N
silavant o
silavanta
V
sita vanta
sliavanti
A
silavant am
silavanto
1
silavantena
sila vantehi
Ab
silavantasma
sila van tchi
G
silavantassa
sila vanta nam
L sihvantasmim silavantesu
a). Like silavant are declined the present participle parassapada:
titthant ‘standing’, vasant ‘dwelling’, carant ‘moving 1 ,
etc. The only difference is that the present participles do
not drop the nasal consonant in the nominative singular;
41
hence carant has ca ram and caranto, Further the present
participles formed from the present stein in -e and -o have
the nominative singular always in - nto . karonto ‘doing 1 ,
cnifcnfo ‘thinking, kathento ‘speaking’.
b) . Arahant, though a present participle from the verb arahati
‘to be worthy’, is more often used as a noun. In the
nominative singular it has all the three forms araha, araham,
arahanto when used as a noun, but only araham, arahanto
when used as a participle.
c) , Bhavant, as the present participle of bhavati ‘to become 1
is declined like any other participle: bhavam /bahavanto,
bhavantam , bhavata / bhavantena, etc.. The feminine is also
formed regularly: bhavantl
But as a pronoun, bhavant ‘you, venerable’ is declined slightly
differently:
Singular Plural
N bhavam bhavanto, bhonto
V bhavam t bho , bhante bhonto
A bhavantam bhavanto
l Ah bhota bhavantehi
< >' bhoto bhavatam
Another form used in the vocative singular is bhadante, while
Mjo is used both in the singular and in the plural, whether alone
m followed by a noun.
The feminine of bhavam is bhoti:
N bhoti
V' bhoti
A bhotim
I Ab bhoti y a
42
G bhotiya
L bhotiya
35, Stems in -in: hatthin ‘elephant’ (masc.)
S i u
g u I a r
Plural
N
hatthi
N V A hatthino,
V
hatthi
A
hatthinam
1 Ab
hatthina
hatthihi
G
hatthino
hatthinam
L
hathini
hatthisu
a) . In the singular in the accusative, ablative, genitive, locative
these stems are sometimes declined like the stems in -i.
hatthim, hatthisma, hatthissa, hatthismim like aggim, aggissa,
aggismim, etc,
b) . In poetry there are a few forms built up like those of the
stems in -a; accusative plural panine from panin ‘living
being’, manine from manin 'proud of; locative plural
verities u from verin ‘hating’.
36, Stems in -an: raj an ‘king’, attan ‘self (masc.)
N
raja
rajano
atta atiano
V
raja
ff
u n
A
rajanam
H
attanam
I Ab
rah ha, rajina
rajuhi
attana
l
G
ranno , rajino
rahham, rajunam
attano
L
raj ini
rajusu
attani
a). These stems are often declined like the stems in -a: ac-
cusative rajam , at taw; genitive rajassa, attassa; instrumen-
tal and ablative plural rajehi, attehi /attanehi, etc.
■I
43
b) . At the end of a samasa, these stems sometimes follow the
consonant declension and sometimes follow the declension
of the stems in -a; nominative maharaja, maccuraja but
pahitatto; accusative pabbatarajam, pahitattam but
bhavitattanam; instrumental dhammarajena, bhavkattena
but maharahha; accusative plural maharaje,
c) . In the declension of rajan there are some other stray forms
like nominative singular ranno t genitive rahhassa , locative
raine, instrumental plural rahnehi.
d) . Besides attd there is also a nominative singular atuma,
atumo , tumo and atumano with the accusative atumanam
and the locative atinne,
e) . Other stems which belong to this declension are
muddhan ‘head’, amhan ‘stone 7 , brahman ‘Brahma’,
addhan ‘road’, san ‘dog’, yuvan ‘young man’
pitman ‘man’
and the neuter stems:
kamnian ‘action’, bhasman ‘ashes’, vesman ‘house’.
Of these stems in -an only few cases are found:
N
A
I Ab
G
l
nddhan
addha
addhanam
addhuna
addhuno
addhani
nmhan
amhana
kitmman
ka minima
kammimo
kammani
brahman
brahma
brahmanam
brahmuna
brahm uno
brahma ni
pi-
brahma no brahmgno
bhasman
bhasman i
pun tan
puma
pumanam
pumuna
pumuno
pumani
pi-
pumano
tmtddhan
muddha
muddhaim
muddhan/
44
yuvan yuva
vesmnn vesmani
sun sft |
From brahman there is also a vocative singular brahme,
These stems have passed over to the declension of the stem
in -a; i,e. pumo, pimiam, pumen a> etc.
0- The neuter stem ahan is declined like the stems in -a: aham,
ahena , ahassa; but in composition it has the form anha:
pubbanha 4 in the morning 1 , say anha ‘in the evening 1 .
37. Stem in -ar: satthar ‘teacher’ (masc,), pi tar ‘father’
(tnasc,), matar ‘mother’ (femin.)
S
i n g u I a r
N 1/
sattha
pita
mata
4
sattharam
pitaram
mataram
1 Ab
satthara
pita ra
matara
G
satthu
pitu
matu
L
sattha ri
pitar i
matari
Plural
N V A
sattharo
pitaro
mi taro
I Ab
satthuhi
pituhi
matu hi
G
satthunam
pitunam
mitunam
L
satthusu
pitusu
matusu
a). Like satthar are declined the agent nouns like ditar ‘giver 1 ,
netar ‘leader 1 ., sotar ‘hearer 1 , etc. Like pilar is declined
bhatar ‘brother 1 . Like matar is declined dhitar ‘daughter 1
b). The main difference between the agent nouns like safrftar
and the nouns of relationship like pi tar, matar ; is in the
accusative singular and in the nominative, vocative and
accusative plural. The agent nouns have the vowel of the
45
stem long while the nouns of relationship have it short;
sattharam, sattharo /pitaram, pitaro, mataram, matar o, The
word nattar ‘grandson 1 follows the agent nouns in its
declension: natti, nattaram, nattaro.
c) . The masculine stems form also the instrumental and the
genitive singular on the pattern of the -u stems: satthuna,
satthuno / satfimssa, pi tuna, pi tuna / pitnssa. The feminine
stems form not only the instrumental and the genitive, but
also the locative singular on the pattern of the feminine
stems in -u: m&tuya, matnyam, Dhltar is often declined
like the stems in -if: dhha, dhltam, dhitaya, etc,
d) , In the plural there are some forms built on the pattern of
the stems in ~a: sattharehi, sattharanam, satlharesu, pitarehi,
pi tar an am, pitaresu,
e) . In the singular the vowel of the stem is found long even
in the instrumental: satthara besides the common form
satthara.
f) . In the ablative singular, there are also the forms pitito,
mitito from pitar, matar.
Feminine Gender
IK, In Pali the adjective, when not used in a samasa, must agree
in gender, number and case with the noum it modifies. Hence every
adjective can be declined in all the three genders. Further the nouns
indicating living beings of the male sex may also be turned into
feminine to indicate the corresponding living beings of the female
The feminine gender of such nouns and adjectives is formed
in various ways;
a). Noun stems in -a form the feminine gender with the suffix
-I which replaces the suffix -a of the stem: disa ‘servant 1 ,
das/; eon? ‘thief, con; deva ‘god 1 , devi; kumara ‘prince 1 ,
46
kumari; brahmana 'brahmin’, brahman!; tapasa 'ascetic’,
tapasl
b) . Adjective stems in -a form the feminine gender with the
suffix -a: digha ‘long’, digha; manapa ‘dear’, manapa;
majjhima ‘middle’, majjhima; gacchamana ‘going’,
gacchamana; gala 4 gone’ , gala; desetabba ‘should be
preached’, desetabba.
N.B, Some adjectives have the feminine in -a when used as
adjectives, and in -i when used as nouns: dahara ‘young’, dahara,
but daharf ‘young woman’; kalyina ‘beautiful’, kalyana, but kalyani
‘a beautiful woman’. There are also some adjectives ending in
in their feminine gender; dhammi katha ‘religious discourse’.
c) . Stems in -aka form the feminine by changing -aka >-ika:
janaka ‘father’, janika ‘mother’; kumaraka ‘boy’, kumari ka
‘girl’; upasaka ‘lay disciple’, upasika ‘female lay disci-
ple’; savaka ‘disciple 1 , savika ‘female disciple’; papaka
‘sinful’, papika; ckaka ‘alone’, ckika.
d) . Stems in -in form the feminine by adding the suffix
hatthin ‘elephant’, hatthini; samio ‘master’, samini; musavadin
‘liar’, mmavidim; labhin ‘receiver’, labhini.
Some stems drop the final nasal in the formation of the feminine
gender: porin ‘polite’, pori; bharin ‘wearing’, bharini / than;
dnkkhin ‘painful 1 , dukkhl
e) . Stems in -u, -u form the feminine by adding the suffix -
Jii; bhikkhu ‘monk’, bhikkhuni; abhijjhalu ‘covetous’,
abhijjhaluni.
f) . Stems in -ant, if they are adjectives, form the feminine by
adding the suffix -i to the stem without the nasal consonant
{that is; to the weak form of the stem); if they are present
participles they add the suffix -I to the stem (that is, to
the strong form of the stem):
adjectives: silavant ‘virtuous’, siiavali; gunavant ‘virtuous’,
gunavati; mahant ‘great’, mahatl
47
participles: gacchant ‘going’, gacchanti, vasant ‘dwelling,
vasanti; carant ‘moving’, car anti.
The present participles of the stems in -e / -o have also the
feminine in -I: dento ‘giving’, denti; cintcnto ‘thinking’, cintcnti;
kmmto ‘doing’, karontl
The feminine of bhavant is bhavanti when it is used as
participle of bhavati ‘to be’, but it. is bhots when it is used as
pronoun.
I|), The ordinal numerals form the feminine with the suffix
~a in the first three numbers, and with the suffix -j in
all the other numbers; p&thama, dutiya, tatiya but catutthi,
pane ami, etc.
If). Some nouns form the feminine in different ways:
nma
man
nan
nija
king
rajin!
tnatula
uncle
matulani
yakkha
demon
yakkhi / yakkhini
aakiya
sakya
sakiyani
gnhapati
householder
gahapatani
.visa
horse
vakiva
nctar
leader
nett !
t:o
ox
gavi / gav!
jnnettar
parent
janetti
The feminine vessi / vessika are used to indicate a woman
nl [lie Vaisya caste, while ves; / vesiya mean ‘a harlot’.
i) When a noun is turned into an adjective at the end of a
bahubbihi samasa, it forms the feminine with the suffix
-a like any other adjective: evam-nama ‘having such a
name’, evam-gotta ‘belonging to such a clan’, evam-sila
4*
4 having such a virtue', pancavanna 'of five colours', mahasadda
'making great noise' etc.
There are, however, some samasa that make the feminine with
the suftix -I; evarupi katha ‘such a talk’ besides evarupa and
abhivupa; assumukhi ‘with tears on her face’, nandimukhi ‘with
joy on her face’, sassamana-brahmani paja ‘the people together with
their recluses and brahmins' , pifaka sasapamattiyo mugamattiyo ‘boils
of the size ot a mustard seed and of the size of a bean', anupubbi
katbi } ‘a gradual talk'.
Comparative and
Superlative
39. Formation of the comparative and of the superlative.
a). The comparative and the superlative of the adjectives arc
formed by adding to the stem the suffixes Aara and -tama
respectively:
suet
pure
sudtara
suci tama
piya
dear
piyatara
piyatama
thera
elder
theratara
tb era tama
pandita
wise
panditara
panditama
babu
much
bahu tar a
babutama
vuddha
old
vuddhatara
vuddhatama
b), The stems in -ant form the comparative from their alter-
native stem in -anta:
s Havant virtuous silavantatara
mahant great mahantatara
vanmvant beautiful vannavantatara
From the stem baiavant ‘strong' there is both balavantatara and
ba lava tar a.
rtlWtifrll
49
c). In a few cases the comparative and the superlative are
formed with the older suffixes - iya and - ktha respectively:
papa
sinful
papiya papittha
d). Some
which
-i;
superlative are
the vowel of
formed with the suffix -ma before
the stem is sometimes changed to
nmjjha
middle
majjhima
babira
outside
babirima
abbhantara
internal
abbhantarima
anta
end
antima last
e). Some
adjectives have
more than one form:
papa
sinful papiya /papa tarn, papittha !
papatama
f). There are some comparative and superlative formations
which are connected only in meaning with adjectives in the
positive degree:
sant
good
seyya settha
yuva
young
kaniya kanittha
vuddba
old
jeyya jettba
balm
much
bbiyyo and also bhnyya in
yebbuyycna
g). Some comparatives and superlatives seem to have lost their
special meaning and thus a new comparative has been
formed from them:
seyya
better
seyya tara
settha
best
setthatara
I- r
paplttha
most sinful
papittha tara
purirna
forriier
purirna taut
50
h) . Some past participles, both alone and at the end of a
samasa, are used in the comparative:
sahkihttha defiled sankffitthatara
pam fa excellent punitatara
vyatta learned vyattatara
sampanna endowed sil a samp anna tarn
sankhata reckoned panitasankhata tara
abhikkanta surpassing abhikkantatara
In the samasa the comparative idea usually refers to the first
member of the compound:
silasampannatara endowed with greater virtue
panitasankha ta tara reckoned as more excellent
i) . Bahubblhi samasa are sometimes used in the comparative:
dighayuka having a long life dighayukatara
mahasavajja greatly blameworthy mahasavajjatara
Similarly mahesakkhatara ‘having greater power’, mahaddhanatara
‘having greater wealth 1 , mahibhogatara ‘having greater riches’,
mahibalatara ‘having greater strength’, etc.
j) . There are even some nouns and noun samasa that take the
comparative suffix:
ma/a malatara having a greater stain
vana vanatara thicker jungle
sappurisa sappurisatara a better man
k) . The comparative and superlative endings are. also added to
some pronominal stems:
1
itara
other
ka
katara
katama
which
-=V ■ F 4r"
anna •
anna tarn
ahnatama
another
51
1). The comparative and the superlative suffixes are also added
to some prepositions and adverbs to form adjectives having
a comparative or a superlative meaning:
adha
adhai a
lower
a dhama
lowest
ud
uttara
higher
uttama
highest
upari
uparima
uppermost
ava
ora
lower
orima
lowest
cira
cira tara
longer lime
paccha
pacchima
last
para
par ama / parima
highest
pura
purima , purimatara
former
purattha
puratthima
eastern
pure
pure tara
before
hettha
hetthima
lowest
52
\
CHAPTER IV
PRONOUNS
The pronouns may be divided into:
personal pronouns
demonstrative pronouns
relative pronouns
interrogative pronouns
indefinite pronouns
possessive pronouns
reflexive pronouns
Like the pronouns are inflected some pronominal adjectives.
40. Personal pronouns
first person : aham mayam ‘we’
second person : tvam ‘thou’, tumhe ‘you’
third person : so, sa, tam ‘he, she, it’
fe, fa, tani ‘they’
Singular
N aham tvam so tam sa
A mam tam tam tam tam
53
/
mays
taya
ton a
taya
Ah
mays
taya
tasma
taya
G
mama
tava
tassa
taya
mayham
tuyham
L
mayi
tayi
tasmim
tayam
P 1 u
r a l
N
may am
tu mho
te
tani
ta
amhe
tayo
A
amhe
tumhe
to
tani
ta, tiiyo
l Ab
amhehi
tumhehi
tchi
tahi
G
amhikam
tumhakam tesam
tasam
L
amhesu
tumhesu
tesu
tasu
a) . Alternative forms:
aham: sg. A mamam, G maimm, amham, I G me pi N asme,
A asme, asmakam, amhakam, G am ham, A I G no
tvam: sg, N tuvam, A tvam , tuvam, I tvaya, G, tavam 1 G
to pi A tumhakam, D G tumham, A I G vo
so: sg, N sa
sa: sg, G tassa, tissa, tissaya, L tassam, tissam.
b) . In the declension of the pronoun so, the consonant n- is
often found instead of the initial t-: nam besides tam, no
and nesam besides fe and tvsam.
41. Demonstrative pronouns
masc . ay am nt.
idam fcm.
ayam
'this'
asu
adum
asu
‘that’
so
tam
sa
‘that’
eso
etam
esa
‘this*
55
G musrnn amusam
L atntfru amosu
Alternative forms:
asu (masc,) : PL G musinam
asu (km,) : PL G amusanam
a) . The pronouns so and eso are declined like so (40).
b) . Instead of the neuter form tarn, there is sometimes tad
when followed by a vowel or in composition: tad evam
"that indeed*, etad avoca ‘said such a thing*, takkara from
tad-kara ‘doing it*.
d). Again, instead of the neuter form ram there is the Magadhi
form sc when followed by yathi: seyyathi for tam yatbS
‘just as*, and seyyathidam for (aip yatbi idam ‘namely*.
42. Relative pronouns: masc. yo 4 who*, nt. yam
‘which* fem. y5 *who*
Singular Plural
N yo yam ya ye yani ya, yayo
A yam yam yam ye yitti ya, yayo
I yem yaya jehi yahi
Ab yarns yaya yehi yahi
II
G yassa yaya yesam yasam
L yasmiip yayam yesu yasu
Alternative forms:
yo :Sg, N ye (Magadhi), Ab yamha, L yamhi Pl. G
ycsanam ya : Sg, G yassa, L yassam
PL G yasSnam
yam :Sg. N ye (Magadhi) found alone and in compounds:
yebhuyya ‘most*, yebhuyyena ‘mostly*, yebhuyyasikS
‘according to the majority*, yevapanaka ‘whatever else*.
56
Further, instead of yarn, there is yad sometimes when followed
by a vowel: yad evam.
43. Interrogative pronouns: masc, ko 'who’, nt. kim ‘what’
fem. ka 'who 1 .
S
i n g u I a r
Plural
N
ko
kim ka
ke
kani ka, kayo
A
kam kim kam
ke
kani ka, kayo
I
kena kaya
kehi
kahi
Ab
kasma kaya
• kehi
kabi
G
kassa kaya
kesam
kasam
L
kasmim ‘ kayam
kesu
kasu
Alternative
; forms:
■
ko :
Sg.
N ke (Magadhi),
Ab
kasma,
L kamhi
PL
G kesanam
kim :
Sg.
G kissa , Ab kisma,
L
kimhi
■ka : Sg G kassa, kissa, L kassam, kissam
PI G kasanam
The interrogative pronoun is sometimes strengthened with the
particle -su / -ssu: kam-su, kcna-ssu.
From the stem ka- are derived the pronominal adjectives katara,
katama ‘who’, kati ‘how many 1 , kittaka ‘how much’. Kktaka is
declined in the three genders like any other adjective; katara and
kafama are declined in the three genders like the pronouns yo,
ko; kati has one form only for all the three genders and is declined
only in the plural: N A Arafi, / Ab katih i, G katlnam, l katisu.
44. Indefinite pronouns: Indefinite pronouns are obtained
a), by adding the particle -ci to the relative pronoun: kod,
kaci, kind "someone, something 1 ;
57
b) . by repeating twice the demonstrative or the relative pro-
noun: so so ‘anyone’, yo yo ‘anyone’;
c) . by joining together a relative or interrogative pronoun with
a demonstrative pronoun: yo so ‘whoever 1 ;
d) . by joining together a relative with an indefinite pronoun:
yam kind ‘whatever’.
Further two pronominal adjectives are used in the plural: katid
and katipaya ‘some’.
45. Possessive pronouns: The pronominal adjectives sa, saka ,
maimka are used to express possessive meaning. Of these saka and
mamaka are declined like ordinary adjectives while the stem sa has:
Sg. A sa m, I sena, Ab samba, L satnhi; PL A neuter sani, I Ab
sehi
Further in possessive meaning are used
a) , the pronoun at tan o for all the three genders and both in
the singular and in the plural;
b) . the genitive of the personal pronouns for each person re-
spectively: mayham, tuyham , tassa, lay a, amhakam, tnmhakam,
tesam, tasam.
46. Reflexive pronouns: The oblique cases of attan are used
as reflexive pronoun: v,g f ; attana ‘by oneself.
47. Pronominal adjectives: Some adjectives cither derived from,
or connected in meaning with the pronouns, follow the pronominal
declension. Such adjectives arc aiina, annatara, annatama ‘another’;
amuka, asuka ‘such and such a one 1 ; itara ‘other 1 ; katara, katama
‘which one’;
para ‘other’, pubba ‘former’; sabba ‘all’. Since
they follow the pronominal declension, these adjectives take the case
terminations which are proper to the pronouns as distinguished from
the nouns:
N PI masc,
G Phtiasc ,
katame, sabbe, /fare, pubbe
annesam, katamesamm
I. J llH|l l
59
CHAPTER V
NUMERALS
The numerals may be divided into:
cardinal numerals fractional numerals
ordinal numerals multiplicative numerals
distributive numerals substantive numerals
48. Cardinal numerals: The cardinal numerals are those which
indicate a numerical quantity without any reference to any other
number: one, five, twelve, twenty-five ...
1 eka
2 dvi
3 ti
4 cam
5 panca
6 dm
■
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
satta
attha
nava
dasn
ekadasa, ekarasa
dvadasa, barasa
terasa, telasa
catuddasa, cud das a
pancadasa, pammrasa, p anna rasa
solitsa, so rasa
saltadasa, sattarasa
atthadasa, a ttharasa
ekuna visa ti } ekunavisa
visa 1 4 visa, visam, visa
ekavisati
dvavisatl, dvavlsa, bavisa
tevisati, tcvisa
catuvisati, catuvssa, catubbssa
pancavmti, pancavisa, pannavisati
chabbisati
sattavlsati
aUhavisati, atthavisam
ekunatiimati
timsati, timsa , timsam , timsa, tidasa
ekatiinsati
d vat timsati dvattimsa
61
33 tcttimsati, tettimsa
34 catuttimsati
36 chatthnsati, chat timsa
37 satta timsati, satta timsa
40 cattaJJsati, cattalisa, cattalisani, cattalisa, ca ttarisa
42 dvicattalisati, dvacattalisa
43 tecattaflsa
50 paimasa, pannasa, pannisa
52 dv&panhasa, dvfipannasa
56 chapanhasa
60 satt hi
70 satta ti
72 dvasattati
80 aslli
82 dVe asiti
84 catmasiti, culliisiti , cufasiti
90 navuti
92 d van avnti, dvemvuti
96 channa vuti
99 ekunasatam , ekunakam sat am
100 satam
101 ekadhikam satam, satam eko ca
102 diyadhika satam
103 tiyadhika satam
108 atthadhika satam, atihuttarasatam
118 attharasadhikam satam
!
62
126 chabbisa satam
128 a tiha visa sa tam
150 diyaddha satani
/ 60 satthisatam
200 c! visa tarn, dvc satani
216 dvisatam solas a
250 tiy addha satam, addhatcyya satam
300 ti satam, tini satani
350 addhacatuttha satam, addhuddha satam
400 catussatam
500 pancasatam, dasaddham satam
550 addhachattha satam
650 addha sa ttamasa tam
1000 sahassam
1 00 1 ckadh ika sahassa m
1008 atthadhika sahassam, atthuttara sahassam
1250 a ddha telasa satam
1500 pancasatadhika sahassam, diyaddha sahassam
1850 addha ckunavisa satam
3300 tisasahassam ca tisatam
5000 pancasahassani, pahca sahassam, dasaddham sahassam
5250 addha tipahhasa satam, addha tipahhasani satani
100 000 satasahassam, lakkham
280 000 dvc sattasahassani asiti ca sahassani
460 000 catkin sattasahassani satthi ca sahassani
1 000 000 dasalakkhani
63
10 000 000 sata lakkham, koti
49. Formation of cardinal numerals:
a) . Numerals like 11, 12, 1 3, 21, 22, 24, etc. are dvanda samasa
made up of two words; the word expressing the numbers
from one to eight and the word expressing the decade;
hence II is one and ten, ekadasa ; 12 is two and ten,
dviidasa; 84 is foiu; and eighty, caturashi.
b) . In the formation of the numbers like 22, 32, 42, etc. the
number appears more often as dva than as dvc: dviidasa,
dvavisati, dvasatthl, dvasattati, dvattimsati (with the vowel
shortened before two consonants), dvapahhisa / dvepahhisa,
dvc asiti, dvanavuti / dvenavuti
c) . The numeral 19, 29, 39 etc. arc expressed by the numeral
cka followed by the adjective tina 'less' and then by the
next higher cardinal number: cka iina visati> ckhnavisati
'twenty less one, i.e. 1 9'; similarly ckunatimsati 29, ckunasatam
99, ckuna atthasatam 799. Sometimes cka is in the
instrumental case: ckena una pahca satani 499.
d) . The niunerals above 100 and 1000 are formed with adhika
or uttara: diyadhikasatam 102, atthadhika satam / atthuttara
satam 108. The higher numbers are usually expressed as
dvanda samasa: atthavisa satam 28 and 100 i.e. 128; or
by placing the higher number first and then the smaller
number with or without the particle ca: satam eko ca 101,
dvisatam sojasa 216.
e) . The numerals that end in 50 or 500 like 150, 250, 500,
1250, 1500, etc. are expressed with the word addha and
the numeral indicating the 100 or 1000 next higher than
the one expressed by the number. Thus 250 is expressed
as 'half of the third hundred 1 addhateyyasatam; 350 as 'half
of the fourth hundred 1 addhacatuttha satam / addhuddha
satam; 1250 as 'half of the thirteenth hundred 1 addhatelasani
■ 1 ►
satani; 5500 as 'half of the sixth thousand' addha chattha
64
sahassam. But 150 and 1500 are expressed as diyaddhasatam,
d iya d dha sahassam.
50. Declension of numerals: The numerals from 1 to 18 are
adjectives, from 20 onwards are nouns.
a) . Eka 'one 1 is declined in the singular masculine, feminine
and neuter gender eko, tiki, ekam just like the pronoun
so, sa, tain.
Eka can also be declined in the plural in the sense of 'some 1 ,
Here also it follows the pronominal declension. In this meaning,
however, the word ekaccc is more common, Ekaccc has the
pronominal ending in the nominative plural, but in the rest of the
cases it is declined like the a -stems, hence the genitive plural is
ekaccannm.
b) . Dvi: 'two' is declined only in the plural and has no dis-
tinction of gender:
N A dve t duve
1 Ab dvihi
G dvinnam
L dvlsu
In composition dvi assumes different forms:
du: dujihva 'snake', dvahgula 'two fingers-breadlh'
duv: duvahgika 'twofold'
dvi: dvija 'bird 1
duvi: duvidha in two ways'
di: diguna 'double', diyaddha 'one and a half
dvi: dvidasa ’twelve’, dvattimsati 'thirty- two 1
dvemasika 'two months old'
With dvi we may classify the numeral adjective ubho 'both'
which is declined only in the plural:
65
N A
ubho
1 Ab
ublwhi
G
ubhinnam
L
ubhosu
c), ti
th
'three' and catu
e three genders:
'four' are
l
declined like adjectives in all
N A
tayo tini
tisso
c attain cattiri catasso
I Ab
tihi tihi
catuhi catuhi
G
tinnam
tins anna m
catunnam catussannam
l
tl$U
tisu
catusu. catusu
In the genitive plural, besides tinnam there is also tinnamam.
d) , Pafica 'five' is declined in the plural without any distinction
of gender:
N A pane a
1 Ab paheahi
G pane annum
L pancasii
Like pahea are declined the other numerals up to 18; i.e. cha,
chahi, channam , chasu; dasa, dasahi, dasannam, dasasu.
e) . Numerals ending in -ti like visati, timsati are declined in
the singular like the feminine stems in -i, i.e. like jati:
visati, visatim, visa tiya, visatiyam.
0- Numerals ending in -a are declined in the singular like
the feminine stems in -a, i.e. like vanita: visa, visam,
visaya, visayam.
g). Numerals ending in -am are declined in the singular and
in the plural like the neuter stems in -am: satam , satena,
satassa, satasma, satasmim; satani, satehi, satanam, satesu;
sahassam, sahassena, etc.
66
h). Numerals ending in -a are usually uninflected: visa, timsa,
etc.
51, Ordinal numerals: The ordinal numerals are those which
indicate the progressive order of a series, i.e, first, second, third,
etc.
first
pathama
second
dutiya
third
ta tiya
fourth
catuttha
fifth
paheama
sixth
chat tha
seventh
sattama
eighth
ait hum a
ninth
navama
tenth
dasama
eleventh
ekadasa, ekadasama
twelfth
dvadasa, dvadasama
twentieth
visatima, visa
thirtieth
timsatima, timsa
fortieth
cattails a tima, ca t tali si
fiftieth
pannasatima, pannasa
sixtieth
satthitama
seventieth
sattatima
eightieth
asititama
ninetieth
na vu tima
ninety first
ekanavuta
hundredth
sat a tama, satima
67
thousandth sahassatama, sahassima
a) . The first ordinal number is not formed from eka but from
the prefix pa- (Sakt. pra-) 'in front' with the addition of
thamaipathama.
b) . The ordinals for the numbers 2 and 3 are formed with
the suffix -tiya: dutiya, tatiya.
c) . The ordinals for 4 and 6 are formed with the suffix -tha:
catur-tha > catuttha, cha-tha > chat tha.
d) . The ordinals of 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 are formed from the stem
of the cardinal numerals by adding the suffix -ama: pahe-
ama > paheama, satt-ama > sattama, atth-ama > atthama,
nav-ama > navama, das-anw > dasama.
e) . The ordinals of the numbers from 11 to 18 may be formed
with the suffix -ama or merely with the suffix -a added
to the stem of the cardinal numerals: ekadas-ama > ekadasama
or ekadas-a > ckadasa, teras-ama > terasama or t&ras-a
> terasa, solas -ama > solasama or sol as- a > soiasa.
f) , The ordinals of the decades are formed as follows:
- The cardinal numerals ending in -a may be used as adjectival
ordinal numbers: visa, timsa, cattafisa, pannasa.
- The cardinal numerals ending in -ti form the ordinals with
the suffix -ma: visatima, timsatima, cattalisatima , sattatima,
n a votim a. Even pannasa has an ordinal pannasatima by
adding both -ti and -ma.
- The cardinal numerals 60 and 80 form their ordinals with the
suffix -tama: satthitama, us I tha ma. The numerals 100 and
1000 form their ordinals in the same way: satatama, sahassatama.
- for ninetieth there is the form navuta as in ekanavuta, and
for 100 and 1000 there are the forms satima and sahassima,
g) , The ordinal numerals are adjectives and are declined in all
the three genders. The feminine of the first three numbers
ends in -a: pathama , dutiya, tatitya. The feminine of all
68
the other numeral ordinals ends in catutthi, paheami,
ekadasamj / ekadasi, timsatimi i timi, etc.
52. Distributive numerals. The distributive numerals arc ex-
pressed by repeating the cardinal or the ordinal numerals twice;
v.g. attha attha thero atnacce ca pesayi 'to each he sent eight elders
and eight court officials'.
The same idea may be expressed by means of numeral adverbs
formed with the suffix so added to the cardinal numerals: ekekaso
'one by one 1 , pancaso 'in five ways 1 ,
53. Fractional numerals, A fraction is usually expressed with
an ordinal numeral and a word expressing fraction, part, portion,
like bhaga, kala } amsa, kotthasa; v.g. solas i fail a 'one sixteenth
part'.
The fraction 'one half is expressed with addha / upaddha, while
'one fourth' is expressed with pada.
The tractions 1 1/2, 2 1/2, 3 1/2 are expressed respectively as
diyaddha, addhatlya / add ha toy y a, addhuddha .
54. Multiplicative numerals. Multiplicative numerals express-
ing 'how many times' are obtained:
a), by using the accusative neuter of the ordinal numerals:
pathamam 'for the first lime 1 , dutiyam 'for the second
time'.
b) , by adding -khattum to the stems of the cardinal numerals:
tikkhattuip 'three times', dasakkhattmn 'ten times'.
c) . by using the word van i either with a cardinal or with an
ordinal numeral: cattaro vara 'four times 1 while catuttha
vare 'on the fourth time 1 .
d) . by adding the suffix -dha to the cardinal numerals: sattadhi
'in seven ways', sahassadhi 'in a thousand ways’, 'Once'
can be expressed with ekadha and also with saAim and,
in composition, with sakid i sakad when followed by
vowel: sakad-agami.
a
69
e), by adding vidha /guna to the cardinal numerals: pancavidha
'in five ways', diguna 'twofold',
55. Numeral substantives. Aggregates of beings or things are
expressed by numeral substantives formed with the suffix -ka/ya:
ditkn / dvaya an aggregate of two', tika / taya 'an aggregate of
three'; similarly catukka, paheaka, chakka, sattaka , atthaka, navaka,
dasaka, sataka, etc.
70
CHAPTER V!
THE VERB
In a verbal form we may distinguish the root, the stem, the
personal endings, the voice, the augment, the reduplication, the
length of the vowel of the root,
56. loot and stem. The root is the ultimate element of a verb:
j- to go , Jqr- to do*, ji* ‘to win\ The roots will be given in
their Sanskrit form since it is only when we take into consideration
the original roots as they are in Sanskrit that we can explain some
of the phonological changes they undergo. The root tot- ‘to hear’
becomes in Pali ssu-‘ the double consonant is reduced to one at
the beginning of a word, but it is retained when it becomes intervocalic,
hence smatu, suta but assdsL Similarly jtta- ‘to know 1 becomes
Mi-; Mata but aSSasi
The stem is the verbal root modified by one or more of the
following elements: prefix, suffix, infix, reduplication, lengthening
of the vowel of the root. The present stem of /- is e- in which
the vowel has been lengthened; the present stem of kf- is karo-
71
in which the vowel r has been lengthened to ar- and the suffix
o has been added. The stem of the future of ini- is sossa- in
which the vowel u has been lengthened to o and the suffix ssa-
has been added. The stem of the aorist of gam- ‘to go’ is agamis-
in which the augment has been prefixed and the suffix is- has been
added. The stem of the present of chid - To cut’ is chinda- in
which the consonant n has been infixed and the suffix a has been
added.
57. Voice and personal endings. The Pali verb has two voices:
the active or parassapada and the middle or attanopada. The voice
of the verb is distinguished by the personal endings which are either
parassapada or attanopada. Further the personal endings of the verb
may be either primary or secondary. Both primary and secondary
endings may be active and middle.
Active
Middle
Primary Secondary
Primary
Secondary
mi
am
e
m f am
si
$
se
tho
ti
t
te
tha
ma
ma
mhe
mhase
tha
tha
vhe
vho
nti
u, uni
nte t re
re, ram
The
present indicative and the future lake the primary personal
endings.
The
aorist and the conditional take the
secondary personal
endings.
The
optative takes both the primary and the
secondary personal
endings.
The imperative takes special endings.
58. Augment, The conditional and very often the aorist also
are formed with an augment. This consists in prefixing the vowel
72
a- to the verbal forms: a-dashn, a-kasirp, a-bhavissam, If the verbal
stem is preceded by a prefix, the augment is inserted between the
prefix and the verb:
bhu
to be
a-bha vi >
gam
to go
n-gii >
adhi-bhu
to overcome
adhi-a-bhavi >
a nu -gam
to follow
a mi - a -g a >
abhi-jna
to know fully
abhi-a-hhasi >
patur-bhu
to appear
patur-a-hosi >
> abhavi
> aga
59. Reduplication. Some verbal forms take the reduplication.
The most general rules of reduplication are:
a) . The initial consonant of a root and the vowel that follows
it are doubled: tij- ‘to sharpen’: ti-tikkhad,
b) . If the first syllable is a vowel, this is lengthened: ah-; aha.
c) . If the first consonant is aspirate, this is reduplicated with
its corresponding unaspirate: hhuj- ‘to eat’: bu-bhukkhati.
d) . The guttural consonants k t kh , g, gh are reduplicated with
c and j respectively: khyii- ‘to speak’: ci-kkhati; gup-
‘to guard’: ji-gucchad.
The consonant h is also reduplicated with j; ha - ‘to abandon’:
ja-hati.
e) . If the verbal root begins with two consonants, only the first
is reduplicated: sm- ‘to hear’: su-ssusafi.
But if the consonants are a sibilant followed by a mute consonant,
then only the mute consonant is reduplicated: stha- ‘to stand’: ti-
tthad.
f) . If the root contains a long vowel, this is shortened in the
reduplicating syllable: da- ‘to give’: da-dad; ha- 'to aban-
don’: ja-hati.
73
g). Sometimes the reduplication is effected with a vowel dif-
ferent from that of the root as is clear from titthati, cikkhad,
jigucchati
Vowel gradation.
a), Guna grade: In the building up of the various verbal forms,
the vowel of the root is sometimes lengthened:
i / i > i
3 / ay : lih-
‘to
lick’,
le-had
> lehad
ni-
‘to
lead’
nay- ad
> nayati
u / u >
0 / av : jut-
‘to
shine’
jot-ad
> jotati
bin i-
‘to
be’
bhav-ati
> bhavati
r > ar
: kr-
■T
‘to
do’
kar-od
> karod
In these
cases the vowel
of
Ihe root
is said to
i be in the
grade. The vowel a does not change since it is already in the guna
grade.
b). Vfddhi grade. Sometimes there is a further lengthening of
the vowel:
o / av
‘to
fall’
pat-eti > pated
‘to
fear’
bhay-ad > bhayati
‘to
cut’
lav-cti > laveti
‘to
do’
kar-eti > kared
a > a : pat - to tail pat-eti > pateu
i / I > e / ay : bhl- ‘to fear’ bhay-ati > bhayati
u / u > o / av .* h7~ ‘to cut’ lav-cti > laveti
i > ar : kr - ‘to do’ kar-cti > kareti
c). Zero grade or weak grade. When the vowels i, u, r are
not changed and when the vowel a is dropped, the root
is said to be in its zero or weak grade; v.g. ji- ‘to conquer’
ji-ta, dm- ‘to hear’ su-ta. The weak grade of vac- ‘to
speak’ is obtained by dropping the vowel a: vac- become
vc- and then the semivowel v, followed by a consonant,
becomes vowel, hence uc-, From uc~ is formed the past
participle uc-ta > utta . But in Pali sometimes a word
beginning with u / i takes an initial v / y; hence vutta.
74
Thus a root like stu- may appear in its zero grade as in so-
fa, su-tva, s u-nomi; or in its guna grade as in so-mm, ao-tahba,
sav-aniya; and also in its vrddhi grade as in sav-cti t sav-aka.
In a root only a final vowel, whether long or short, and a medial
short vowel followed by one consonant, are liable to be lengthened
to their guna or vrddhi grades. Bhu- becomes bhavati, bhav-eti,
jut - becomes jot-ati, Jih- becomes leh-ati, but jiv- and nind-
remain unchanged as jiv-ati, nind-ati since in jiv- the medial vowel
is long by nature and in nind- the medial vowel is long by position.
61, Tenses and moods. The various verbal forms built up from
the root are divided into finite and indefinite verbal forms.
The finite verbal forms are those that have personal endings:
gacchami, gamissami, agamasi, gaccheyyama , gacchantu f etc.
The indefinite verbal forms have no personal endings bul are
either nouns or adjectives or adverbs: gacchanto , gato, gantum ,
gantva, gantabbo.
The finite verbal forms arc conjugated in the following tenses
and moods:
present indicative and imperative
optative
aorist
future and conditional.
Further there are in the Pali Canon two or three stray forms
of the perfect tense. In the postcanonical literature these forms are
more numerous.
The indefinite verbal forms are divided into:
infinitive
participles: present, past, future
gerund
Classes of the verbs.
The Pali verbal system is directlky connected with the Sanskrit
verbal system; hence we can follow the Sanskrit division of the verbs
into classes.
H|l!ai&fe«iA1Ni|ti||-:i
75
The verbs arc divided into ten classes according to the way in
which they form the stem of the present tense.
62. Class 1. To the first class belong the verbs which form
the stem of the present by adding to the root the suffix -a: pat-
To fall’: pat-a-ti > patati; vas- ‘to dwell: vas-a-ti > vasati.
In the formation of the present stem, the final vowel of the root
or a medial short vowel takes the guna grade:
tu-
to
lead
ne-a-ti > nay-i
3-f/ >
nayati
rn -
to
shut
rp-a-ti > rav-i,
i-fi >
ravati
bhu -
to
be
bho-a-ti > bhav
-a-ti >
bhavati
hr-
to
carry
hav-a-ti
>
ha rati
lib -
to
lick
hh-a-ti
>
fahati
mud-
to
rejoice
mod-a-ti
>
modati
vrt -
to
turn
vart-a-ti
>
vattbati
But the vowel -a and any medial vowel which is long either by
nature or by position remain unchanged:
vab-
to carry
vab-a-ti
vahati
jtv '
to live
jiv-a-ti
jivati
h i im-
to hurt
hims-a-ti
himsati
ri ind-
to blame
nind-a-ti
nindati
a). The
may
root ruh- To climb* may
lengthen it to -t7 / -o in
retain the short vowel or
the formation of the stem
of the present: ruhati , ruhati / rohati. Rud « ‘to weep' may
retain the short vowel or may lengthen it to o: ruda- in
rudanto t but mda- in rodati.
b) . In verbs like nayati, bhavati, the groups aya / ava may
be contracted to e / o respectively: nayati / neti, bhavati
/ bhoti and boti with the loss of the consonantal sound,
c) . To the first class belong also the roots pa- ‘to drink’,
stha- ‘to stand’, sad- ‘to sit’, gam- ‘to go’. The roots
76
pa-, stha- sad-
wilh the vowel
ti-sth-a-ti > titthati
pi-p-a-ti > pipati > pihati / pivati
si-sd-a-ti > sisdati > J sidati
Gum- has present tense gacchati. (Strictly speaking gacchati
is an old inchoative form),
StM - may form, the present tense in several other ways also
especially when it is compounded with a prefix:
Like a verb of the second class: thiti, utthati.
Like a verb of the fourth class: thayati
By splitting up the long vowel into two short vowels of the
same kind with the aspirate in between: utthahati, santhahati, upafthabati
In the imperative it has a form utthehi,
d) . To the first class belongs also kubbati ‘to do 5 which has
been derived from the Sanskrit form kurvanti, third person
plural of kf~.
e) . The first class is very numerous. Hero are some of the verbs
that may present some difficulty in the formation of the
present tense:
cyu-
to fall
co-a-ti
>
cavat i
sru-
to How
so-a-ti
>
savati
dhf-
to hold
dhar-a-ti
>
dharati
mr-
to die
mar-a-ti
>
maniti
Vf~
to obstruct
var-a-ti
>
varati
tyaj-
to give up
caj-a-ti
>
cajati
kram-
to walk
kam-a-t i
>
kamati
krid-
to play
kll-a-ti
>
kilati
vrdh-
to increase
vardb-a-ti
>
vaddhati
77
krs-
? r
to plough
kars-a-ti
>
kassati ! kamsati
VfS-
to rain
vars-a- ti
>
vassati
hfs-
to bristle
bars-a-ti
>
hassati / hamsati
arh-
to deserve
arah-a-ti
>
arahati
garh-
to blame
gar ah- a-ti
>
garahati
raks-
to protec';
raks-a-ti
>
rakkhati
kahks-
to doubt
kanks-a-ti
>
kankhati
dhvarns-
to destroy
dhvams-a-ti
>
d hamsati
63. Class 2. To the second class belong the verbs which form
the present tense by adding the personal endings directly to the root
in its guna grade, Only a few verbs belong to this class, and even
these few verbs have often passed over to another class.
as- ‘to be’ as- mi > asmi , as -si > asi . as-ti > atthi , etc
han- ‘to kill’ has only the third person singular: han-ti
>hasUi For the rest it is conjugated like a verb
of the first class: hanami, ha nasi, hanati etc
vac- ‘to speak’ has only the third person singular: vac-ti
> vatti
si- ‘to lie down" semi, sesi, seti. The guna vowel of the
root e is usually expanded to aya and then the
verb becomes similar to a verb of the first class:
sayami, sayasi, sayati, etc.
vid- ‘to know’ has only the third person singular ved-ti>
vetti For the rest it has passed over to the
seventh class: vindami, vindasi, vindati, etc,
bru- ‘to say’ brumi, brusi, bruti. The final vowel of the
root does not take its guna grade.
yi- ‘to go’ yami, yasi, yiiti, etc. Ya- can also be inflected
like a verb of the fourth class
!|l i ! i 1 i I 1 1 1 MJ
78
79
khya- 'to speak’ is usualy used with a prefiXj v,g, akkhami,
akkhasi, akkhati.
va- 'to blow' has vasi f vali. Otherwise it has passed over
to the fourth class: vayati.
sna- 'to bathe’ has the third person singular sinati. Other*
wise it is conjugated like a verb of the fourth
class: mhayati /. sinayati.
bhi- 'to shine’ bhati, patibhati
With the exception of the forms of as- (asmi f asi, atthi f etc.)
and of the third person hanti, nearly all the other forms of the second
class are used almost exclusively in poetry,
64. Class 3. To the third class belong a few verbs which form
the stem of the present with the reduplication and with the length-
ening of the vowel of the root to its guna grace.
da-
to give
da-da-ti
> dadati
ha-
to abandon
ja-ha-ti
> jahati
hu -
to sacrifice
ju-ho-ti
> juhoti
da- has also a present: deti
ha- may have a short vowel: jahati
hu- may form the present as juhati i juhati
Further the root dim- 1 to place’ forms the present tense as dahati
or like a verb of the fourth class when compounded antaradhayati.
65. Class 4. To the fourth class belong the verbs which form
stem
of the present by adding the suffix
ya to the root.
&
to be born
ja-ya-ti
> jay ad
mla-
to fade
mla-ya-ti
> m Hay ad
11 -
to stick
li-ya-ti
> liyati
nft-
to dance
ttft-ya-ti
> naevad
mad-
to be intoxicated
mad-ya-ti
> majjati
svid-
to sweat
svid-ya-ti
>
sijjaii
rdh-
r
to prosper
fdh-ya-tl
>
ijjhati
vyadh-
to pierce
vyadh-ya-ti
>
vijjhati
budh-
to be awake
budh-ya-ti
>
bit jj hau
man-
to think
man-ya-ii
>
mahhati
tfP~
to be satisfied
trp-ya-ti
>
tappati
lubh-
to covet
hibh-ya-ti
>
htbbhati
slv-
to sew
slv-ya-ti
>
sibbati
kiis-
to be stained
klis-ya-ti
>
kilissati
mrs -
to forget
mrs-ya-ti
>
mussati
nas-
to perish
nas-ya-ti
>
nassati
nah-
to tie
nah-ya-ti
>
nayhati
$mh-
to be moist
snih-ya- ti
>
siniyhati
nmh-
to be infatuated
muh-ya-ti
>
muyhati
kup-
to be angry
kup-ya-ti
>
kuppati
66. Class 5. To the fifth class belong a few verbs which form
the stem of the present with the suffix -no:
sak-
to be able
sak-no-ti
>
sakkoti
sru-
to hear
iru-no-ti
>
sunoti
ap-
to reach
ap-no-ti
>
appoti (pappoti)
The verbs of the fifth class usually pass over to the ninth class.
67. Class 6, To the sixth class belong the verbs which form
the stem of the present by means of the suffix -a added to the
root:
likh-
to write
Hkh-a-ti
> likhati
dis -
to point out
d&a-ii
> disati
vis-
to enter
vis-a-ti
> visati
80
tud -
to push
md-a-fj
> tudati
nud-
to expel
nud-a-ti
> nudati
kr-
to scatter
kf-a-ti
> kirati
mrs-
to stroke
mrg-a-ti
> masati (amasati)
spfi-
to touch
sprs-a-ti
> phusati
To the
sixth class belongs also prch ■
■ ‘to ask* and. is- 4
which form the present tense as pucchati, kchati,
The difference between the first and the sixth class consists in
the fact that in the verbs of the first class the vowel of the root
takes the guna grade while in the verbs of the sixth class the vowel
of the root remains unchanged in its weak grade.
68. Class 7. To the seventh class belong the verbs which form
the stem of the present by inserting -n before the final consonant
of the root and by adding the suffix -a:
ric-
to leave
ri-n-c-a-ti
>
nncati
sic-
to sprinkle
si-n-c-a-ti
>
sincati
muv-
to set free
mu-n-c-a-ti
>
muncati
bhaj-
to break
bha-n-j-a-ti
>
bhanjati
bhuj-
to eat
bhu-n-j-a- ti
>
bhunjati
yuj-
to join
yu-n-j-a-ti
>
yuhjati
krt-
■7
to cut
kr-n-t-a-ti
>
kantati
chid-
to cut
chi-n-d-a-ti
>
chindati
ll
rudh-
to hinder
ru-n-dh-a-ti
>
rundhati
up-
to smear
li-n-p-a-ti
>
limpati
The nasal consonant -n is adapted to the following consonant,
hence chindati, yunjati, limpati.
69. Class 8. To the eighth class belong the roots kr- 4 to do’
and tan- ‘to stretch’ which form the present tense with the suffix
-o. The root kf- lengthens the vowel of the root before the suffix:
81
kr-o-ti > kar-o-ti > karoti
7
tan-o-ti > tanoti
70. Class 9. To the ninth class belong the verbs which form
the stem of the present with the suffix -na:
jna-
to know
ja-na-ti > janah
mii-
to measure
mi-nadi > minati
va-
to weave
vkna-ti > vinati
ci-
to collect
ti-na-ti > cmfiti
krl -
to buy
krl-nadi > kinati
dhu-
to shake
dhu-na-ti > dhuniti
1 u-
to cut
lu-na-ti > hmati
gmh
to take
gmh-na-ti > ganhati
The
verbs of the fifth
class siv-. ap sak- form the present
tense more commonly with the suffix of the ninth class: sunati,
papunati, sakkunati. In papuniti the vowel -u has been inserted
between the consohant of the root and the suffix; in sakkunati the
consonant of the root has been doubled and then the vowel -u has
been inserted.
71. Class 10. To the tenth class belong some of the verbs
which form the stem of the present with the suffix -aya which is
usually contracted to -c:
sprh - to desire sprh-aya-ti > pihayati / piheti
hu~ to call hu-aya-ti > hvayati (avhayati)
To the tenth class belong many verbs which strictly speaking
are either caosatiye or desiderative verbs; v.g. tinted, codett, chadeti,
amanteti, etc.
72. Verbs belonging to different classes. Sometimes the stem
of the present is formed in more than one way and thus the verb
may belong to more than one class. Some of these verbs have already
been mentioned: sunoti / small, sakkoti / sakkunati, pappofi / papunati,
82
83
yati / yayati, van / vayati, sinati / si nay at i, hand / hanati, tilth ad
/ thati / thayati.
Besides these, there are still several other verbs that form the
present in different ways;
Jl'
to conquer
1
jay ati
IX
jinad
jf-
to grow old
I
jarati
IV
jir-yad > jirad / jiyad
mr-
to die
1
marati
IV
mir-yad > miyyati/
miyad
bhu -
to be
1
bhavati
IX
sambhunati
lii-
to cut
IX.
limit i
I
Jayad (for lavatf)
tr -
*
to cross
I
farad
VI
died (caus. of tirati)
as-
to eat
IX
asnid
1
asamam (from asad)
vad-
to speak
1
vadami
X
va desi, va deti, vadeh i
va-
to weave
rx
vinati
IV
vayati
The forms tirad, asad
are not found, but
they must be postulated
to explain forms like tired , asamana.
The verb da- which belongs to the third class is also inflected
like a verb of the tenth class: demi, desi, deti, etc.; and like a
verb of the second class: idati.
Further another peculiar development is the one found in the
roots da-, vid-, svad- } if-:
da- diyati, adiyati ‘to wake up’, upadiyad *to take hold
of’, satnadiyad ‘to take upon oneself’
vid- vedeti, vediyati ‘to feel*
svad- * sadeti ‘to enjoy’, sadiyati ‘to enjoy for oneself
ir- iriyati ‘to wander about'
Apparently the suffix -iya is an alternative form of -ay a: vedeti
i vedayati / vediyati; sided / sidayad / sadiyati; ireti / irayati /
iriyati; and similarly deti / diyati .
Present Indicative
73, Present indicative parassapada. The present indicative
parassapada is formed by adding the primary persccal endings to
the stem of the present.
Conjugation of the stems
labha-, suni-.
cinte-y karo-
!. labhami
sunami
cinten d
karomi
2. labhasi
suni si
cintesi
karosi
3. labhad
suniti
cinteti
karoti
1. fabhima
sunaim
c interna
karoma
2. labhatha
sunatha
i
cintetha
karotha
3. labhand
sunanti
cin tend
karond
a) . The stems in -a lengthen this vowel in the first person
singular and plural, hence labhami, labhiflw.
b) . In the first person singular the final vowel is sometimes
dropped: labhami / labham.
c) . The root da- forms the present tense as dadami / demi.
Further it has dammi in the first person singular.
d) . The verb bhavati may lose the first mute consonant and
then it may be contracted: bhavati > havad > hoti , In
composition sometimes the labial -bh is retained but -ava
is contracted: anubhavad > anubhoti.
e) . The root as- is inflected as follows:
asmi, amhi asma, amha
asi attha
atthi sand
74, Present indicative attanopada. The present indicative attanopada
is formed by adding the middle personal endings to the stem of the
present.
84
kbhe labhamhe
kbhasc l abba v ho
fobhate labhante
a) . In the first person plural there are some alternative forms
cndhig in -make, -wase, -mhase: bhavamahe f a bhinan damase r
yamamase, saramhase,
b) . In the third person plural there is an alternative form in
-rc; labhare, socare , upapajjare,
c ) > The verbs of the tenth class and those that form the stem
of the present with the suffix -ay a /-e, form the atlanopada
from the stem in -ay a: pa tthayc, patthayase, patthayate, etc.
There is, however, in the first person singular agame <
agameti,
d) . The attanopada of kf- is kubbe, kubbase, etc. There is
also a first person kare and a third person kurute.
Imperative
75. Imperative parassapada, The imperative is inflected in the
second and third person singular and plural. The personal endings
proper to it are: -hi, -tu, -tha, -ntu.
: l
labha
suna
cintay3
labhahi
sunahi
tint ay a hi
cintdii
karohi
3.
labhatu
sunatu
cintayatu
cintetu
karntu
2 .
labha tha
suna tha
cintayatha
cinte tha
karotha
3,
kb bantu
sunantu
cintayantu
cintentu
karontu
a). The verbs that have their present stem in -a / -a, have
two forms for the second person singular: one ending in
a and the other ending in -hi with the previous vowel
lengthened; kbha / labhahi, suna / sunahi The stems in
85
-e / -o have only the form with the ending -hi; cintehi,
karohi, hohi, sunohi. Similarly btu- has bruhi
b). Some verbs have more than one form for the imperative:
bhu- bhava, bhavahi, hohi
da- dada, dad ah h dehi
stu- sui) a, sunahi, sunohi
kr- karohif kara, kum In the third person it has kurutu.
The root as- has atthu for the third person singular and attha
for the second person plural,
7 6. Imperative attanopada. The imperative attanopada is formed
only from the present stems in -a / -a The personal endings are:
- ssu , -tam, - vho, -ntam:
2: labhassu kbhavho
3 , labhatani labhantam
The root kf - has icarassu / Jajnissu, kurutam, kuruvho,
Optative
77. Optative parassapada. The optative parassapada may be
formed in various ways.
a). kbh- ‘to obtain
1 . la bheyyam i la bh eyyiitna
2. labheyyasi lanbheyyatha
3. iabh&yyati
This is the simplest way of forming the optative^ that is, by
adding to the stem of the present, without the final vowel, the suffix
-eyya- and the primary personal endings:
labha- }abh-cyya~mi suna- sun-cyya-mi
karo- kar-eyyd-im cinte- cint-cyya-mi
86
87
In this form the third person plural is missing,
b). The optative is also formed by adding to the stem of the
present the suffix -/ and the secondary personal endings:
i.
labha-i-am
> labhe-aip
> labheyam / labheyyatn
2.
iabha-i-s
> lab he s
> labhe
3.
labha-i-t
> labhet
> labhe
1,
labha-i-ma
> labhema
2.
labha-i-tha
> labhe tha
3 .
labha-i-uip
> labhe- um
> labheyvm /labheyyum ! 1 abbey yat
The form labheyyatn of the first person singular has given rise
to two analogical forms for the second and third person singular:
labheyya, labheyya.
Further the forms labhe for lire second and third person singular
have given rise to an analogical form labhe for the first person
singular; hence in the singular we may have
L labheyyam labhe
2. labheyya labhe
3. labnheyya labhe
c). In a few cases the optative has been formed by adding to
the stem of the present, without the final vowel, the suffix
-ya and the secondary personal endings:
jana-ya-m
> jan-ya-m
> jahham;
jan-ya-t
> jahha
karo-ya-t
> kar-ya-t
> karya / kayira
dada-
+
> dad-ya-t
> dajja, pi. dajjvm
vada-
> vad-ya-t
> vajja
d). Sometimesa a double formation is found: dada- > dajja ,
and then from dajja there is dajjeyyasi dajjeyyama, dajjeyyatha,
dajjeyyum.
e) i in poetry sometimes the first person plural ends in -mu;
janemu, vindemu.
f) . The optative niccheyya is formed from the root and not
from the present stem.
g) . The optative of the verb as- is the following:
/. assam, siyam assama
2. assa assatha
3. assa, siya assn, siyum
78, Attanopada optative. In the. attanopada optative there are
some stray forms according to one or the other pattern already
explained:
/. kbheyyam labhemase, labheyyamhe
2 , labhetho labheyyavho
3 , labhe tha labheran
The root kf- has kayiratha in the third persoji.
Future Tense
79. Formation of the parassapada future. The future is formed
in three different ways;
1) . by adding to the present stem, without its final vowel, the
connecting vowel the suffix -$$a- and the primary personal
endings: labh-i-ssa-ti > labhissati,
2) . by adding to the root, with the vowel in its guna grade,
the connecting vowel the suffix -ssa- and the primary personal
endings: gam-i-ssa-ti > gamissati; bhii-: bho-i-ssa-d > bhav-i-ssa-ti
> bhavissati.
3) . by adding to the root, with the vowel in its guna grade,
the suffix "Ssa and the primary personal endings; da-ssa-ti > dassatl.
88
1, labhissimi gamissami dassami
2, labhissasi gamins as i dassasi
3, labhissati garni ss at i dassati
/, labhissima garni ssarna dassama
2. labhissatba garni ssatha dassatha
3. labhissanti gamissanti dassanti
a) . The future is inflected like the present tense and hence it
lengthens the vowel of the suffix before the personal endings
of the first person: labhissimi / labhissima, Further in the
first person singular the final vowel is sometimes dropped:
labhissimi / labhissam,
b) . The verbs of the tenth class and all the verbs that have
the present stem in -ay a / -e, ■ form the future from the
stem of the present tense in - aya ;
cintaya-: cintay-i-s$a-ti > cintayissati
karaya-; karay-i-ssa-ti > karayissati
pujaya-: piijay-i-ssa-ti > pujayksati
The group ayi t however f may be contracted to -e;
cintayissati / eintessati
karayissati / karcssatL
c) F The root grab - 4 to seize 1 takes the connecting vowel, -i
which is changed to -e before two consonants:
grah-i-ssa-ti > gahissati / gahessati
d) . The formation of the future obtained by adding the suffix
directly to the root, often entails the application of sandhi
rules:
jna- to know jni-ssa-ti > has sat i
k to go e-ssa-ti > essati
ci- to collect ce-ssa-ti > cessati (paces sati)
iiwMiluaJk*ll
> jessati (vijessati)
8
ji- to conquer jc-ssa-ti
Si- to lie down sc-ssa-ii
ni- to lead ne-ssa-ti > nessati
bhu- to be Wio-ssa-fi > bhossati (anubhossati)
kf- to do kar-ssa-ii > kassati
hr- to carry har-ssa-ti > hassati ( vihassati)
vac- to speak vac-ssa-ti > vakkhati
muc- to set free moe-ssa-fi > mokkfoiti
bhuj~ to cat bhoj-ssa-ti > bhokkbati
sak- to be able sak-ssa-ti > sakkhati
chid- to cut ched-ssa-ii > checchati
bhid- to break bhed-ssa-ti > bhcccbati
ivd- to weep rud-ssa-ti > rucchati
labh- to obtain labhssa-ti > lacchati
vas- to dwell vas-ssa-ti > vacchati
vis - to enter vcs-$$a-ti > vekkhati (pavekkhati)
drs- to see dnts-ssa-ti > dakkhati
■T
The root rud- does not lengthen the vowel; nicclutti
The root ban- has hanchati / habkhati; these forms may be
explained by the insertion of a -f and a -A:
han-ssa-ti > han-t-ssati > hanchati
han-ssa-ti > ban-k-ssati > hankhati
In the third person singular and sometimes even in the third
person plural the vowel of the suffix is reduced: rucchati / rucchiti,
dakkhati ! dakkbiti / dakkhinti.
In sakkhati the consonant group is sometimes softened: sagghati.
90
A double future is sometimes built up from sakkhati, dakkhati;
sakkh issa ti, da kkh issa ti.
e). In poetry some of the future forms have undergone further
phonological changes:
da- dassasi > dasasi > dahasi / dahisi (padahisi)
i- Qssati > esati / ehati / eh id (ehisi, upchisi)
bhu- bhossati > hossati / hosati / hohati / hohiti (hohisi)
bhavissati > havissati > hessati
hessati > he sat i > hehati / hehiti (he hi si)
kr- karssati > kassati > kasati > kahati / kahili
(kahawi f kahasi, kahinti)
hr- harssati > hassati > hasati > hahuti >hahiti
(hahami, hahasi hahisi)
Viharati has two future forms: vi hessati i vihissati while
palayati has palehiti.
The phonological rules at work in these forms are the following:
a short vowel before two consonants is equivalent to a long
vowel before one consonant: kassati / kasati;
an intervocalic sibilant is changed to - h ; kasati ! kahati;
a vowel is reduced when it is preceded by a strong accented
syllable: kahati > kahiti , dakkhati > dakkhiti.
80. Attanopada future. The attanopada future is obtained by
changing the parassapada personal endings into the attanopada endings:
1 . labhisse
2. labhissase
3. Jabhissnte
labhissamhe
Ubhissavhe
labhissante
91
The Conditional
81, Formation of the conditional. The conditional is formed
from the future by prefixing the augment a- and by changing the
primary into the secondary personal endings: labhissami > alabhissam.
1. alabhissam alabhissam a
2. alabhissa alabhissatha
3. alabhissa alabhissamsu
The A o t i s t
The aorist is formed by prefixing the augment a- to the root
and by adding the secondary personal endings either directly or by
means of one of the suffixes -a, -s t -is. Hence there are four types
of aorisls: root aorist, a-aorist, s-aorist, is-aorist,
82. The augment In Pali there is no strict rule regarding the
use of the augment, yet this may be said:
a) . The root aorist always takes the augment: a-da, a-bu , a-
ga, ajjh-a-ga.
b) . The a-aorist generally takes the augment: a-gama f a-ddasa,
a-bhasatha.
c) . The s-aorist formed from the verbal root and the extended
s-aorist formed from the a-aorist, generally take the aug-
ment: a-ssosi, a -da si, a-kasi, a -host , a-gamasi t a-ddasasi.
The s-aorist formed from the stem of the present in -e (verbs
of the tenth class and causative verbs), generally does not take the
augment: cintesi, piijesi, karesi, thapesi.
d) , The is-aorist formed from the root of the verb, generally
takes the augment: a-gamim, a-padi a-fari, a-ggahi, a-asim
> asim.
When the is-aorist is formed from the present stem, the augment
is optional, but the forms without the augment are much more
92
93
numerous than those with the augment: a-gacchi / gacchi, a-dcsayi,
a-mohayi, ganhi , nikkhami, vicar i , pesayi,
e), Sometimes the augment is not used when the verb is compounded
with a prefix ending in -a; pa -has i, pa-mimsu, upa~pajjatha.
I), Tn poetry the use of the augment often depends on the
requirements of the metre.
The Root Aorist
83. Formation of the root aorist. The root aorist is formed by
adding the secondary personal endings to the root preceded by the
augment:
l. a-da-m
adam
2. a-da-s
add
3. a-da-t
a da
1 —
■s
1
adu
a-da-um adum
In this aorist the first and second person plural are missing.
In the third person plural, the final vowel of the root is elided before
the ending -u / -um,
Besides da-, the other roots which take this aorist are: g§-,
stha- t bhu-, kr aga, attha, aha, aka. The root b/iii- loses the initial
mute consonant and retains only the aspiration. The root kf- takes
the guna grade in the formation of the root aorist: a-kar-t > akart
> akatt > aka.
The A-Aorist
84. Formation of the a-aorist. The a-aorist is formed by adding
the secondary prsonal endings to the root by means of the suffix
-a:
1. a-gam-a-m > agamam a»gm-a-ma > agaimma
2. a-gam-a-s > again a a-gam-a-tha > a gamut ha
3. a-gam-a-t > agama a-gam-a-um > agamuni
a) . In the second person singular the suffix -a with the ending
-s sometimes gives rise to -o: pamad-a-s > pamado ,
In I he third person singular the final vowel may bo long or short:
addasa / addasa, agama / agama.
In the first person plural, the vowel of the suffix is lengthened
before the ending; agamama, addasa ma.
In the third person plural, the vowel of the suffix -is is dropped
i
be lore the ending -um; agam-a-um > agamum. Sometimes (he
ending is -u without the niggahita: aiatthuni / paccalatthu.
In the plural there are forms built up on the pattern of the s-
aorist: akaramha, a in It ham ha, pamadattha, alatthamsu. The third
person plural addamsu has been built on the same pattern, though
in this form the -$ belongs to the root and not to the suffix.
b) . The root mad- lengthens the vowel of the root; pamado.
Bhu- has ahuva, chid - has acchida, bhid- has abhida,
dis- has addasa (a-dras-s-at), kr- has akara.
Vac- has the ordinary aorist avaca, and it has also a voca.
Avoca is a reduplicated weakened aorist: a-va-vac-a-t >a-va-uca-
t > avoca (the first syllable of the root is first doubled, then it
is weakened to -uc and then contraction of the two vowels coming
together takes place). The inflection is as follows: avocam, avoca,
avoca, avocumha , avocuttha, avocum , In the first and scond person
plural the vowel -a is changed to -u and the suffix -s is added
as in the s-aorist; avoc-u-s-ma > avocumha.
Man- forms the aorist from the stem of the present: amahnam ,
amannatha.
Labh - has an a-aorist; alattham, alattha, alatthamha, alatthum
/ alatthu / aiatthamsu.
i
94
85. Formation of the attanopada a-aorist. The attanopada a-
aorist is formed by adding the secondary attanopada endings. Only
a few forms are found in the Canonical literature: bhas- ; abhasatha,
kr-: akaramhase, man-;
amahtmrum, pud-: upapajjatha, vid-: vindatha,
badb-: abajjhare. This last has been formed from the present passive.
The S-Aorist
86, Formation of the s-aorist. The s-aorist is formed in two
ways:
1, by adding the secondary personal endings by means of the
suffix -s to the root in its guna grade;
2, by adding the secondary personal endings by means of the
suffix -s to the stem of the present when this ends in -c as in
the verbs of the tenth class and in causative verbs,
3, further in the singular the vowel -/ is inserted be ween the
suffix -s and the personal ending
da- a-da-sd-m > adasim
sru- a-sso-s-i-m > a$$o$im
time- cintc-s-i-m > cintesim
1.
a-dk-s-i-m
> a da si
asso-s-i-m >
assosim
cintesim
2.
a-da-s-i-s
> ndasi
a-SSO-S-i-S >
assosi
cmiesi
3.
a-di-s-it
> adasi
a-sso-s-i-t >
assosi
cintcsi
1.
a-di-s-ma
> adamha
a-sso-s-ma >
assumha
2 .
a-da-s-tha
> adattha
a-sso-s-tha >
assuttha
3.
a-da-s^um
> adasum
a-sso-s-vm >
assosnm
cintesum
a), In the first and second person plural the voweJ -o is
reduced to -u before two consonants:
assosma > assoniha > assumha,
a s sos t ha > assottha > assuttha,
ahosma
> ahomha > ahum ha.
95
In the First and second person plural there are also found some
extended forms built up with the suffixes -s-is;
adi-s-is-ma > adasim ha, nda-s-is-thn > adasittha.
In the third person plural the ending -um sometimes loses its
nasalization: adakkhum i adakkhu. Further the root vowel becomes
nasalized when it is -a: adasum / adamsu, aka sum / akatnsu; similarly
pahamsu, samadahamsu. Further when (he vowel -a is nasalized,
sometimes it is reduced to -i; vihamsu / vihim.su, ahhamsu / annimsu,
Sometimes even the stems in -c reduce their vowel to -i: samesum
/ samimsu, vupasamimsu.
b), The s-aorist is taken by a few verbal roots ending in -a,
-
h -l
-u, -a, -r
and by a few roots ending in a
consonant.
khya-
to
speak
akkhasi
bhu- to
be
ahosi
ya-
to
go
pay as i
hr- to
carry
ahasi
stha-
to
stand
atthasi
chid- to
cut
acchecchi
ha-
to
abandon
ahasi
drs- to
r
see
addakkhi
i-
to
go
pahesi
vis- to
enter
pa vekkhi
]i-
to
conquer
ajesi
sak- to
be able
asakkhi
m-
to
lead
anesi
grab- to
take
aggahesi
si-
to
lie down
sesi
From
the
roots pi-
To drink'
and dha-
To place
\ there are
found apamsu, samadahamsu.
c). The s-aorist is taken by all the verbs which have the stem
of the prsent in -e; cintesi, karesi, piijcsi, kathesi, etc, In
these verbs the first and second person plural are missing
and their absence is made good by the same persons of
the is-aorist: cintayimha, karayimha, cintayittha, karayittha,
etc.
!
I
i
I
d). There is also an extended s-aorist formed from the a-aorist:
agama i agamasi, avaca / avacasi, ahuva / ahuvasi, addasa
i addasasi , Similarly are formed some aorists from the
present stem: pata- : apatasi, jaha-: pajahasi, piva-: pivasi.
Their inflection is as follows:
1. agamasim
2 . agamasi
3. agamasi
agamamha
agamattha
agamamsu
e). In the attanopada there are only a few stray forms in the
third singular: udapattha < uda-pat, alatth a < lahh-. f rom
the form alattha a whole a-aorist has been built (84b),
The I s - A o r i s t
87. Formation of the is-aorist, The is-aorist is formed by adding
the secondary personal endings by means of the suffix -is either
to the root in its gima grade or to the stem of the present.
2. agam-is-s > agami
3, agam-is-t > agami
agamim
gacch-is-m > gacchim
agami
gacch-is-s > gacchi
agami
gacch-is-t > gacchi
agamhnha
gacch-is-ma > gacchimha
agamittha
gacch-is-tha > gacchittha
agamisum
gacch-is-um > gacchisum
a). In the first person singular the ending may be -m / -am;
hence agamim / agamisam, gacchim / gacchisam. Simi-
larly abhnnjisam, anuyunjlsam, pucchisam, anucahkamisani
Further the - s has sometimes been doubled: sandhavissam,
amannissam, vandissam, upavasissam.
In the third person plural the final vowel may lose its nasali-
zation and then the vowel -i of the suffix is nasalized: agami sum
/ agamimsu, gacchisnm / gacchimsu,
97
In the third person plural the ending is sometimes added without
the suffix -is, just as in the a-aorist: cintayimsu / cintayum. Similarly
adassayum, nivesayum , asum } apadum, abnivum, abbbugganchum.
In gacchi the double consonant is simplified and the vowel
is nasalized: gacchi / ganchi, gacchum / ganchum .
Abhavisum < bint- is usually contracted to ahesum. From
ahesum a new analogical form has been built for the first person
plural: ahesumha.
Dakkhisim is a double aorist formed with the suffixes -s +
- is and with the reduction of the vowel -a > -i: drak-s-is-am
>dakkh-is-am > dakkhisam > dakkhisim.
b). When the is-aorist is formed from the root, the vowel of
the root takes its guna grade. In a few cases the vowel
-a appears in its vrddhi grade:
bhu -
to be
abhavi
brii-
to speak
abravi
tf-
to cross
atari
(atari)
pad-
to go
apadi
(udapadi)
bhid-
to break
abhedi
vid-
to know
avedi
budh-
to awake
abodhi
mud-
to rejoice
modi
(antimodi)
rud-
to cry
rodi
(parodi)
rudh-
to obstruct
rodhi
(nirodhi
kmm-
to walk
kami
/pakkami but nikkhami,
upasankai ni)
as-
to be
asi
vis-
to enter
visi
(pavisi)
car-
to move
acah
(acari)
98
c) . The is-aorist formed from the stem of the present has
become the most common aorist in Pali and can be formed
from any present stem ending in -a, which vowel is elided
before the suftix -is: cintaya-: cintayi; pujaya-: piijayi;
papvna-: papuni
The root kr- has the is-aorist karirn built from the stem kara.
The is-aorist is iormed also from the present stem of passive
verbs; vimucci, chijji, muccimsu , hahhimsu.
d) . The atlanopada forms of this aorist are confined to the
second and third peson singular of both transitive and
passive verbs; mannittho, pucchittho, patisevittho, pucchittha,
jiyhtha, paMayittha, diyittha.
The Perfect
88. In the canonical books the only forms of the perfect seem
to be aha tor the second and the third person singular; Shu , ahamsu ,
vidii, vidum for the third person plural. The alternative form ahamsu
has been built on the analogy of the aorist.
In the postcanonical books there arc a few more forms of the
periect borrowed from Sanskrit, v.g. jagama, babhuva ,
The Passive
89. Formation of the passive. A transitive verb may be turned
into passive by adding the suffix -ya either to the root in its weak
grade, directly or by means of the connecting vowel -i / -t; or to
the present stem by means of the connecting vowel -i /- L
a). The passive is formed by adding the suffix -ya directly
L to the roots ending in one of the vowels -i, -i, -u, -ii.
Before the suffix -ya the vowels -i / -u are lengthened, or the
vowels -i / -u are shortened and the -y of the suffix is doubled;
p-
to
conquer
jiyati f
jiyyati
lli-
to
lead
niyati i
' niyyati
sru-
to
hear
suyati >
f suyyati
bhu -
to
be
abhibhuyati / abhibh
2. to
roots ending in
-a:
jha-
to
know
hayati
khya-
to
speak
khayati
(akkhayati)
3. to
roots ending in
a single consonant;
pac-
to
cook
pac-ya-ti
> pace at i
han-
to
kill
han-ya-ti
> hahhati
labh-
to
obtain
hbh-ya-ti
> labbhati
chid-
to
cut
chid-ya-ti
> chijjati
yudh-
to
fight
yudh-ya-ti
> yujjhati
drs-
to
see
drs-ya-ti
> dissati
dah-
to
burn
dah-ya-ti
> dayhati
4. to roots beginning with the sonant v- and in which the
syllable of the root is weakened; v.g, vac-ya-ti > vc-ya-ti > uc-ya -
fi > vuccati. In these roots the syllable of the root is weakened
and then the sonant, followed by a consonant, becomes a vowel: vc-
>uc- , Further, when a word begins with u- in Pali, sometimes a
v- is prefixed to it, hence vuccati.
vac - to speak
vas- to dwell
vap- to sow
vail- to bear
uc-ya-
■ti
> uccati
> vuccati
us-ya -
ti
> ussati
> vussati
up-ya
-ti
V
1
> vuppati
uh-ya
-ti
> uyhati
> v uyhati
5, to roots ending in -r / -r which is changed to -ir / -in
before the suffix -ya:
100
hf-
to carry
hk-yadi > hirmti
hkati
kr-
to do
kiv-ya-ti > klrrati
kkati
kk-yadi > kiyyati
ktyati (sanktyati)
Pt
to fill
pur-ya-li > purrati
pdrati (padpvrati)
The
becomes
vowel -f > dir
dr.
after the labial consonant p- otherwise it
The gioup -ry > -it / -yy and then the group is simplified and
the previous vowel is lengthened,
b) t The passive is formed by adding the suffix -ya by means
of the connecting vowel -I to the weak grade of some of
the roots ending in -a:
da- to give
d-kyadi >
diyati /
diyyati
dha~ to place
dhd-yadi >
dhiyaii /
dhiyyati
fiia- to measure
m-i-ya-ti >
miyati /
miyyati
va- to weave
vd-yadi >
viyati /
viyyati
ha- to abandon
hd-ya-ti >
hlyati /
hiyyati
The root ha- has
also a passive
hayati. The
passive form
apidhiyali, from the root dim- and the prefix api-, loses the initial
vowel and the soit dental is changed into the hard one: pitfiiyati,
d). The passive is formed also by adding Hie suffix ya- by
means of the connecting vowel d / -/ to the stem of the
present after dropping the last vowel: ukkhipa- > ukkhipiyati,
l his way of forming the passive is common:
1), when the stem of the present ends in a vowel preceded by
an r~:
hara~: hard-yadi > hariyati
kara-: kard-yadi > kaiiyati
ktra-: kit-i-yadi > kiriyati
101
2). when the stem of the present contains a heavy syllable, i.e.
a syllabic with a long vowel followed by one consonant or a syllable
a short
vowel followed
by two consonants
yiic-
; yac-i-ya-ti
> yaciyati
yisnj-
; yuhj-i-yu-ti
> yunjiyati
chind-
: chindd-ya-ti
> chindiyati
3), when the verb belongs to the tenth class or is a causative
verb. In this case the final -uya / -e is dropped before -t
cintaya-
: cintd - j
/a-t i
> cintiyati
desaya-
: des-i-y
r a-ti
> desiyati
karaya-
; kar-i-v
adi
> kaiiyati
piijc-
: pujd-y
adi
> pujiyati
The Causative Verb
90. Formation of the causative verb. The causative verb may
be formed either from the verbal root or from the stem of the present.
a). The causative verb is formed by adding the suffix -aya /
-e to the verbal root before which
1). a final vowel is lengthened to its vrddhi grade:
bhl-
to be afraid
bhay-aya-ti
> bhayayati
siv-
to hear
sav-edi
> saved
bhi i-
to be
bhav-edi
> bhavefi
kr-
c
to do
kar-e-ii
> kareti
mp
to die
mar-edi
> mated
hu~
to sacrifice
hav-e-ti
> hdveti / hapeti
In the last example the consonant v is changed to p .
102
2). a medial - a , followed by one consoant, is generally length-
ened to its vrddhj grade:
pat-
to fall
pat-e-d > pateti
bhaj-
to share
bhaj-e-ti > bhajed
vraj-
to go
vaj-e-ti > vajed (pabbaje d)
In some cases the vowel
ened:
is nasallizcd instead of being length-
Jabh-
to obtain
en bh-e-f/ > lambhed
hrs-
V n
to bristle
bams-e-d > haniseti
If the
consonant,
vowel is already followed by a nasal or by a double
then the vowel remains unchanged:
mnj-
to be delighted
mnj-e-d > rnnjeti
lancl i-
to seal
kneh-e-d > la itched
to adhere
lagg-c-d > lagged
Tn some verbs, though the medial vowe -a is followed by one
consonant, that vowel is not lengthened or is lengthened optionally:
gam-
to go
gam-e-ti > gamed
jan-
to be born
jan-e-ti > Janet i
dam-
to tame
dam-e-ti > darned
lap-
to talk
lap-c-ti > laped
nam-
to bend
rtam-e-d > named/named
( vidnamed)
3). By lengthening any
grade:
other short medial vowel to its guna
bhid-
to break
bhed-e-d > bhedeb
snih-
to be moist
sneh-e-ti > snehed
mne-
to be free
moc-e-ti > moced
103
ma-
to measure
ma-p-e-d mapeti
ya-
to go
ya-p-e-d yaped
hi f-
to abandon
tar
Iji
b
^3
i
L
wT*
da-
to give
dapeti, adaped ; s a mad aped
siha
to stand
thapetg utthapeti, sa nth aped, santhaped
da-
to wash
daped (pariyodaped)
The
-e-d
root f- ’to rise' takes guna and inserts the consonant -p:
> apped.
c).
Some verbs form
their causative in different ways:
kr-
to scatter
kired (pakived)
tr-
to cross
Hired ( tired)
pr-
to be full
pured
dus-
to be soiled
duseti
ruh-
to climb
roped
han-
to kill
ghateti
pa-
to drink
payed
pa-
to protect
paled
pn-
to be glad
pitied
d), The causative is formed also from the present stem by
adding to it the suffix -apaya / -ape, before which the final
vowel of the stem and the final group -aya in the verbs
of the tenth class are dropped:
104
nistda-
to sit
nisidapeti
chinda-
to cut
chindaped
karo-
to do
karaped
ocina-
to gather
ocinaped
pvjaya-
to worship
pujapet i
e). Sometimes a double causative is formed by adding the
suffix -apaya / -ape to the stem of the simple causative
without its final vowel:
sodhe-
sodh-ape-ti >
sodhaped
ghate-
ghat-ape- tt >
gha taped
kart f-
kar-ape-d >
karaped
paye-
pay -ape- 1 i >
payaped
f). Some
verbs have more than one form for the causative:
han-
hanapeti, ghated, gha taped
nas-
nasetg nasaped
lith-
roped } ropaped
g), There are some verbs that in Pali appear only in their
causative form:
c haded to cover
chadded to spit out
vambheti to despise
The Desiderative Verbs
91. Formation of the desiderative verbs. In Pali there are a few
desiderative verbs derived directly front Sanskrit. They are formed
by means of the suffix ~sa and the reduplication. The vowel of
the reduplicating syllable is generally -i, but -a / -u are also found:
105
pa-
pi-pa-sa-d
pi pas ad / pivasad
wishes to
drink
ji-
ji-gim-sa-d
jigimsati
desires to
conquer
sru-
su-ssu-sa-d
sussusad
wishes to hear
vac-
va-vac-sa-d
vavakkhad
wishes to call
dj-
d-dj-sa-ti
ddkkhad
endures
bhuj-
bu-bhuj-sa-d
habhukkhad
wishes to eat
cit-
ci-kit-sa-d
cikicchati / tikicchad
cures
vid-
vi-vid-sa-ti
vivicchad
longs for
inan-
mi-man-sa-d
mimamsati i vimamsati
investigates
gup-
ji-gupsa-ti
jigucchad
dislikes
ghas-
ji-ghas-sa-d
jighacchad
wishes lo eat
da-
di-d-sa-d
dicchad
wishes to give
khya-
ci-khy-sa-d
cikkhad
tells
sak-
si-sk-sa-ti
sikkhad
learns
In the last three verbs da-, khya-, sak-, the weak grade of the
root has been used.
In mimamsati there can be dissimilation: vimamsati.
In cikicchati the dissimilation is optional; hence both forms
arc used: cikicchati / dkkehati.
In sru- the vowel of the root is lengthened: sussiisafj; in ji -
the vowel is nasalized: jigimsati.
In ji- and cit- the palatal consonant has been changed to the
corresponding guttural: jigimsati, cikicchati.
i I
106
The Intensive Verbs
92. Formation of the intensive verbs. There are a few intensive
verbs formed with the suffix -a / -ya added to the root reduplicated
in such a way that the reduplicative syllable contains a vowel long
either by nature or by position;
kram- cah-kam-a-ti > cankamati walks up and down
cal- can-cal-a-ti > eancalati moves to and fro
lap- la-lap-ya-ti lalappati talks much
gi- ja-gar-a-ti jagarati is awake
has- ja-js-a-ti jakkhati /jagghati laughs
The root has- appears in its zero grade in the formation of
the intensive.
There is another verb daddalhati 'shine 1 connected directly with
the Sanskrit verb jajvalyati.
The Denominative Verbs
93. Formation of the denominative verbs. The denominative
verbs are formed from nouns, pronouns and adjectives by adding
the suffix - ya /
-aya
/ -iya.
a), Sufix -j
/a:
namas-ya-ti
>
namassati
he
reverences
metta-ya-ti
>
met t ay at i
he shows love
karuna-ya-ti
>
karunayati
he
feels pity
sahka-ya-ti
>
sahkayati
he
is uncertain
dola-ya-ti
>
dolayati
he
swings
b). Suffix -aya:
cira-aya-ti > cirayati he delays
piya-aya-ti > piyayati
he holds dear
107
macchara-aya-ti
> maccharayati
he
is jealous
pattiya-aya-ti
> pattiyayati
he
believes
raha-aya-ti
> rahayati
he
is lonely
mama-aya-ti
> mamayati
he
is fond of
c). Suffix -iya:
patti-iya-ti
> pattiyati
he
gains
atta-iya-ti
> attiyati
he
is worried
rasa-iya-ti
> rasiyati
he
delights in
d). Special cases:
hiri- : hiriyati /
hiriyati / harayati
'he
feels ashamed 1
dhuma-: dhumayati / dhumayati
'he
smokes'
e) . There are some verbs which, though denominative, show
no traces of the denominative suffix:
issa - issati he envies
gadha- gadhati he stands fast
paripanha- paripanhati he questions
magga - maggati he hunts
From maggati there is a present participle with the suffix of
the denominative: maggayamana.
f) . There is still another class of denominative verbs which
are usually classified as verbs of the tenth class:
tula-
tuleti
he weighs
van na-
vanned
he praises
udana-
udaneti
he utters
kama-
kameti
he desires
thoma-
thometi
he praises
cunna-
cunneti
he grinds
108
These verbs are distinguished from those formed with the suffix
-ya, -ayn, -lya in so far as they have the stem of the present in
-e, and further they are distinguished from the previous ones also
in meaning. While those mentioned above are usually intransitive,
those which end in -e are usually transitive.
From sukh
a- there is derived:
sukhayati
'he is pleased 1 .(intransitive)
sukheti / s
ukhayati 'he makes happy'
(transitive)
g). There
is finally another set of denominative verl
from onomatopoeic words:
muru-mura
murumurayati
he munches
gala-gahi-
galagafayati
thunders
ghuru-ghur.
[i- ghurughurayati
he snores
kili-kiji-
kilikifayati
tinkles
gar-gara-
gaggarayati
roars
citi-citi-
cilicitayati
hisses
ciccitayati
tata-tata-
tatatatayati
rattles
kim-kina-
kinakinayati
tinkles
INDEFINITE VERBAL FORMS
The Present Participle
94. Present participle parassapada. The present participle
parassapada is formed by adding the suffix - nt / -nta to the stem
of the present tense:
labha-
chinda-
labhant
chindant
/ labhanta
/ chi ml an tu
obtaining
breaking
109
jana- janant / jananta knowing
cintaya- cintayant / cintayanta thinking
The participle in -nt: labhant, chlndant, etc. forms the nomi-
native singular dropping the final dental and changing -n to niggahita:
labham, chin dam
In janant the final vowel is shortened since it becomes long
by position being followed by a consonant with which it makes
syllable: janant > janam
If the present stem ends in -e / -o, the present participle is
formed only with the suffix -nta;
dc-
de-nta >
denta
giving
dcse-
dcsc-nta >
desenta
preaching
cinte -
cm tc-n ta >
c intc nta
thinking
sakko-
sakko-nta >
sakkonta
being able
Thc stem
karo- has ka fonts, Dut there
is a particip
also from a stem kara karam / k iuanta. There is further a genitive
plural kurutam formed from a present stem kuru~.
The root as- has sam / santa 1 being \ The present participle
is an adjective and is declined like the stem in -nt: gaccham /
gacchanto (masc,), gacchantam (neuter), gacchanti (femin).
95. Present participle attanopada. The present participle attanopada
is formed with the suffix -mana added to the stem of the present
ending in -a:
labha-
kbha-mana > labhamana
obtaining
samvatta-
$amvatta~mana > sanivattamana
evolving
gaccha-
gaccha-mina > gacchamana
going
samvijja-
$a m vijja -mana > sa m vijja man a
existing
desiya-
desiya-mana > desiyamana
being preached
kayira-
kayira-mana > kayiramana
being done
no
vucca- vucca-tnana > vuccainana being said
The verbs that have the present stem in -e form the participle
attanopada from the stems in -aya:
cinte- i c'mtaya- cintayamana thinking
desc- i desaya- desayamana preaching
The stem so- has semana / say a m ana ‘lying down’ on the
analogy of the verbs of the tenth class.
The verb karoti has its present participle attanopada derived
from the stems kara- / kum-: karamana / kurumdna ‘doing'.
There are a few present participles attanopada formed with the
suffix -ana added to the stem of the present and, in some cases,
to the root of the verb:
esa-
esana
seeking
saya~
saydna
lying down
kubba-
kubbdna
doing
saddaha-
saddahana
believing
saiikhma-
sankhamm
preparing
thaha-
thahana
(anotthahdna)
not getting up
patthaya-
patthayana
wishing for
da~
dana
(anadana)
not taking
budh -
budhana
(abhisambudh ana )
attaining the
highest wisdom
Further as-
has asFna
‘sitting down',
The
Past
P a r t i c
i p 1 e
The past participle is an adjective and is formed with the suffix
-fa / -ns added to the root in its weak grade.
Ill
96. Past participle in -ta. The pasr participle is formed by
adding the suffix -ta
a) , to the root directly
b) . to the root by means of the connecting vowel -i
c) . to the stem of the present by means of the connecting
vowel -i.
a). The
direc
past participle i
tly to ihe root h
s formed by adding the suffix -
n its weak grade:
khya-
to speak
khata (akkbata)
da -
to give
data (pariyodata)
1 —
jna-
to know
nata, abhinnata
ya-
to go
yd ta
snii-
to bathe
nahata, nhata, ninhata
j-
lo go
ita t vita, atita, ape fa
kri-
to buy
ki ta
to sing
glta, sangita
ci-
to gather
cita } apacita, nicchita
ji~
to conquer
jita } parajita
ni-
to lead
nit a
bhi-
to be afraid
bblta
cyn-
to fall
cuta
hu-
to hear
s uta
siu-
to flow
sut a in avassuta
hn-
to sacrifice
hut a
bhu-
to be
bhuta
kf-
to do
kata i, avakata, purakkhata,
sankbata
112
dhf -
to
hold
bhr-
F
to
bear
mp
to
die
snip
to
remember
vr~
t
to
obtruct
sp
to
flow
stp
to
strew
hp
to
carry
vic-
to
be alone
sic-
to
sprinkle
muc-
to
release
prch-
to
ask
tyaj-
to
give up
raj-
to
dye
bhuj-
to
eat
yup
to
be endowed
mrp
to
clean
sfj-
to
let loose
vrt-
i?
to
go on
mad-
to
intoxicate
vid-
to
enjoy
badh-
to
bind
kudh-
to
be angry
budh-
to
be awake
rudh-
to
obstruct
dhata, uddhata
bhata
mata
sata, patissata
vata ( avata, vivata)
viita (avuta, samvuta)
sata , osata, n Is sat a
that a (santhata)
hata , uddhata
vitta (vivitta)
sitta
inutta
puttha
catta, pariccatta
ratta
bhutta
yutta
mattha
i l
sattha (osattha, nissattha)
vatta, vivatta , samvatta, vatta
matta
vitta
baddha
kuddha
buddha
ruddha
113
sudh-
to become dean
suddha
vrdh-
to grow
vaddha.
vaddha, vuddha, vuddha
tap-
to burn
tatta
\
i
ksip-
to throw
khitta
dip-
to kindle
aditta
lip-
to smear
litta
1 1
1 1
gup-
to protect
gutta
I
j i
np -
to be satisfied
titta
■
r |
labh -
to obtain
lad d ha
|l
p !
stabh-
to be firm
thaddha
II j
. i
1: j
lubh-
to be greedy
htddha
Srambh-
to be calm
saddha
(pas saddha)
$ms-
to praise
sattha
(pasattha / pa sattha )
£as-
to order
sittha
(a nu sittha)
das-
to bile
dattha
vis-
to enter
vittha
(ni vittha, pa vittha )
kM-
to be soiled
kilittha
dn f-
r
to see
dittha
|
dus-
to be soiled
dutiha
r
spfs-
to touch
phuttha
JS-
to desire
ittha
krus-
to blame
kuttha
(patikkuttha )
tus-
to be pleased
tuttha
pus-
to touch
puttha
kfs-
to plough
kattha
vrs-
to rain
vattha
5 i 1
j g
114
mrs-
to forget
mutt ha
duh-
to milk
duddha
nah-
to tie
naddha, onaddha
dah-
to burn
daddha
■ ■
gah-
to plunge
gal ha (ajjhogal
muh-
to be bewildered
mulha
ruh-
to climb
mlha, parulha
kmm-
to move
kanta (atikkanta, ab
klam-
to be weary
kilanta
vam-
to throw out
vanta
$ram-
to be calm
santa
The past participle paruta comes from apa-a-vr- in 1
given rise to ~ru and the initial
vowel has been droppe
present tense of this verb is
parupati.
h), Some
roots ending in -m /
-n are weakened in the 1
of the
: past participle:
gam-
to go
gata
na iii-
to bend
nata
yam -
to restrain
yata , sanhata
ram-
to delight
rata
han-
to kill
hata, samuhata
man -
to think
mata
khan-
to dig
khata
jan-
to bear
jata
c). Roots that contain a sonant -y/-v preceding the root vowel
are also weakened in the formation of the past participle.
The formation is as follows: the root vac- is weakened
by dropping the vowel -a, hence vc - the sonant -v
115
becomes a vowel when followed by a consonant, hence uc:
uc-ta > utta. But since in Pali a word beginning with ir-
is often pronounced with a preceding v- 3 hence utta > vutta.
The same is the formation when the root contains a vowel
preceded by y~.
yu.h
to sacrifice
ij-ta > iuha > yittha
vuc-
to speak
uc-ta > utta > vutta
vap-
to sow
up-ta > utta > vutta
vas-
to dwell
us-ta > uttha > vuttha
vah-
to carry
uh-ta > iijha > vulha
vyadh-
to pierce
vidh-ta > viddha
svap-
to sleep
sup-fa > sutta
d). Some roots form Lhi
-fa added with the
form:
s past participle by means of the suffix
connecting vowel -i / -i to their weak
dha-
to place
h-i-ta > hita, ohita with the loss
of the occlusion
pu-
to drink
p-i-ta > pita
ma-
to measure
m-i-ta > mita
va-
to weave
v-i-ta > vita
sa-
to bind
s-i-ta > sita
sth a-
to stand
th-i-ta > thita
vad-
to speak
ud-i-ta > udita
vas-
to dwell
us-i-ta > usiia > vusita
gvah-
to take
gah-i-ta > gahita
id-
to know
vid-i-ta > vidita
kup-
to be annoyed
kup-i-ta > kupha
mud-
to rejoice
mud-i-ta > mudita
116
e). The past participle can be formed also with the suffix
-fa added to th stem of the present by means of the
connecting vowel -i. In the older literature this participle
is formed from the verbs of the tenth class, from causative,
intensive and desiderative verbs, and from some simple
verbs, especially those in which the present stem ends in
two consonants or in a consonant preceded by a long vowel.
In some cases it is difficult to distinguish whether the past
participle is formed from the root or from the present stem
since the two coincide as in pat-kta > patita.
In the later literature every verb can take this participle since
this becomes the easiest way of forming it. The final vowel of the
stem of the present is dropped.
yaca-
to ask
yac-kta
>
yacita
nanda-
to rejoice
nand-i-ta
>
nandita
pasamsa-
to praise
pasams-kta
! >
pasamsita
rakkha-
to protect
rakkh-kta
>
takkhka
1
S
i
to learn
sikkh-i-ta
>
sikkhita
dese-
to preach
des-kta
>
desita
puje-
to honour
puj-kta
>
pujita
vanne-
to praise
vann-kta
>
vannita
There are a few cases in which the past participle has been
formed from the stem of the present in -aya:
vedaya- to feel vedayita
khadaya- to cause to eat khadayita
patthaya- to desire patthayita
further, some causative verbs do not add the vowel -/.*
pannapeti pan nap- ta > pannatta, sannatta
anapesi anap-ta > anatta
117
jhapeti
jhap-ta
> jhatta
khaiveti
kanta
da met i
dan fa
97. Past participle in -na. The past participle can also be formed
by adding the suffix -na to the root of the verb. This past participle
is formed from
a), roots ending in -
n, f:
Ik to
slick
Una
ksk to
waste away
khtna
/ii- to
cut
tuna
kr- to
scatter
kir-na > kin pa
jf- to
become old
jlr-na > jinn a
If - to
cross
tjr-na > tinna
pr- to
be filled
pur-na > punna
The root car- has also a
anucinna, acinna.
past participle in -na: cir-ua > cinm,
b). some roots ending in -d;
chad-
to cover
channa
pad-
to go
panna, uppanna. sampanna
sad-
to sit
pas anna but nisinna
syad-
to flow
sanna (ussanna)
skand-
to jump
khanna (pakkhanna)
chid-
to cut
chinna
hhid-
to break
bl linns
nud-
to push
nunna, mnma, panunna
tud-
to prick
tunna
118
rud- to cry runna
svid- to perspire sinna
c) . some roots in -g / -j;
lag- to adhere lag-na > iagga
bhnj- lo break bhaj-na > bhag-na > bhagga
samvij- to be agitated $amvij-na > samvig-na > samvigga
mmuj- to sink down nimuj-na > nimug-na > nimugga
luj- to crumble paluj-na > pahtg-na > palugga
d) . The root muc- has also a past participle in -na: muc-na
> muk-na > mukka.
The root ha- has the past participle in -na with the connecting
vowel -jf; h-i-na > hina.
The root da- has dinna formed from the a reduplicated
weakened root, the reduplication being effected with the vowel -
i: did-na > dinna , samadinna.
98. From the examples given it is clear that some verbal roots
have more than one participle: car-: carita / cinna; ha- : hina / jahita;
rad-: runna / rudita / rod it a.
Sometimes the various participles are semantically different.
The root svid-: sinna ‘wet with perspiration 1 , siddha * cooked’.
Past Participle Active
99. In Pali there are a few forms of the active past participle.
This is formed by adding the suffix -vant / - avin to the past
participle:
vusita
bhutta
vusita vant
bhuttavin
one who has lived
one who has eaten
i
119
vijita vijitavin one who has conquered
samita samitavin one who is calm
These participles are declined like the stem in -ant i -in.
There are also some other stray forms belonging to this par-
ticiple: vidii, vidva, viddasu, dassiva , dassavi
Future Participle
Passive
100. Formation of the future participle passive. The future
participle passive is formed
a) , by adding to the root in its guna grade one of the suffixes
1 . - tabba
2. - aniya / - aneyya
3 . - taya / -tayya / -teyya
b) , by adding to the root in its guna grade the suffix -ya either
directly or by means of the connecting vowel 4;
by adding the
suffix ■
-tabba to the stem of the present tense
by means of
the connecting
vowel -I,
a), 1 . jna~
to
know
hatabba
da-
to
give
databba
ha-
to
abandon
hatabba
ul-
to
lead
netabba
► ►
P-
to
conquer
jetahba
bhu-
to
be
hotabba, pari bho tabba
£r li-
to
hear
sotabha
ke-
F
to
do
kar-tabba > kattabba,
ka tabba
120
to carry
har-tabba > hattabba,
hatabba
gam-
to go
gantabba
han-
to kill
hantabba
labb-
to obtain
labh-tabba > laddbabba
dps-
to see
dars-tabba > dauhabba
vas-
to live
vas-tabba > vatthabba
sprs-
to touch
has photthabba.
grah-
to lake
has gahetabba.
gam-
to go
gamanlya (adhigamaniyi
bhu-
to be
bbavaniya
lubh-
to covet
lobhaniya (lobhaneyya )
kv-
t
to do
karaniya
dn i-
■r
to see
dars-aniya > dassaniya
/ dassaneyya
puj-
to reverence
pujaniya
Only a few verbs have the future participle passiv
in -taya, -taya, - teyya :
jha-
to know
hat ay a / n a teyya
diA-
to see
dars-taya > datthaya
ap-
to reach
pattayya / pat teyya
Similarly; ghatetayam, japetayam, pabbajetayam (MN II p, 122}
b). The future participle passive is also formed with the suffix
-ya added to the root in its guna grade either directly or
by means of the connecting vowel -it
him- to be bhav-ya > bhabba
ban- to kill han-va >
hahha
Wiid-
to break
bhed-yc i
>
bhejja
bhuj-
to eat
bhoj-ya
>
bhojja
n-
to conquer
je-ya
>
jeyya
ni-
to lead
ne-ya
>
neyya, upanlya
The vowel of the root has remained unchanged in guh-ya >
guy ha,
The suffix -ya is added with the connected vowel -i when
the root ends in two consonants:
rales- to protect rakkh-i-ya > rakkhiya
kamp- to shake kamp-i-ya > kampiya
sank- to doubt sahk-i-ya > sahkiya
The suffix -ya is also added to some verbs in -a. In this case
the final vowel -a is contracted with -i and then the following
-y is doubled;
da-
to vie
£\
&3|
c
,
'S
V
8*
'i
> deyya
dha-
to place
dba-i-ya > dhe-ya
> dheyya
jha-
to know
ha-i-ya > he-ya
> heyya
ma-
to measure
ma-i-ya > mc-ya
> meyya
pa-
to drink*
pa-i-ya > pe-ya
> peyya
Since lih- ‘to lick’ was sometimes opposed to pa- ‘lo drink’,
a future participle passive has been formed from lih- on the analogy
of peyya : Icyyu,
Further from the stem of the present sakkuna- there is sakkuneyya.
The root kr- has a future participle passive with the insertion
of -f; kr-t-ya > kwea .
In a few eases the vowel -a of the first syllable is lengthened
whether the vowel belongs to the root or to a prefix:
rar-i-va
> kariya (akariya)
> hariya (a sain hariya )
> garayha
"f m *° carry hariya > hariya (asatnhariya )
garb- to blame garab-ya > garayha
prasams- to praise prasams-ya > pa sains a
pratikanks- to wish tor paiikhank-ya > patikahkha
In the future participle passive of tikicchati, the vowel of the
first syllable is lengthened; tekwcha,
From the root hr- there is hariya in the compound asamhariya.
There is also the form derived from the passive stem:
asam-hir-ya > asamhisra > asamhira.
c). The future participle passive is formed with the suffix
-tabba added to the stem of the present with the connecting
vowel -/:
garaha-
to blame
garahitabba
puccha -
to ask
pucchi tabba
nacca-
to dance
naccitabba
pujaya-
to reverence
pujayitabba
Besides pujayitabha there is also pujetabba in which the group
~ayi is contracted to -e. Similarly codeUibba, napetabba , thapmbba,
rope tab ha, etc.
Past Gerund
101. Formation of the past gerund. The past gerund is an
indeclinable word and is formed by adding the suffix
a) , -tva to the root
b) . -tva to the root by means of the connecting vowel
4
c) . -tva to the stem of the present by means of the
connecting vowel 4
d) . -ya to the root of compound verbs
e) . -ya to the stem of the present of compound verbs
f) . -tvana / -fund / -yana
a). The suffix -tva added to the root:
da-
to give
da tva
jna-
to know
iiatva
sna-
to bathe
nab a tva
bhu-
to be
bhutva
/ hutva
sru-
to hear
su tva
kr-
to do
katva
han-
to kill
hantva
gam-
to go
gantva
vac-
to speak
vac-tva
> vatva
muc-
to release
muc-tva
> mutva
labh-
to obtain
labh-tva
> laddha
Some roots containing tho vowel -i / -i / -u change their vowel
to -e / -o respectively in the formation of the past gerunds:
ji- to conquer jctva
ilJ- to lead netva
chid- to cut chetva
bhid - to break bhetva
bhuj - to eat bhutva i bhotva
The root drs- has disva. Other extremely rare forms derived
from dii- arc dattha, a-dittha, dattha.
b). the suffix - tva added to the root by means of the con-
necting vowel «/;
125
In some of those gerunds the final group -aya is sometimes
contracted to -a: abbinnaya / abhinna, upadaya / upada.
2. When a root ends in -/ / -i, this -r / -/ is changed to
-e and the following -y is doubled:
vi-ci- to investigate vki-ya > vkeyya
vi-ni- to remove vifii-ja > vineyya
The root bhu- shortens the final vowel and doubles the -y:
abhibhu-ya abhibhuyya, On the same pattern seems to be built the
past genmd pappuyya < pi a sip.
3. When the root ends in a short vowel, the consonant -/ is
inserted between the root and the suffix -ya;
parks-
to
set out
pan-t-t-ya
>
parwea
prati-k
to
go back
pafhi-t-ya
>
pa ticca
pra-i-
to
go beyond
pra-i-t-ya
>
pecca
ava-i-
to
go down
ava-i-t-ya
>
avccca
sat-kf-
to
honour
sat-kr-t-ya
>
sakkacca, patikac
a-han-
to
strike
a-ha-t-ya
>
ahacca
fi-hr-
to
carry
a-hf-t-ya
>
abac c a
Sometimes the guttural of patikacca is softened; hence patigacca,
e). The suffix -ya may also be added to the stem of the present
by means of the connecting vowel -i. This is usually the
case when it is question of the verbs of the tenth class or
of the causative verbs and also of the verbs in which the
stem of the present tense ends in two consonants, or in
a consonant preceded by a long vowel, or in an -r / -h:
to pierce
pa daky a > padaliya
viraje- to put away vkaj-ya > virajiya
nisida- to sit nisid-ya > nkidiya
F
126
pakira- to scatter
abhiruha- to mount
pakir-ya > pakiriya
a bhiruh -ya > nbhimyha
Vitatati forms a past gerund from the present stem vitareyya
on the analogy of the past gerund like vineyya, viccyya,
f) . There are three other suffixes that are used to form the
past gerund, these are generally found in poetry. The
suffixes are -tvana, -Hina, -yana: gantvana /gun tuna, katvana
fkatuna , bhutvana, hutvana, laddhana, natvana t hattina, jSnituna,
uttariymm < uttarati, ovaiiyana < ova rati, ovadiyana < ovadati.
g) . The distinction between the simple and the compound verbs
is not always observed in the formation of the past gerund,
and hence simple verbs somtimes take the suffix -ya, while
compound verbs very often lake the suffix -fra.
*■ ■'T' —
jna~
nay a
pra-ap-
pa tva, papunitva
cint-
cin tiya
nislda-
nisiditva
bhas -
bhasiya
viraje-
virajetva
bhunj-
bhunjiya
upasankam
upasankamitva
chadde-
chaddiya
sandhSva-
sandhavitva
h). There :
present
are several gerunds formed from the stem of the
of passive verbs both simple and compounded:
chijja-
chijjitva
pacca-
paced va
I n f
i n i t i v
e
102. Formation of the infinitive. The infinitive is formed
a), by means of the suffix -turn
1- added directly to the root in its guna grade
2. added to the stem of the present by means of the connecting
vowel d
3. added directly to the present stem in -e / -o.
127
b). by means of the suffixes -tave, - tuye , -taye. -fa.se added
to the root in its guna grade or to the present stem with
the connecting vowel
a). L
gu
The suffix -turn
ha grade:
added directly to the root in its
da-
to give
datum
jna-
to know
datum
m-
to lead
nctutn
kri-
tu buy
ketum (vikketum)
fru-
to hear
sot it m
bhu-
to be
ho turn
kr-
to do
kartum > kattum / katutn
hr-
to carry
hartum > hattum / datum
gam-
to go
gantum
preeb-
to ask
puttbum
drs-
to see
datthum
■1 I* 1
y<y-
to sacrifice
yattbum
vas-
to dwell
vattbum
The infinitive of grab- is
gahetum.
2. Tile sul
Tlx -turn added to the present stem with the vowel
bha va-
to be
bha vitum
puccha-
to ask
pucchkum
papuni-
to reach
papunitum
pas$a-
to see
pass! turn
3. The stiff
ix -turn added
to the present stem in -e / - o ;
128
cintc - to think cintetum
dese- to preach desctum
sodhe- to clean sodhetutn
pappo- to reach pappotum
b). Suffixes -fave, -fuye, -taye, -lane are ased in a few cases
only:
ha-
lo abandon
ha lave (pahatave)
i-
to go
etave / etase
nk
to lead
net a ve
kru-
to hear
sola vc
gam-
to ^o
xantave
hr-
to carry
hatave
hhu-
to be
havituye i hetuye
Hlf-
to die
mat ituye
drs-
to see
dakkhitaye
pivch-
to ask
pucchitaye
129
CHAPTER VII
INDECLINABLE WORDS
The indeclinable words are the adverbs, the prepositions, the
conjunctions, and the interjections,
103, Adverbs. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning
or the application of a verb or of a whole sentence. The adverbs
may be divided according to their meaning and according to the way
they are built up.
a). According to their meaning the adverbs may be divided
into:
1. Adverbs of time: yada 'when', kada 'when', tad a 'then',
yato 'since’, tato 'afterwards’, ito ’from now’, yav a ’how long’,
tava ’so long', ajja 'today', ajjato ’from today’, adhuna ’lately',
aparajju ’on the following day 1 , pato 'early 1 , atippago ’too early',
diva 'by day’, ratto 'by night', atha 'then', puna 'again 1 , eta rah i
’now’, carahi ’now’, pure 'formerly 1 , bhutapubbam 'formerly’,
anupubbam 'gradually', tirarattaya 'for a long time', eirassam 'for
a long time', kadaci kadaci ’from time to time’, kadaci karahaci 'at
times', puna ca param ’again’, ekam samayam ’at one time', aparena
’in future 1 , aparaparain 'again and again', antarantari 'from time
to time', etc.
130
2. Adverbs of place; tatra, tattha , tahim , taham ’there', fa to
'thence', kutra, kuttha, kuhim 'where', kuto ’whence', yattha ’where 1 ,
uddham ’above 1 , adho 'below', tiriyam 'across', sabbadhi 'every-
where 1 , idha ’here’, p ura to 'in front 1 , hettha 'below 1 , pilthito
'behind 1 , ahhatra, annattha ’somewhere else 1 , ubha yattha ’in both
places', amutra ’in that place 1 , pacinato ’to the east', dakkhinato
’to the south’, abhito 'all round’, etc.
3. Adverbs of manner; evam, tatha ’thus’, katham ’how',
yatha ’as 1 , sahasa 'hastily', slgham 'quickly 1 , vegeim, vegasa
'hurriedly', sanlwna ’softly 1 , anupubbena ’gradually’, add ha ’cer-
tainly', sukhatp ’happily', sakkaccam ’respectful ly’, musa ‘falsely 1 ,
abhikkhanam 'constantly 1 , tunhi ’silently’, sajju, sajjukam 'quickly',
sfidhukam 'well', etc.
4. Adverbs of quantity, extent, degree: atlva, ativiya 'ex-
cessively 1 , yava 'how much', tava 'so much', yavata 'as far as',
tavata 'so tar', ettavata 'to such an extent’, yebhuyyetm 'generally',
tikkhattum 'three times', paheaso 'in five ways’, catuggunam
'fourfold', antamaso 'even', bhiyyoso 'greatly', mattaso ’ moderately
ahhadatthu ’surely', etc.
5. Adverbs of cause or reason; tena, tena hi 'hence 1 , tasma
'therefore', kasma ’why’, yatha 'thus 1 , yato, tato ’hence', tato
njdanam, yatvadlukaranam ’on account of that', yatha katham pana
’how indeed’, etc.
6. Other adverbial particles: ahga, api 'indeed', kira ’indeed',
kho 'then 1 , hi ’thus', almn 'enough 1 , nama ’indeed 1 , ingha 'well',
taggha 'surely', yagghe ’surely', pana 'indeed', atha ’then’, etc.
104. Formation of adverbs: The adverbs may be formed in
various ways:
a). Adverbs formed from the pronouns. Many adverbs are
formed by adding an adverbial ending to the stem of the
pronouns or of pronominal adjectives:
131
-fra; tatra, kutra, yatra , a fra, ahhatra
-ttha: tattha, yattha , kuttha, itiha, ettha , kattha, annattha,
vbhayattha
-to: ito , tato, yato, kuto, sabbato, otto
- tham ; yatha m, katham, Ittham
-tha: yatha, tatha , katha, ahhatha, sabbatha
-da: tadii, yada, kada, kud<% sabbada
-dani: idani
-dim: idha
-ha: iha
-dhi: sabbadhi
- rahi : ctarahi, tarahi, carahi
-him: kuhim, tahim
-ham: taham
Kit- is an alternative stem of kil-
ty, Adverbs formed from nouns and adjetives.
-to: dakkhinato
-so: bhagaso, yon iso * salmso, bhiyyoso, paheaso
-dha: okadhi, paheadha
-khattmn: tikkhattum
c). Nouns, pronouns, adjectives used adverbially. Nouns, pro-
nouns and adjetives may be used adverbially in the accu-
sative case, and sometimes also in another case.
P
Accusative case: sukhmn, dukkham, slgham, sanikam, kamam,
ciram, pubbam
Instrumental case: vegona, aggena, dhammena, kkchena, kasirena,
kilena, anupubbena, vegasa, tena , eirena,
yavata, tavata, et tavata
1
132
Ablative case:
Dative case:
Genitive case:
tasmi, purfi , antara, paccha
ciraya > svatanaya, ajjhatamya
cirassa, divassa , kalassi i
Locative case: dure, avidure , agge, pubbe, anfare, pure
1 he adverbs cf/Va, ratfo are derived directly from Sanskrit and
are an instrumental and a locative case respectively.
From the genitive cirassa a new adverb has been formed with
the accusative neuter ending: cirassam.
d), Other adverbs. Some other adverbs, which in Pali appear
as indeclinable words, are old stems of case forms of norms
or adjectives:
pato, anto, adho
tiro, paro, pure , sve , sajju
bahi f iivi
patu t patur
105, Prepositions, In Pali the prepositions have practically dis-
appeared. There are only a few rare cases in which ami, pad, adhi
are used preceded or followed by an accusative,
The absence of true prepositions in Pali is made good in various
a). Many ade verbs are used prepositions lly. The most common
are:
governing the accusative: antara t paccha, yava, visa, sa manta
governing the instrumental: annatra , vina, saddhim, saha
governing the genitive: hettha, ant arena, upari , pure ,
sam&nt&to, avidure
governing the ablative: ara, araka , uddham, oram, pabhuti,
pat aiu t paccha, yiva, adho.
b) , Several nouns indicating time, place, cause, manner, arc
used in the sense of prepositions with the noun they govern
in the genitive case or forming with them a lappurisa
samasa: samipa , santika, sakasa, kala , akara, saimnukha ,
abhiimikha , hetu, mdanam , vasena, atthaya, accayena , etc.
c) . Several past gerunds are also used as prepositions:
av a, ganetva
anvaya , upadaya, pa dec a, agamina on account of, because
muheitva, munciya , thapetva leaving, except, besides
muheitva, munciya , thapetva leaving, except, besides
arabbha, sandhaya, abisandhaya beginning with, referring
nrssaya, upamssaya
patthaya
uddissa
near, by means of, on
account of
from
with respect to, for the
sake of
Of these past gerunds, patthaya governs the ablative case, all
the others govern the accusative case,
d). Sometimes even other verbal forms express the idea that
would be expressed by a preposition: sahita 'with', sampanna
'with', gat a 'regarding', sampassamana 'for the sake of.
106. Conjunctions, A conjunction is a word used to point out
the relation that exists between two notions expressed by two or
more nouns or adjectives or pronouns or verbs or adverbs or sen-
tences, The conjunction may be co-ordi native or subordinate,
a) , Co-ordi native conjunctions: ca, udahu, atha , va, tathapi,
va...va, api . api.
b) . Subordinate conjunctions: sace, ce\ yadi , yathft, yatra hi
nama, va yadi va.
!34
it
107, Interjections, Interjections Eire words indicating feelings of
joy, sadness, anger, or words used to call the attention of someone:
aho, jc t re, dhi, ingha , jfie, aho niwa, a ho vata, yagghe, taggha,
ambho.
As interjections Eire also used mahhe s bhane ’1 think' and ’I
say 1 (first person attanopada of the present indicative).
[7
I;
i
r
135
CHAPTER VIII
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
108. Derivation. In a grammatical form we distinguish the stem
and the case or personal endings. In the stem, again, we distinguish
the root and the suffixes. A root is the ultimate core of the word
which carries the fundamental meaning of that word. The suffixes
are primary elements without a meaning of their own and without
an independent existence of their own; they modify the fundamental
meaning of the root.
Traditional grammar has divided all the words into primary
derivatives, or kitaka, and secondary derivatives* or taddhita.
a) . The primary derivatives are those that have been built up
by the addition of one suffix to the root; the secondary
derivatives are those that arc formed by the addition of
one or more suffixes to a primary derivative.
b) . The suffixes that form the primary or kitaka derivatives
have been divided into kicca and kit a suffixes. The kicca
suffixes are those used to form the future participle passive,
while the kite suffixes arc those used to form other
primary derivatives.
136
c). The secondary or taddhita derivatives have often been
divided into sarnanna-taddhita, bhava-taddhita, and avyaya-
taddhita. The sammna-taddhita include words having a
variety oi meanings: lineage (apaccattha), possession
(atthyattha), numerals (sankhya), and several other mean-
ings (anckattha). The bhava-taddhita include words that
point out a quality or a state us is indicated by the suffixes
-fit, -tt<% - ya , The avyaya-taddhka include the adverbs.
The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes is not
of great importance since the same suffixes may be used both os
primary and as secondary: the suffix -a in khlp-a is primary while
in silavant-a is secondary. Further the distinction between a primary
and a secondary derivative as made by the older grammarians, does
not always coincide with the conclusions of modern grammarians
who have subjected the nature and the structure of the suffixes to
a more careful analysis. And it is some of the results of modern
grammar that will be brought, as far as possible, within the reach
ol the student. And in doing so, the roots of the words and the
suffixes will usually be given in their Sanskrit form; for it is only
by doing so that the pattern of the phonological changes becomes
clear.
109* Suffixes. A suffix is a primary element. Hence any pho-
neme found in the language may have been used as a suffix. In
practice only a limited number of phonemes have actually been used.
.a), Simple suffixes. The most common simple suffixes used
in Pali are: -a. -a, -/, -i, -u, -ii, -r, -n, -s, -t, -m, -k, A
suffix may appear in its weak grade, or in its guna grade,
and sometimes even in its vrddhi grade; v.g. the suffix -
i may appear as i:ay;ay; the suffix -n may appear as
n:an;$n.
b). Compound suffixes. When two suffixes are joined together
in such a way that the first is always in the zero grade
while the second appears in the zero or guna or vrddhi
grade, then the suffix is called a compound suffix. Thus
137
when the suffix -i is combined with the suffix n:an;an f
the new suffix is called a compound suffix, that is: in:yan;yan.
c) . Extended suffixes. If a suffix, simple or compound, is
extended with another in its zero grade, then the new suffix
is called an extended suffix; v.g. ag-n-i > agni > aggi. Hut
the most common extension in the language is obtained
with the thematic vowel -a which is in its guna grade.
The simple suffix n:an:an may be extended with the suffix
-a: n-a:an-a:an: a i.e. na:ana:ana, Similarly the compound
suffix in:yan:yan may be extended with the suffix -a: in-
a:yan-a:yan-a i.e. ina:yana:yana,
d) . Though originally the suffixes had no special meaning of
their own, yet some of them gradually acquired a special
meaning. Thus the suffix -ka i -aka is used to convey the
idea of smallness or of contempt: pnttaka ‘little child”,
gamaka "little village’, samanaka ‘a sorry specimen of
a recluse’,
c). Just as the suffix, so also the root may appear in its zero,
guna or even vrddhi grade: ksip-a > klupa ‘throw’ is in
the zero grade; while khep-ana > khepana ‘throwing’ is
its guna grade; rmw mar-ana : mar-a in the guna and vrddhi
grade.
When a root ends in -c / -j t some of the derivatives retain
the palatal consonants while others change them to their correspond-
ing guttural consonants: pac-: pacana / pak-a ‘cooking’, bhuj- :
bhojana ‘food’ and bhoga ‘wealth’.
110. Root steins. There are a few root stems in Pali which are
very rarely used; vac- ‘word’ used in the instrumental case vac-
a >vaca; vak- ‘speech’ in vak-karana; pad- ‘fool’ in pad-a, pad-
am; dis- ‘region’ in dis-o, dis-am; path- ‘road’ in path-i; ji-
‘ conqueror’ in sadgamaji.
111, Suffix -a. The suffix -a is used to form both nouns and
adjectives, It is added to the root in its weak or guna or vrddhi
138
grade, and sometimes even to the present stem of a verb. Further
it is used to turn a noun into an adjective in a bahubblhi samasa
and is used also to split a consonant group. Some of these derivatives
are used alone and some are used only at the end of compounds.
a). Roots in their weak grade:
krs-a > kisa lean
ksip-a > khipa throw
chid -a
> chida
destroying
; manacchida
destroying pride
vis-a
> visa
entering
nibbisa
wages
d-a
> da
5d>
- i 1
>
* i 1
sukbada
giving happiness
g-a
> ga
going
uraga
snake
sth-a
> tha
standing
pabbatattha
standing on the
mountain
> pa
drinking
pa da pa
tree (drinking at
the foot)
drs-a
> disa
seeing
duddasa
difficult to see
b). Roots in their guna grade:
1 *
> jay-a
> jaya
victory
i-a
> ay-a
> a/a
going udaya going up
ci~a
> cay-a
> cay a
heap
kri-a
> kray-a
> kaya
purchase
ksip-a
> ksep-a
> j khepa
throwing
vi d-a
> vc d-a
> veda
feeling
yudh-a
> yodh-a
> yodha
soldier
knidh-a
> krodh-a
> krodha
anger
muh-i i
> moh-a
> moha
foolishness
muh-a
> mogh-a
> mogha
foolish
du-a
l
A
> dava
fire
i
139
dsu-a
> drav-a
> dava
running
budh-a
> bodli-a
> bod ha
understanding
duranubodha
difficult to understand
kr-a
> kar-a
> kara
sukara
doing
easy to do
dtp- a
> darp-a
> dappa
arrogance
grah-a
> grah-a
> gaha
taking
argh-a
> argh~ a
> aggha
value
aiic-a
> mik-a
> ai\ka
hook
gam- a
> gam-a
> gama
going
dura n gam a
going far
c). Roots in their vrddhi grade:
i-a
> ay~a
> aya
goi ng ni-aya> nyaya> nhayn
> fiaya method
ip a
> tar-a
> iara
crossing avatara coming down
jfir-a
> har-a
> hara
holding vihara monastery
fras-a
> tras-a
> trasa
fear uttasa fear
vad-a
> vad-a
> vada
speech
vas-a
> vas-a
> vasa
dwelling
raj - a
> rag-a
> raga
passion
tvaj-a
> tyag-a
> ciig< i
liberality
pad -a
> pad-a
> pada
going uppada arising
ram -a
> ram -a
> rama
arama
delighting
place of delights
d). Stem of the present tense:
dad-a
dada
giving
dvddada difficult to give
jah-a
jaha
abandoning
sabbanjaha giving up all
munc-i
i mrmca
releasing
duppamuiica difficult to release
140
e). Bahubbihi sttmasa: anguli ‘finger’ but dvahgula ‘a
breadth of two fingers’. akfchi ‘eye’ but apparajakkha ‘one
who has little dust in his eyes’-
i). Insertion of ~a: garh-a > garaha ‘blame’, arh-a > araha
‘worthy of.
N.B. In a few cases the suffix - a is alternative to -as in
ap-a ‘austerity’.
112. The suffix 4, The suffix -a is used to form
a) , abstract nouns
b) . the feminine of all the adjective in - a
c) . some adverbs.
a). Abstract nouns. In forming abstract nouns the suffix 4
is added to the root which appears with a vowel long either
by nature or by position, or with a vowel either in the guna
or in the vrddhi grade.
knd-a
> kila
play
nind-a
> modi
blame
hims-a
> bimsa
harm
ulk-a
> ukka
torch
sank-8
> sanka
doubt
sev-a
> seva
service
day-a
> days
pity
jar-a
> jam
old age
dos-M
> dosi
evening
kham-a
> khama
patience
ksam-a
> chama
earth
as-i
> asa
wish
ebay-a
> chaya
shadow
141
bhas-a > bhasa speech
s akh-a > sikM branch
N.B, In parts a the final vowel -a stands for -ad; pan sad >parisa
‘assembly’.
b) . Feminine of adjectives.
manapa > manapa beloved
gala > gat'd gone
gacchaniana > gacchamana going
c) . Adverbs.
pur-a
> pur a
formerly
sad -a
> sadd
always
l
i
yi-
> mu si
falsely
113. The suffix -i. The suffix
a) , may be added to a root in its weak or guna or even vrddhi
grade to form masculine, feminine and neuter nouns
b) . may be used as a connecting vowel
c) , may be extended with the thematic vowel
d) may be compounded with other suffixes,
a). The suffix -i added to a root:
sue-/
> suci
shining
rue-/
> ruci
light
rs-i
> isi
seer
krs-i
> kasi
ploughin
mim-i
> muni
sage
agn-i
> aggi
fire
as-i
> asi
sword
ah-i
> ahi
snake
aks-i > akkbi
eye
asth-i > atthi
bone
var-i > van
water
nftbh-i > nabhi
navel
raj-i > raji
line
vas-i > vasi
sharp knife
b). The suffix -i as
connecting vowel:
sth-i-ta > thita
1
standing
gaccb-i-ta > gacchiu
? gone
sur-yn > suriya
sun
pap -y as > papiyo
more sinful
c), The suffix -i extended with the thematic vowel -a, i.e.
i-a
> ya, i-a
> ya:
div-i-a
> divya
> dibba
divine
sat- i-a
> satya
> sacca
truth
adit- t-a
> aditya
> adicca
sun
vid-i-a
> vidya
> vijja
knowledge
kan -i-a
> kanya
> kanna
maiden
-i-a
> maya
magic
power
ia-i-a
>
km
wife
The suffix - ya has been used to form the future participle
passive. It is usually, though not always, added to the root in its
guna grade;
bhid-ya > bhed-ya > bhejja to be broken
bhuj-ya > bhoj-ya > bhojja to be eaten
bhu-ya > bhav-ya > bhabba to be capable of
143
han-ya
> hanna to
be killed
gab- y a
> guhya > guy ha to
be hidden
The suffix -ya has been very frequently used to form secondary
neuter nouns from adjectives. These adjectives lake the vrddhi of
the first syllable unless the vowel is long by position:
nipun-ya
> nepun-ya > tiepunn a
skill
kusal-ya
> kosabya > kosalla
proficiency
pandit-ya
> pandkca
erudition
anant-ya
> a nancy a > ananca
infinity
dussil-ya
> dussilya
weakedness
The suffix -ya is also used to form
and adverbial particles:
adjectives from adverbs
tatha
> tath-ya > taccha
true
akincana
> akihcan-ya > akincanna
nothingness
d). The suffix -i can be compounded with other suffixes:
i-r
> bah-i-r > bah i
outside
i-ra
> ruc-i-ra > mcira
bright
> mdh-i-ra > rudhira
red
> badh-i-ra > badhira
deaf
> sth-i-ra > thira
firm
i- n
> gam-i-n > gamin
going
> car-i-n > carin
moving
> hast-i-n > batthin
elephant
i-na
> daks- i-na > dakkhina
i l
south
i-na
> daks- i-na > dakkhina
gift
N.B. instead of -ira sometimes we find -Ha: sithik 'loose 1 ,
sali la ‘water’.
144
H sa >
mah-i-sa
mahi&a
buffalo
Jn pur-y-
9a the suffix ■
isa corresponds to the
Sanskrit -usa
in kar-i-h
the vowel
has been lengthened:
karisa “dung*.
> yas:
bhud-as
> bbuyas
> bhuyo,
bhuyyo
/ bhiyyo
more
pap- i -as
> papyas
> papiyo
more sinful
i-s-tha:
pap- i-s-tha
> papittha
most sinful
kail- i-s-tha
> kanittha
youngest
hta:
roh-i-ta
> rohita
/ lohita
red
har-i-ta
> harita
green
i-ta:
sar-i-ta
> sarita
river
i-ma
pur-i~ma
> purima
former
ant -km a
> antima
last
The suffix -i. The suffix -i is added to form
a) , nouns
b) f the feminine of nouns whose stem ends in -a
c) , the feminine of adjectives with stems in consonant
d) . the feminine of ordinal numerals from four upwards
e) . some adverbs from thematic stems
145
c). The suffix -I used to form the feminine of nouns and
adjectives with the stem in consoant:
!
hatthin >
hatthini
female elephant
raj an >
raj ini
queen
sflavant >
silavati
virtuous
carant >
caranti
moving about
d). The suffix -i used to form the feminine of ordinals:
vatuttha
> catutthi
fourth
pancama
> pancami
fifth
1
ekadasanw
> ekadasami
eleventh
ckadasa
> ckadasi
eleventh
e). The suffix -I used to form adverbs from thematic stem:
baia
> ball
1
dubbalikarana weakening
missa
> mis si
missihhiitii become mixed up
kaddama
> kaddami .
kaddamikatam turned into mud
sita
> siti
sitibhuto become tranquil
115. The suffix -u, The suffix -u
a) , is used to form nouns and adjectives
b) . is used to split up a consonant group
c) . is extended with other suffixes
d) . is compounded with other suffixes
a). The suffix -u used to form nouns and adjectives:
inadh-u
> madhu
honey
ay -n > ayu
life
vas-u
> vasu
wealth
jan-u > janu
knee
han-u
> hanu
jaw
d£r~u > dam
wood
mud-ii
> mudu
soft
sadb-u> sadhu
good
If
146
b) . The suffix -u used to split a consonant group:
padma > paduma lotus
brahmna > brahmuna with Brahma
c) h Suffix -u extended with suffixes -a, -a, -i
u~a> va, iba> va, u-i> vi.
as-u-a > asva > assa horse
pac-v-a > pakva > pakka ripe
pur-u-a > purva > pubba former
urdh-u-a > urdhva > uddha above
There are some words in which the suffix -u is found in its
guna grade and the vowel of the first syllable is lengthened, unless
it is already long:
arn-u-a > arn-o-a > arnava > annava sea
man-u-a > man-o-a > manava youth
jih-u-a > jihva > jivha tongue
gri-u-fi > griva > giva neck
dar-u-i > darvi > dabbl ladle
d). Suffix -u compounded with other suffixes.
u-r > ur: this suffix is found with the extension -ta in
muh-ur-ta >
muhutta
moment
u-r-a > urn:
bhid-ura >
bhidura
fragile
v id -ura >
vidura
wise
bhas-ura >
bhasura
shining
anc-ura >
ahkiua
bud
u-ar-a > vara:
is -vara >
issara
lord
st ha- vara >
thavara
stable
N.B. -ar is
the suffix -r
in its guna g
;rade.
147
u-n >
un extended
with the
suffix
sak-un-ta
> sakunta
bird
u-na
> una:
sak-una
> sakuna
bird
ar-ima
> aruna
red
da r- una
> daruna
strong
pis- una
> pi suna
slanderous
u-na
> una:
kar-una
> karuna
pity
u-an
> van:
yu-van
> yuvan
young
adh-van
> addhan
time
u-an-t > vant: usually added to the stem
guna - vant
> gunavam
virtuous
sila-vant
> sila vain
virtuous
u-an-t-a
> vanta:
guna-vanta
> gunavanta
virtuous
sila- vanta
> si la vanta
virtuous
u-in
> vin:
tejas-vin
> tejassin
shining
tapas- vin
> tapassin
austere
u-s-a
> usa:
phar-usa
> pharusa
harsh
tnan-usa
> manvsa
human
1 16. The suffix -u. The suffix -ii is used to form agent nouns
from a verbal root and to form some feminine stems:
ga > gu
para-gu
gone to the other shore
jna > nu
kala-hnh
knowing the right time
bhu > hhii
abhi-hhu
conqueror -
vadhii
daughter-in-law
117. Suffix r;ar:ar. This suffix is used alone in a few cases,
but in many others it is used with the extension of a vowel,
ar;
adh-ar
> ad ho
below
r-a:
ag-ra
> agga
point
Vi lA -HI
> vakka
crooked
abh-ra
> abbha
cloud
ksip-ra
> khippa
swift
ksi-ra
> khira
milk
svabh-ra
> sobbha
hole
as-ra
> as$a, a ins a
point
r-a:
su-ra
> sura
intoxicating
dha-ri
> dhura
cutting edge
r-i:
bhii-ri
> bhuri
earth
ati-ri
> assi, am si
edge
r-u:
bhi-ru
> bhiru
fearful
as-ru
> assn
tear
ar-a:
ud-ara
> udara
belly
tas-ara
> t asm a
shuttle
pnhj-ara
> panjara
cage
van-ara
> vanara
monkey
ar-i:
up-ari
> upari
above
ar-a:
marj-ara
> majjara
cat
118. The suffix n:aman L The suffix man; in is usually used as
extended with a vowel or a consonant
inurdh-an > muddhan
raj-an > raj an
yaj-na > yanna
us-na > unha
head
king
sacrifice
heat
149
kar-na
> kanna
ear
gla-na
> gilana
ill
jha-na
> liana
wisdom
stha-na
> than a
place
n-i i
se-na
> senii
army
sthu-na
> thuna
pillar
n-i
yu-t u
> yoni
womb
sre-ni
> seni
guild
ag-ni
> aggi
fire
n-u
dbc-n u
> dbenu
cow
an-a
ksip-ana
> khipana
throwing
kip -and
> kapana
poor
dh-ana
> dhana
wealth
kar-ana
> karana
doing
tar- ana
> tarana
crossing
kodh-ana
> khodana
angry
bhaj-ana
> bhnjmia
bowl
kar-ana
> karana
deed
vah -ana
> vahana
carrying
an-a
pur-ana
> purana
ancient
es-ana
> esfma
seeking
an-a
kuh-ana
> kuhana
deceit
guh-ana
> guhana
hiding
ksip-ana
> khipana
throwing lip
cct-ana
> cetana
thought
cod -an a
> codana
scolding
150
dbar-ana > dharam
wearing
a n-i
vmt-ani > vatiani
burning
a£~mi > asani
thunderbolt
an-i
ghar-ani > gharanl
house-wife
3) 14
vas-ant > vasant > vasam
*
dwelling
car-ant > car ant > caram
moving
mah-ant > mahant > maha
great
an-fa
va s anta > vasanta
dwelling
mah-anta > mahanta
great
hem-anta > hemanta
winter
119. The suffix s:as:i& The suffix s:as:as is used alone or in
combination with other suffixes to form nouns and adjectives.
s-a:
vat~sa > vaccha
calf
yak-sa > yakkha
non-human being
rk-sa > accha
bear
dak-sa > dakkha
skilled
s-am:
dhu-sara > dhusara
dust-coloured
mat-sara > tnacchara
envious
samvat-sara > samvacchara
year
s-ra:
ti~sm > tisso
three
s-na
kr-sna > kanha
w p
black
slak-sna > sanha
smooth
tik-sna > tikkha / tikhina
■
sharp
s-na:
tr-srn > timhi
craving
as- a*
min-asa > manasa
mental
Sy-asa > ayasa
made of iron
151
120* The suffix t:at:at. The suffix katiat is used alone and in
combination with other suffixes to form a variety of nouns and
adjectives.
t-a: the suffix 4a is used to form the past participle by adding
it to the root of a verb or to the stem of the present. Sometimes
the suffix 4a is added with the connecting vowel
u
Vl
A
JS
t
heard
kr4a
> kata
done
kbh4a > Iaddha
obtained
drs-ta
> dittha
i 1
seen
dah4a > daddha
burnt
muh4a
> mufha
infatuated
sth-i-ta > thita
standing
gacch-i-ta
> sacchita
gone
The suffix 4a is
used also
to form a
few nouns;
gi-ta > gita song
ghf-ta > ghata butter
su4a > suta charioteer
du4a > duta messenger
t-a: the suffix 4a is used to form abstract nouns
deva-ta > devata
deity
lahu-ta > Jahuta
quickness
thira-ta > thinrta
firmness
issariya- ta > issariyata
lordship
karunna4a > karunnata
compassionateness
This suffix is added even
some samasa:
to the future participle passive and
bhabba-ta > bhabbata
possibility
katannu-ta > kata Mata
gratitude
ka ran iya - ta > ka ranlya ta
obligation
appiccha-ta > appicchata
satisfaction
anagami-ta > anagamita
the fact of not coming back
153
t-u-m: da-tum > datum to give ne-tum > netum to lead
This suffix is used to form the infinitive of the verbs.
t-u-a > tva > tta: this suffix is added to nouns, adjectives and
participles to form abstract nouns:
tnamwsa-fta > mantissa tta the fact of being a man
eka-tta > ekatta oneness
savaka-tta > savakatta discipleship
kata-tia > katana the fact of having done
t-u-ft > tva, f-u-a-na > fvana, t-u-na > tuna; these suffrixes are
used to form the past gerund of the verbs:
gam-tva > gantva, gantvana , gantuna having gone
kr-tva > katva, katvana , hi tuna having done
-tuye, -hive are used to form some infinitives:
§ru-tave > sotave to hear
bhu*tuye > bhavituye > he tuye to be
t-ra > tta: mi-tra > mitta friend pu-tra > putta son
vas-tra > vattha garment ras-tra> rattha king-
dom
t-ra > tta: im-tra > naatta measure
t-ri > ti : ra-tri > ratti night
tan-tri > tanti string
t-h-a; dama-tha > damatha control
yu*tha > yutbi i flock
th-tha > tittha ford
ra-tha > ratha chariot
t-h-a: ga-tha > gatha song
> rajata silver
at-a;
raj -ata
154
121. The suffix m:am:am.
m-a:
bhi-ma
> bhima
fearful
dhu-ma
> dhuma
smoke
dhar-ma
> dhamma
doctrine
grls-ma
> gimha
hot
man:
adman
> attan
self.
brah-man
> brahman
brahma
m-ant:
band hu- man > bhanduma
one who has many relatives
cakkhu-man > cakkhwm
one who has eyes
hid- man t
> hidma
modest
m-anta: cakkhu-manta > cakkhumanta one who has eyes
m-ana: suffix added to the stem of the present of the verbs
to form present participles:
tara-mana > foramina crossing
gaccha-mana > gacchamana going
m-ara: kar-mara > kammara smith
m-i: bhu-mi > bhumi earth ms-mi > ramsi ray
am-a: da$-ama > dasama tenth adh-ama > adhama lowest
par-ama > parama highest
(22. The suffix k:ak, This suffix, usually extended with the
thematic vowel -a: -ka:-aka is a very common suffix in Pali and
is used to form a variety of words. Sometimes we find -ika instead
of -ka.
k-a added to a root:
svs-ka > sukkha dry
slo-ka > siloka fame
155
Jt-a added to a variety of verbal forms:
utthaya
> ntthayaka
quick
gayha
> gayhaka
one who is to be taken
uilana
> gilanaka
sick
jata
> j a taka
birth
vutta
> vuttaka
saying (Itivuttaka)
kattabba
> kattabbaka
duty
-aka added to a verbal root to form agent nouns:
kir-aka > karaka doer car-aka > caraka wanderer
sav-aka > savaka listener
-aka added to action nouns to form agent nouns:
utthan-aka > utfhanaka giving rise
kilapan-aka > kilapanaka toy
aharan-aka > aharanaka messenger
-aka added to nouns without changing their meaning;
ud-aka > udaka water
icarariy-aka > acaraiyaka teacher
then-aka > thenaka thief
chatt-aka > chattaka sunshade
-aka added to nouns to give them a diminutive meaning;
gam-aka > gamaka
a little village
puff-aka > pnttaka
a little child
kuntar-aka > kumaraka
a little prince
gath-aka > gathaka
a little poem
156
-aka added to nouns to indicate contempt:
saman-aka > samanaka a sorry specimen of a recluse
mund-aka > mundaka a shaveling
~ka / -aka added to adjectives without changing their meaning:
khudd-aka
>
khuddaka
little
jetth-aka
>
jetthaka
eldest
uju-ka
>
ujuka
straight
kal-aka
>
kalaka
black
-ka / -aka added to adverbs and pronouns to make adjectives:
adhi-ka
> adhika
exceed in,
anti-ka
> ant ika
near
tatta-ka
> tat taka
so much
mama -k a
> manuka
mine
•ika: this suffix is often used especially in the sense of be-
longing:
kala > kfilika
karuhha > kanmhika
cctaszi > cetasika
gama > gam ika
123. Some other suffixes:
-eyya: gama > gameyya
temporary
merciful
mental
governor of a village
-eyya: gama > gameyya belonging to the village
dakkhina > dakkhin&yya worthy of gills
adhipati > adhipateyya lordship
path a > patheyya provisions for the journey
-ay an a / -ana:
Kaccavana / Kaccana
of the lineage of Kacca
157
CHAPTER IX
NOMINAL COMPOUNDS
A nominal compound or samasa is a group of two or more words
joined together in such a way that only the last is declined while
the others are in their stem form,
The nominal compounds may be divided into
a) , dvanda samasa
b) , tappurisa samasa
c) . kammadharaya samasa
d) . bahubbihi samasa
e) . governing compounds
f) . syntactical compounds
124, The first member of a compound. The first member of a
compound may be a noun, an adjective* a pronoun, a numeral, an
adverb, a verbal form. When it is a noun, an adjective, a pronoun,
or a numeral, this appears in its stem form: assa-damako 'horse-
trainer', bhikkhu-sangho 'the assembly of the monks’. A tew points,
however, have to be noted:
158
a). Some stems in -a change the final vowel to -/ when
compounded with forms of the verb bbu- and kf<
kaddama-kata > kaddmni-kata turned into mud
dubbala-karana > dubbali-karana weakening
sita-bhuta
> sitl-bhuta
missa-bhuta > missi-hbuta
weakening
that has become calm
that has become mixed
sammukha-bhava> sammukhi-bhava the fact of being
present
eka-btava > eki-bbava the fact of being alone
bahula-kata
> eki-bbava
> bahuli-kata
made much of
b) . The masculine stems in -u shorten their final vowel: viMu-
jitika > viMu-jatika 'wise by birth’
c) . The stem go- remains unchanged before consonant, but
it becomes gav- before a vowel: go-ghatako ’killer of
cows’, go-assam > gav-assam 'cattle and horses'
d) . The feminine stems in -a, -i,-u shorten their final vowel
in a few cases: metta-citto > metta-citto 'with a kindly
mind 1 , dasl-dasam > dasi-dasam 'a maid and a man
servant 1 ,
e) . In composition the adjectives take always the same stem
whether they are followed by a masculine or feminine or
neuter noun: piya-putto 'dear son’, piya-mata 'dear mother’,
piya-geham ’dear house*.
f) . Haiti is sometimes changed into ratta usually in the sense
of time: ratti-Mv > ratta-Mu 'he who knows the proper
time 1
g) . Stems in - ar : pitar, malar, etc. usually have their stem in
“U.* pitar-rakkhita > pitu-rakkbita ’protected by the father',
matar-ghataka > matu-ghataka ’killer of the mother’.
In dvanda samasa, however, there are the forms pita, niata:
mata-pitaro ’mother and father’, piti-putta ’father and children’
159
In a few cases there are also the forms matti and petti; matti-
sambhavc 'born from a mother 1 .
h) . There are a few compounds derived directly from Sanskrit
in which the first member ends in a consonant: khud-pipasa
>khuppipasa 'hunger and thirst', vac-kamna > vakkarana
’talking 1
i) . Stems in -ns usually change -as to -o., In many cases,
however, the stem has passed to the thematic stem: apas-
maya >apo-maya 'made of water 1 , uras-go > ura-go ’snake 1
But rajas is not changed in combination, hence rajas-siro 'with
dust on the head 1 , while vacas has sometimes been changed to vaci:
vacas-kammam > vm-kammam 'verbal action 1 .
j). There seems to be no fixed rule lor the stems ill -ant:
mahant-muni > maha-muni ’great sage 1 , balavant-gavo >
balava-gavo 'sturdy oxen 1 , sant-dhammo > sat-dbammo >
saddhammo 'true doctrine 1 , bhagavant-rupa > bhagavanta-
tupa ’those like the Blessed One 1 , bhagavant-mulaka >
bhaga vam -m ft taka 'those that are based on the Blessed
One’.
k). Stems in -in, -an drop the final nasal:
hatthin: hatthi-gavassa-vala vam elephants, oxen, horses,
mares
rajan: raja-ratha ’royal chariots’.
1). When pronouns and numerals are first members of a compound,
they appear under different forms: tad-karo > takkaro 'doing
that’, tvan-natho > tvannatho ’he who has you as his master 1
For the numeral two we find dvi- t dve - t di-, du, duv-: di-jo
'bird', dve-ma$am ’two months', etc.
For the numeral four we find catu-, catu-, catur, cvlki cuja:
catm-itthiyo ’four women’.
For the numeral six we find cha-, chal-, saj-, sad: chaj-abhijatiyo
’the six classes'.
I
I
160
125. The second member of a compound. In general the second
member of a compound retains its own stem and follows its own
declension, with the exception of the stems in -an which are
sometimes declined like the stems in -an and sometimes like
thematic stems:
king of beasts',
maccu-rija 'the king of death 1 , miga-ranno 'of the
maha-ranm 'with the great king', naga-rajassa 'of
the king of the nagas\ deva-rajena ’by the king of the gods 1 , pahitatto
'energetic', pahit attain, pahitattassa
blit also bhavitattinam 'perfect'
126. Sandhi. In joining together words to form a samasa, the
usual sandhi rules are observed: sunnasgSram > sunnagaram 'empty
house 1 , maha-ogbo > mahogbo 'great flood', anu-addhamasam
>anvaddhama$am 'every fortnight'.
There are many compounds which are either derived directly
from Sanskrit or are modelled on the Sanskrit compounds and hence
show the application of Sanskrit consonant sandhi. While there is
ditthasuta 'seen and heard', there is also bahu-ssuto 'learned 1 with
the double -s$- derived from Sanskrit sr-, Similarly madhura-ssaro
'sweet sound 1 , $a~ppanno ’wise 1 , jati-kkhayam ’destruction of birth',
vehasa-tthito 'standing in the sky'.
Dvanda Samasa
127. Dvanda samasa. A dvanda samasa is made up of two or
more words which, used separately, would be joined by the con-
junction ca. The words mata ca pita ca can be joined together
to form a dvanda samasa: mata-pitaro 'mother and father'. The words
that are joined together may be nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and thus
the whole compound may be classified as noun, adjective or adverb.
The words that are joined together into a dvanda samasa may be
classified under various headings;
a). The same word repeated twice: sorata-sorato ’very kind 1 ,
bhikkhu samasa in a ’monks of exactly the same number 1 ,
pimappunani 'again and again 1 , uttawttariin 'higher and
higher’, ahga-m-angani 'limb after limb, all the limbs'.
161
b) . Words repeated twice with a prefix before the second
member: disa-vi-disasu 'in the main and in the intermediary
directions i,e, in all directions’, anga-pati-angani > abga-
paccangani ‘the major and the minor limbs', hura-a-burnm
> huraburam 'from existence to existence’,
c) . Words repeated twice with a prefix before each member:
ud-aya-vi-ayam > udayabbayatn 'rise and fall', a-caya-apa-
cnyo >acayapacayo 'increase and decrease', a-kotita-pati-
a-akotitam >iko ti tapa ccak otitam ’flattened and pressed all
round'.
d) . Words having the same or very similar meanings; pifi-
sukhani 'joy and happiness', bala-viviyaip 'strength and
energy 1 , labhasakkara-siloko 'gain, good treatment and a
good name 1 .
e) . Words having opposite meanings; vdayatthain 'rise and
fall 1 , cutupapato rise and fall', niada-pasaipsi blame and
praise 1 , saggapayo 'heaven and hell 1 , kanha-sukkani rupani
’objects dark and bright 1 , ajjhatta-bahiddha 'internally and
externally 1 , uddapfi-adbo ’above and below 1 ,
f) . Nouns indicating human and divine beings: deva-manussa
’gods and men', samana-brahmana 'recluses and brahmins',
natl-mittS 'kinsmen and friends', Saripvtta-Mogga liana
'Saripulla and Moggallana'.
g) H Nouns indicating animals: sonasigala 'dogs and jackals ,
ahi-vicchika 'snakes and scorpions’, accha-koka-taraccbayo
’bears, wolves and hyenas’.
h) . Nouns indicating trees, plants, etc.: fina-ka tthodakain grass,
firewood and water' , sakha-pajfmip 'branches and foliage',
aca-papatika ’bark and young shoots'
i) . Nouns indicating parts of the human body: kanna-nasam
’ears and nose 1 , kesa-massum 'hair of the head and of the
body’, mamsa-lohitam 'flesh and blood', hattha-pada hands
and feet'
162
163
j) . Nouns indicating food, drink, dress, lodging, etc.: anna-
panam 'food and drink*, maccha-mantsam ’fish and flesh',
civara-blwttam 'robe and food', mala^vilepanam 'garlands
and oitnment’, yuga-nahgalam 'yoke and plough', vadha-
bandhanam 'flogging and binding 1 .
k) . Religious and philosophical words: nima-rupam 'name and
form', raga-dosa-moha ’lust, hatred and infatuation', abhijjte-
domanassa 'covetousness and discontent'
l) . Most of the numerals are dvanda samasa: dvadasa 'two
and ten 1 , paScadasa 'live and ten', caturSslti ’four and
eighty'.
U8. Number and gender of a dvanda samasa. A dvanda samasa
may be in the singular or in the plural: asi-cammam 'sword and
shield’, candima-suriya 'moon and sun'.
The number of the samasa does not say anything about the
number of each member. Santana* brahmana may mean samano ca
brahman o ca, samasa ca brahmano ca, samano ca brahman a ca,
samana ca brahman a ca. The number of each member must be
understood from the context.
a) . In general a dvanda samasa is in the plural when it is
multiplicity and not collectivity that is emphasized: satta
rattin-divam ’seven nights and seven days’, hemanta-gimhisu
'in winter and in summer'.
b) . A dvanda samasa is in the plural when it indicates human
and divine beings: deva-manussa 'gods and men', Anga-
magadha 'Angas and Magadhas 1 . The only exceptions seem
to be dasi-dasam 'maid servant and man servant' and pvtta-
bhariyam 'son and wife'.
c) . A dvanda samasa made up of nouns indicating animals is
sometimes in the singular and sometimes in the plural:
ajelakam / ajelaka 'goats and sheep', kukkufa-sukaram /
kukkuta-sukara 'cocks and pigs'.
d) . Most of the other dvanda samasa are in the singular: manca-
pltham 'conches and chairs', nama-gottam 'name and
family 1 .
e) . A dvanda samasa usually takes the gender ot the last
member: piti-sukham 'joy and happiness', dhamma-vinayo
’doctrine and discipline 1 , nara-nariyo 'men and women',
ninda-roso 'blame and anger 1 , gama-khettani 'villages and
Fields',
f) . When the dvanda samasa is made up of adjeclives, the
samasa agrees in gender and number with the noun it
qualifies: bhikkhh sama-sami 'monks of exactly the same
number', khuddan ukhuddakani sikkhapadSni 'the lesser and
minor precepts’,
g) . There is no strict rule w ith regard to the order of the words
in a dvanda samasa. Yet as first member of the samasa
we more easily find the word with the smaller number
of syllables, or the word which begins with a vowel and
ends in -a, or the masculine and neuter nouns ending in
-j / -u: dhamma-vinayo , gihi-pabbajika, andhaka-makasa,
Further when the two words indicate two events that follow
each other in time, the order of the words is the natural
one: jati-jaram, jiti-maranam.
Kammadharaya Samasa
129. Kammadharaya samasa. A kammadharaya samasa is made
up of two members of which the first modifies the second as an
attributive adjective or as a modifying noun or as an adverb. The
members that make up a kammadharaya samasa can be
a) , two nouns
b) , an adjective and a noun
c) . an adverb and a noun
d) . an adverb and an adjective
164
e). a noun, an adjective, or an adverb followed by a noun or
adjective, the whole samasa being used adverbially.
From the syntactical point ol view, a kammadharaya samasa
can bo
1) , a noun compound if the second member of the samasa is
a noun or a word used as a noun;
2) . an adjective compound il the second member of the samasa
is an adjective;
3) . an adverb compound if the whole compound is used ad-
verbially.
130. Kammadharaya samasa made up of two nouns. When a
kammadharaya samasa is made up of two nouns, then the first
member modifies the second either as an apposition or a second term
of comparison.
a) . Apposition: a noun may modify another noun as an appo-
sition in so far as one restricts the meaning of the other:
sala-rukkbo 'the sal tree', viriyindriyatn 'the faculty of
energy', tejo-dhatu 'the element of heat', Svuso-vadena
'with the word - brother'.
b) . Comparison: sometimes two nouns are joined together into
a compound because the two of them express an implied
simile. What is compared is put first in the samasa while
the second term of comparison is placed second; purisusabho
'a bull-like -man i.e. a strong man 1 , akkhi-tiraka 'star- like -
eyes i.e, shining eyes’, cakka-ratanam ’a gem- like- wheel
i.e. a noble wheel 1 ,
c) , Here must be classified also samasa like kusala^-sankhata
'reckoned as meritorious 1 , brabma-bhuto ’that has becone
like a brahma', seftha-sammafo 'known as the best', sahkha-
likhitam brahmacanyam 'celibate life as pure as a shell 1 .
d) . A numeral noun is also used as an apposition to a noun
with which it forms a samasa: visati-manussa ’twenty men 1 .
165
13 L Kammadharaya samasa made up of an adjective and a noun.
A kammadharaya samasa may he made up of a noun preceded by
an attributive adjective. Such an adjective may be
a) , an ordinary adjective: maha-puriso ’great man 1 , sabba-
danatp 'every gift 1 , pubba-jati 'former birth', appa-labho
’little gain'.
b) . a participle: jiima-konca ’old herons', nata-manussa 'well
known people’, pahittha-makkati ’a burnt monkey', dmrnna-
gava 'oxen to be tamed', bhojja-yagu 'conjee to be eaten',
anavajja-padani 'blameless paths’.
c) , an adjective that denotes distinction or excellence is some-
times placed after the noun it qualities; Rahula-ba ddho
'Rahul a the lucky one he. the lucky Rah u la', ratana-varo
'noble gem 1 , muni-pa varo 'the noble sage’, kaimm-settbam
’the noblest action’.
d) . When it modifies a past participle, the adjective pubba is
placed after the participle: assuta-pubba upama 'a simile
not heard before 1 , ivaso anavuttha-pubbo 'an abode not
inhabited before’, dinna-pvbbam something given before'.
e) . A kammadharaya samasa made up of a numeral adjective
and a noun is often called digu samasa: catur-itthiyo 'four
women', panca-kkhandba ’the five aggregates', chal-abhijatiyo
’the six classes'.
132. Kammadharaya samasa made up of an adverb and a noun
or adjective. In this samasa the first member is an adverb or an
adverbial prefix: miccha-caro 'wrong behaviour', dvidha-patho 'a
double road', sakad-agami 'coming back once’, a-verena 'without
hatred', vi-kale ’at the wrong time 1 , antara-katha 'a chance con-
versation 1 , dugga ’difficult to go', samma-patipanno 'behaving
rightly'.
Sometimes a kammadharaya samasa is used as an adverb: ubhafo-
pakkham 'on bolh sides’, digha-rattam ’for a long time', atkvelam
’greatly’, theyyasankhatam 'thievishly 1 , catuggunam ’fourfold’.
Ifj
M
■
166
Sometimes the idea of fullness or completeness is conveyed with
a kammadharaya samasa built up with a past participle preceded by
an adverb and used adverbially. Both the past participle and the
verb ot the sentence are derived from the same root: sa-niggahitaip
aigganhati he overcomes with a complete overcoming i,e, he over-
comes completely 1 , sabba-santharim santhaiitva ’having completely
spread’, suppabuddham pabujjhanti 'they are fully enlightened',
suvisodhitam vi sod he ft ’he cleans fully 1 .
Tappurisa Samasa
133. Tappurisa samasa, A tappurisa samasa is made up of two
members of which the first depends on the second as a noun or
pronoun in any case except the nominative and the vocative. The
second member of the samasa may be a noun or ail adjective and
thus the whole tappurisa samasa may be used as a noun or as an
adjective. In a few cases the samasa is used also as an adverb.
134. The first member of a tappurisa samasa.
a), The first member of a tappurisa samasa is a noun or
pronoun in its stem form which, if used separately, would
be in one of the following cases:
Accusative: loka-vidu 'he who knows the world', para-gu ’he
who has gone to the other shore 1 , bhaya-dassino 'those who see
danger.'
Instrumental : sila-sampamto 'endowed with virtue 1 , patha-
gatnanam 'going by the proper path 1 , Buddha-dcsito 'preached by
the Buddha'
Ablative: jala-mutto ‘freed from the net 1 , sara-parittanam 'protection
from arrows', yogakkhemam 'freedom from bonds'.
Genitive: bhikkhu-sangho 'the assembly of the monks 1 , loka-
natho 'the lord ot the world 1 , dukkha-samudayo 'the arising of
suffering 1 .
167
Locative: antalikkha-caro 'moving in the sky', appamada-rato
'delighting in diligence', isam-kusalo ’skilled in allotting the seats’.
b). In some compounds the first member has retained the case
ending:
Accusative: antanj-karo 'who puls an end', attam-tapo 'who
causes suffering to oneself, sabbam-jaho 'who has left everything 1 ,
hadayam-gama ’touching the heart', kalam-kato 'that has accom-
plished his time 1 , vasam-gato 'that has gone into the power of.
Genitive: vanas-pati 'lord of the forest i.e. tree', gavam-pati
’lord of the cattle i.e. bull', disam-pati 'lord of the regions i.e.
king 1 .
Locative: pubbe-nivaso 'former existence', majjhe-kalyana
'beautiful in the middle’, manasi-karo 'attention', ante-vasi 'pupil 1 ,
jagati-padeso ’a spot in the world', nabasi-gama 'moving in the
sky'.
135, The second member of a tappurisa samasa. The second
member of a tappurisa samasa may be:
a) , an ordinary noun: amata-padam ’way to immortality 1 , gui-
gnha 'a hill cave 1 , rukkha-mulam 'the root of the tree'
b) . an action noun: dukkha~nirodho ’destruction of suffering 1 ,
them-vado ’the doctrine of the elders', adinnadanam 'stealing 1 ,
ceto-vimutti 'the emancipation of the mind', anta-kiriya
'putting an end 1 .
c) . an agent noun: go-ghatako 'killer of cows', meiti-vihm
’abiding in kindliness 1 , cakka-vatti r hc who wields the
wheel 1 , maccu-hayi ’victorious over death', bhuta-vadl 'he
who speaks the truth 1 , dhanum-dhaw 'he who knows the
doctrine by heart'.
Some of these agent nouns are used only at the end of a
tappurisa samasa:
-ga : sang fit i go 'gone beyond the fetters', yathakammupago 'going
according to one's deeds’.
If.
168
-jti: van -jo 'born in water i.e, fish', yon i -jo 'born from the
womb i.e, noble 1 , muddba-ja 'born from the bead i.e, hair'.
-da: iioka-do 'giver of light', anna-do ’giver of food 1 , bala-
do 'giver of strength 1 .
~ttha: dammattbo 'grounded on the doctrine’, gabattha 'house-
holders 1 .
-pa: majja-po 'drinker of alcohol', pada-po 'drinker at the foot
i.e. tree', dhenu-po 'drinker of milk i.e. calf,
-pa: go-po 'protector of the cows i.e. cowherd'
~gu: addba-gu 'traveller 1 , para-gu 'gone to the other shore’
-ijilti: mattafmu 'knowing discretion 1 , sabbannu 'knowing all'.
vidCi: sabba-vidu 'he who knows everything 1 , loka-vidu 'knower
of the world'.
-bhu: utiamahga-bhu 'what exists on the highest part i.e, the
hair', sabbabhibhu 'overcoming everything'.
-chid a: tanhacchido 'cutting off craving’
-nuda: tamo-mido 'dispelling darkness'.
d) . An adjective: pathnvi-sanw 'similar to the earth', devannataro
'one of the gods', loka-jetfho 'the best person in the world'.
e) , A numeral: gatba-satam 'a hundred stanzas', hahuni vassa-
sabassani ’many thousand of years'.
f) . A participle: dviha-mato 'two days dead 1 , citta-kato 'made
by the mind 1 , bhaya-tajjito 'urged by fear 1 , sabbayoga-
visamyutto 'free from all tics 1 , ratba-vinito 'trained for
the chariot', cb am a-nikkhittam 'thrown on the ground'.
g) , gala: the participle gata is often used at the end of a
tappurisa saniasa in a variety of meanings: 'gone to, reached,
relating to, concerning, gone into the power of, existing
as, belonging to', etc.: raho-gato 'gone into solitude', kaya-
gata sati 'attention directed to the body', avijja-gato 'fallen
169
into error', hatiha-gato ’being in the hands of, apo-gatam
'whatever is water 1 .
h). A future participle passive: manasi-karamya dbamma 'the
elements ought to be kept in mind', pandita-vedaniyo 'that
should be understood by the wise 1 , maggo piti-gamanlyo
'the path that ought to lead to happiness', maccu-dheyyam
'vvliat ought to be under death i.e. the realm of death 1 .
Bahubbihi Samasa
136. Bahubbihi samasa. A bahuhbihi samasa is a noun com-
pound turned into an adjective. Hence the kainmadharaya samasa
that end in a noun can be turned into adjectives to qualify a noun;
v.g. papiccha 'evil desire 1 is turned into an adjective agreeing with
the noun it qualifies: papiccho bhikkhu 'a monk who has evil
desires’. Similarly tarunavacebo ’young calf becomes tarunavaccha
gavi ’a cow that has a young calf; antima-sariram ’the last body'
become antiinasarfro puriso 'a man that carries the last body 1 .
Sometimes even a tappurisa samasa and, in a few cases, even
a dvanda samasa are turned into adjectives: samaggaramo 'delight
in mutual concord' and Gofanm samaggaramo ’Gotama whose
delight is in mutual concord 1 , atthika-sankhahka ‘a chain of bones'
and a tttbika -saftkh alikam sariram 'the body with its chain of bones 1 ,
rajo-jallam 'dust and dirt' and mjo-jallikassa ’to one who is covered
with dust and dirt 1 .
From the last example given it is clear that while the bahubbihi
samasa are essentially adjectives, they can sometimes be used as
noun: su-panno 'the one that has fair wings i.e. a bird’, atthamso
'the thing that has eight facets i.e. a gem’.
137. a). In most cases a noun compound is turned into an
adjective simply with the addition of the suflix -a, -a,
-am according as the adjective qualifies a masculine, a
feminine or a neuter noun: neebinna-nuda becomes rukkho
uccbina-mulo 'a tree whose root has been cut off, avijja
170
ucchinna-mula ’ignorance whose root has been cut off;
doso becomes neuter as tina-dosani khettani 'weeds are
the blemish of fields’.
b) . Sometimes the suffix -ka / -aka / -ika is added for the
masculine and neuter, and -ika for the feminine: bhlruka-
jfitiko 'one who is of a fearful nature’, sa-devako 'together
with its gods 1 , ekasalake arame 'in a park with a single
hall 1 , sa-bhikkhuko avaso ’a dwelling that has monks',
catumaharijika deva 'the gods with their four great kings'.
c) . Some other suffixes arc found in a few cases: pipa-kammino
’those whose actions are evil', dighanguli 'she who has long
fingers’, evam-jacco 'of such a birth', raff; nandi-mukhi
’the night with its bright face 1 .
138. Kammadharaya samasa turned into bahubbihi samasa.
a) . A kammadharaya samasa made up of two nouns of which
the first is in apposition to the second is used often as a
bahubbihi samasa: jlvitam maranantam 'life that has death
as its end i.e. life ending in death', kayam taca-pariyanlani
'the body that is bounded by the skin', atta-dipa viharatha
atta-saram ’abide taking the self as your light and as your
refuge',
b) . A kammadharaya samasa, consisting of a noun and an
adjective used as a noun, can be turned into a bahubbihi
samasa, The adjectives are those which indicate a quality
in a high degree, like settha, panama, vara, pubbahgama,
pabhutika, uttama, pamukha, etc.: man o-pubbangama dhamma
mano-settha 'factors that have the mind as the first and
as the best i.e. mind is the first and the best of all factors',
samtutthi -para mam dhanam ’contentment is the best wealth’,
Buddha-pamukho bhikkhu sangho 'the assembly of the
monks with the Buddha at their head 1 , anasanna-vara eta
hhese are best when not near 1 .
The same construction is used with cardinal numerals: Anando
atta-dutiyo 'Ananda with his self as second i.e. with one companion’,
171
puriso tanha-dutlyo ’a man full of craving’, atta-catuttho ’with three
companions'.
e) A kammadharaya samasa consisting of an attributive ad-
jective and a noun: vatthani digha-dasani 'robes with long
fringes’, vanijo appasattho mahaddhano ’a merchant with
a small caravan but with great wealth', papa-kamma ’those
who have an evil character’.
d) . A kammadharaya samasa consisting of a numeral and a
noun: eka-bhattiko 'one who takes one meal a day', tevijjo
'he who is endowed with the threefold knowledge’, kuiijaro
satthi-hayano 'an elephant sixty years old 1 .
e) , A kammadharaya consisting of a past participle and a noun:
okkhitta-cakkhu ’he who goes with eyes down', khmasavo
'he who is free from defilements’, akata-papo 'he who has
done no evil', ankita-kannako 'one with perforated ears'.
f) . A kammadharaya consisting of an adverb and a noun: a-
soko 'without sorrow’, miccha-ditthiko ’he who has wrong
views', evam-silo 'of such a virtue', satta su-vanna 'beings
of an evil appearance', su-vaco 'one who has pleasant
words’.
g) . Malta is often used at the end of a bahubbihi samasa in
the sense of ’in the measure of, as much as, as little as.
merely, only 1 : marana-mattam dukkham 'a pain as great
as death', saddha-mattam pema-mattam 'only faith and
love’, pahea-mattani bhikkhn-satani ’five hundred monks
only’.
139, Tappurisa samasa turned into bahubbihi samasa.
a). A tappurisa samasa is turned into a bahubbihi sgmas in the
usual way: rukkha-midam 'the foot of a tree’ become
rukkha-tnuliko 'he who sits at the foot of a tree'; similarly
panna-nirodiko 'leading to the destruction of wisdom’,
nibbana-manaso naro ’a man with his mind on nibbana',
almratthitiko samussayo 'a body that is supported by food',
172
sabbc jara-dhamma ’all are liable to old age', te cavana-
dhmnma 'they are bound to Tall away 1 , phenupaimm kayasn
’the body that is like a mass of foam’, snkha-kamani bhutani
'beings bent on happiness 1 .
b) . Sometimes the samasa implies a comparison that is not
fully expressed; kumaro go-pakhumo 'the child with the
eyeslashes of a cow i.e. with eyelashes like those ol a cow ,
siha-pubbakayo ’the child wih the trorat part of the body
like that of a lion’, cakkern khura-pariyantena ’with a
discus that has the edge as sharp as a razor', govafiko
kukkuravatiko ’he who behaves like a cow or like a dog'.
c) . A word which expresses a part of the human body and
which otherwise would be in the locative case, in a
bahubbihi samasa is found at the end ol the compound,
patta-batlha bhikkhu 'monks with bowls in their hands ,
luddti lohita-panmo 'hunters with blood on their hands ,
brahmano panka-danto rajassiro 'a brahmin with dirt between
his teeth and with dust on his head 1 , satti upparajakkha
maharajakkha 'beings with little dust in their eyes and
beings with much dust in their eyes'.
The same construction is used with mano, antara: piti-mano
'with joy in his heart 1 , dosantaro 'with hatred within', yanenn itthiyuttena
purisantarena ’on a cart drawn by two cows with a bull in between
140, Dvanda samasa turned into bahubbihi samasa. There aic
only a few examples of dvanda samasa tinned into bahubbihi samasa.
The change is effected either by turning the samasa into an adjective
or by adding the suffix -lea / dka / -in, or by prefixing sa-: salakayo
vannavannayo katva ’having made the votes of various coloois,
antanantika ’those who hold both the finiteness and the infinity of
the world', sariram sa-man&alohitam ’the body wiih its tlcsh and
blood 1 .
173
Be
Governing Compounds
141. Governing compounds. A governing compound is one in
which the first member governs the second, not in case, but in
meaning. The first member of a governing compound is a prepo-
sition or a prepositional adverb. The whole compound is turned into
an adjective like a bahubbihi samasa and is used either as an
adjective or as an adverb: ati-devo 'he who is above the gods',
njjlumm ’inwardly', anacchariya gatha 'stanzas uttered on the spur
of the moment' (anacchariya is made up of anu + aechara), eso
anudhmmo vinmgarahito 'this one is blamed by the wise lit
accordance with the doctrine 1 , anu-vassam 'yearly', pari-panthe in
ambush', pati-lomam 'against the hair i.e. in reverse order, pafi-
sotnm 'against the current', pat/-sote 'in a place against the current',
udd/iam-soto 'he who goes against the current', tiro-r/ussain 'across
ll, e curtain’, bahi-dvSre 'outside the gate', saha-dhammiko panho 'a
question connected with the doctrine', hetthS-mancmri 'the part
lx: low the bed', hettha-mancato 'from below the bed.
There are also a few governing compounds whose first member
,s im action noun: atireka-pancamasako parikkharo 'requirement
worth more than five coins', atireka-chirattam ’more than six nights ,
ilimka-tiyojanam 'less than three yoj anas’.
Syntactical Compounds
142 Syntactical compounds. Two or more independent words
sometimes joined together owing to the fact that they have often
1 ,,-c used together in a sentence: such compounds are called syn-
(milicul compounds.
it)
A | hi si gerund and a noun; viceyya-danam ’a gift given
will, discrimination’, paticca-samuppado ’the arising on
account of a previous cause', avcccappasadcna ’with a
porfoct faith’, sm)kbeyya-karo 'acting with reflection 1 ,
iiWijh/iiiyy/i-cffr/
'going about victorious', niv/ssa-vndi 1
'speaking
with cliflniloncHS’t
174
b) . A past gerund and a past participle: uddissa-katam mamsam
'meat prepared purposely 1 } adhicca-samuppaniio 'arising
without a cause',
c) . Some other syntactical compounds: a ham-karo 'selfish-
ness', asmi-tnano 'pride', atthi-bhavo 'existence 1 , ehi-passiko
dhanmrn 'the doctrine that invites to come and see' (ehi
+ passa are imperatives), ehi-bhadantiko 'he who says:
come, sir', tittha-bhadantiko 'he who says: stop, sir', ehi-
bhikkhu-pabbajjfl 'reception into the wandering life with
the formula: come, 0 monk 1 , dii-svagata-vadino 'those who
say: come, welcome', annad-atihu 'certainly 1 , ma-ghato 'a
day when there is no slaughter 1 , iti-haso 'history 1 , iti-vado
'tradition', iti-vuttaka 'sayings', akincano ‘one who has
nothing'.
175
■
I
CHAPTER X
VERBAL COMPOUNDS
Verbal roots are often combined with one or more prepositions
or with an adverb, and sometimes even with a noun or an adjective.
These words modify the fundamental meaning of the verb; v,g.
gacchati ‘goes’, a-gacchati ‘goes back i.e, comes’ , apa-gacchati
‘goes away 1 , ni-gacchati ‘goes down’, san-gacchati ‘goes with’,
ud-gacchati > uggacchati ‘goes up 1 , etc.
143, Verbs combined with prepositions.
ati: beyond, across, very much
alikkamati goes beyond
ati gacchati overcomes
aticarati transgresses
atibhunjati cats too much
adhi: over, on, to, in, greatly
adhigacchati comes to, acquires
adhiganhiti surpasses
adhitthati stands on, concentrates
adhibhavati
overcomes
176
aim: after, along, according to
anugacchati goes after, follows
anukaroti imitates
anubhavati undergoes
anuganhiti has pity oji
apa: away, off, from, forth
apacinati picks from, respects
apart udati drives away
apaloketi looks ahead
apl: on
apidabati puts on, covers up
abhi: towards, against, over, all round, greatly
abhikkamati goes forward
abhijanati knows fully
abhinandati rejoices
abhibbavati overcomes
ava or o: down, away
avakirati casts out
otarati goes down
a; near, back, to, along, all round, completely
ag&cchati goes back, comes
akirati strews over
aroceti speaks to, informs
ud: out of, away, up, upwards
lifts up
takes up, learns
uddharati
ugganhati
177
upa; on, upon, up to, near, altogether
upagacchati goes to, approaches
upatthahati stands near
ni: down
nikkhipati lays down
nigacchati goes down
nigganhati restrains
nir: out, forth
nikkhamati goes forth
niddisati points out
nibbindati turns away, becomes weary
niyyad goes out
pa: forth, forward, out, up, greatly
pakasati shines forth
pakkamati steps forward
pacchmdati breaks up
pagganhati stretches lorth, takes up
pati: towards, against, baek, opposite
patikkhipati throws baek, rejects
paccakkhiti speaks against, refuses
pacceti conies back
patissunati assents, promises.
para: on to, over, through
paiamasati touches, holds on lo
parajeti defeats
178
■i
!
pari: all round, away, off, completely
parikaroti
J
surrounds
parik ilamati
gets tired out
pari car a ti
moves out
pa rijanati
knows accurately
vi: asunder, away,
down
vikirati
scatters about
vigganhati
quarrels
vicarati
moves about
vipassati
sees clearly
sam: together, along with, fully
samyu njati
joins together
sankhipati
collects
sanganhSti
contains
samsarati
moves about continually
sanjana ti
knows well
N.B. Some verbal compounds are built up with more than one
preposition; adhha-vasati > ajjhavasati ‘inhabits’, sam-anu-passati
> samanupassati ‘sees', sam-ud-a-carati > samudacarati
‘behaves toward’.
When sam is combined with karoti, the consonant -s- is
inserted; sam-karoti > sam-s -karoti > sankharoti ‘puts together’.
144, Verbs combined
d
with adverbs.
anto-vasafi
inhabits
alam-kaivti
adorns
a vi -karoti
iJ
makes clear
Svi-bhavati
becomes clear
17 9
patu-karoti manifests
patu-bhavati becomes manifest
purakkharoti puts in front, honours
145. Verbs combined with an adjective or a noun. Some adjec-
tives and nouns are combined with verbs in a variety of ways; antara
remains unchanged in aotaradhayati ‘disappears 1 ; attha is used in
the accusative in aithamgacclrnti ‘goes home i.e. sets'. Some ad-
jectives and nouns change their last vowel to -I / -i w r hen combined
with bbavats / karoti: dubbali-karoti ‘weakens’, bahuli-karoti ‘makes
much of, vasi-karoti ‘subjects’, vasi-bhavati ‘goes into the power
of, vinall-karoti ‘destroys’, sacchi~karoti ‘realizes’, tunbi-bbavati
‘remains silent’, atthi- karoti ‘understands’, sfti-bhavati ‘becomes
tranquil’,
CHAPTER XI
EVOLUTION OF THE VOWELS
146* The vowel system. The Pali and Sanskrit languages are very
similar. Hence the evolution of Pali must be treated with reference
to Vedic and Classical Sanskrit,
The Sanskrit vowel system is as follows;
two pure vowels:
seven sonant vowels;
4 4 u } i7, r 1
four diphtongs: e, o, ai f au
In pronunciation e and o are pure vowels, but according to their
lormation, they are compound vowels. In sandhi they are split up
into ay and av.
The main characteristics of the evolution of the vowel system
from Sanskrit into Pali is the elimination of the sonant vowels r,
f, 1, and of the diphtongs at and an. Therefore tile Pali vowel
system is as follows:
two pure vowels ; a, a
four sonant vowels; 4 4 u f u
two diphtongs; e, o
18 !
Though the vowels e and o are made up of two elements, yet
they are pronounced as pure vowels,
Sanskrit vowels preserved in Pali:
Sanskrit Pali
a
a
phah
phah
fruit
sparia
phassa
touch
a
a
again
a gar a
house
raja
raja
king
i
i
jati
jati
birth
dina
dina
day
I
1
si la
sila
virtue
nadi
nadi
river
u
u
pud gala
pvggah
person
dhemi
dhenu
cow
u
ti
tv pa
rupa
form
abhihu
abhibu
conqueror
c
€
vega
vega
hurry
ime
ime
these
0
0
hka
!oka
world
mano
mano
mind
147. Elimination of r and 1, r was a complex phoneme since
it included both vocalic and consonant element. Hence it was the
first to undergo changes. This Sanskrit vowel came to be represented
in Pali by different vowels.
a), r > a:
kintati
kantati
cuts
krpana
kapttna
poor
j
drsti
r j p
ditthi
sight
bhfngara
bhihkara
golden vase
vyicika
vice hi ka
scorpion
if gala
si gal a
jackal
srpatika
sipatika
beak
sfhgavera
s ingiver a
pepper
1
desires
sprhayati
pihayad
r > u:
m
uju
straight
ftu
utv
season
rsahha
usabha
bull
pfcchati
pucchati
asks
pfthu
puthu
broad
mrdahga
mutihga
drum
tnmala
■? i
n wjala
lotus
ittfdu
mudu
soft
jjj rsa
r ■
musa
lie
mrsyati
mu s sad
forgets
synod
sunoti
hears
d). f > a, i;
rksa
accha
ikkha
bear
fna
an-ana
ina
b
debt
kyccha
kasira
kiccha
painful
krsna
kanha
kinha
black
myga
maga
miga
animal and deer
dhrta
dhata
firm
1
dhrti
dhiti
firmness
trpyate
tappati
is satisfied
trpta
tilta
satisfied
r > a , u:
prthivi
pathavi, pathavi
earth
put ha vi, puthavi, puthuvi
earth
vpa
vi-vata
opened
pari-vuta
surrounded
vrtta
vatta
duty
vrtti
vutti
abiding
vrddhi
vaddhi
blessing
vuddhi, vuddhi
growth
vrsti
r ■ ■
vi itthi
rain
vista
r ■ ■
vatta , vattha vuttha
rained
a-bfhati
abbuhati/abbahati
casts away
f). ; > u, i*
pi/r pfu- (pifu-gMfa£a) father
p/fi- (piti-gMfa)
Wiratf hMfli- (bMmlfa) brother
bhati- (bhatika)
matf matu- (matu-ghataka) mother
mati* (mati-pakkhato)
gj> / > e, J-‘
grdhu g/dd/ia
gfdhya gedha
greedy
greedy
185
h). f > e, a, /:
grha
geha
house
raja gf ha
rajagaha
Rajagaha
gfhapati
gahapati
houtseholder
a-grha
8-gihn
homeless
r > ra, ns:
t ?
brhant
^ e ^
brahant
broad
brmhayati
bruheti
increases
The vowel u has been lengthened since the niggahita has been
dropped,
j) . vr > w:
pravfta paruta covered
vfksa rukkha tree
k) . r > iru t aru:
rgveda irubbeda / arubbcda (these two words are
found in the post-eanonical literature).
N.B. There is no fixed principle according to which r is
represented by a,/, u, e. But it seems clear that the choice of the
vowel is often influenced by neighbouring sounds. The vowel a
prevails after a guttural and u after a labial consonant; krpana
>kapana; pfcchati > pucchati, f urther the vowel of a preceding or
of a following syllable often assimilates the /' to itself especially
in words of two syllables: mrdu > imtdu , rtu > utu } rddhi > iddhi,
rsi > isi, dhrta > dhata y dhrti > dhiti.
Sometimes the difference of vowel seems to be due to semantic
difference, but it is difficult to give definite rules. Thus miga means
‘deer’, but in some eases it means also ‘animal’ as in migaraja The
king of animals’, valamiga ‘wild beasts’; likewise maga means
both ‘animal’ and ‘deer’.
186
The sonant / in kjpta has been replaced by the vowel u: kfpta
> kutta ‘arranged’.
148. Elimination of the dtphtongs.
a). The process of elimination of the diphtongs had already
started in Sanskrit where ai / an had been reduced to e
/ o t while ai / au had become ai / an, This process was
continued in Pali and thus ai / au were reduced to e /
o: va/ra > mil ‘hatred’, maitri > metti ‘friendship’, taih
> tek ‘oil’, ratrau > raito ‘at night’, ausadha > osadha
‘medicine’, yauvana > yobbana ‘young man*, ubhav >
ubho ‘both’.
The original nature of e / o, however, is evident in composition,
since e / o, followed by a vowel, can be resolved inlo ai / au or
ai / au:
so-aniya
sau-anlya
savaniya
should be heard
so-eti
sau-eti
saveti
causes to hear
ne-ana
mi-ana
nay am
carrying
no-aka
nai-aka
nay aka
leader
b). The
groups ayi /
a vi have
developed into e b
elimination of the inetrvocalic y / v, and by the reduction
of the diphtojimgs: ayi > ai > e, a vi > ai > e, Similarly
the groups aya / ava have developed into c / o respectively
by reducing the final vowel and then eliminating the intervocalic
nayati
sthavira
bhavissati
a vatarati
bhavati
nayiti
ai > e,
ava > avu
> an >
naiti
net i
leads
thaira
theca
elder
bhessati
hessati
will be
(bh loses its occlusion and becomes h)
autarati otarati comes down
bhavuti bhauti hoti is
tcayas-tnnsat > tettimsa
thirteen
187
The group ayu becomes o. mayura > mora ‘peacock’
Caturasiti develops into ca-urasiti > corasiti > cola si ti >cullasiti
> cuiasiti ‘eighty-four’.
149. Evolution of the vowels. The Sanskrit vowels a, a, /, j, u,
u, c, o are generally well preserved in Pali bul sometimes they
undergo changes with regard to their quality and their quantity due
either to the structure of the syllable or the structure of the word.
It is evident that in Pali ihe vowel a exercises a great influence
on other vowels. This feature is already evident in Sanskrit. The
three indo-European vowels a, c, o are often reduced to a in
Sanskrit. In Pali the vowel a becomes even more common because
of the tendency to declining most nouns and conjugating most verbs
on the model ot the stems in a. Thus sllavant is declined like
the steins in a, i.e. stlavanta and chid- is conjugated as having
the stem chinda.
150. Changes of vowels due to the structure of the syllable. In
Pali a syllable may contain either one or two syllabic instants or
matras. A syllable with one syllabic instant or a short syllabic ends
in a short vowel, while a syllable with two syllabic instants or a
long syllable ends either in a vowel thal is long by nature or in
a consonant making syllable with the previous vowel, Hence a
syllable may contain
a short vowel in an open syllabic: pu-ri-sa
or a short vowel in a closed syllable; gan-tum
or a long vowel in an open syllable: pu-ja
A closed syllable with a short vowel and an open syllable with
a long vowel are equivalent since both have two syllabic instants.
This equivalence explains several vowel changes when words pass
from Sanskrit into Pali,
a). Where Sanskrit has a long vowel in a closed syllable, Pali
has either a long vowel in an open syllable or a short vowel
in a closed syllable:
188
jmva
jinn a
decaved
is vara
is sara
Is vara
dirgha
digba
long
prdpta
patta
reached
akarsit
aka si
did
Nevertheless there are instances in which a long vowel is found
in a closed syllable: brShniana 'Brahmin 1 , SHkya 'Sakya 1 , nahatva
'having bathed', sdttha 'meaningful', The use of the long vowel in
a closed syllable seems to be due to the influence of the Sanskrit
spelling on the scribes of the Tripitaka.
b). Where Sanskrit has a long vowel in a closed syllable, Pali
has either a long vowel in an open syllable or a short vowel
in a closed syllable:
raja
raja
king
sruyatc
suyati/suyyad
is heard
diyate
diyati/diyyati
is given
Sometimes a
short vowel in
a closed syhible is nasalized:
bars ati
hamsati
is glad
matkuna
man kuna
bug
c). Where Sanskrit has a short vowel in a closed syllable, Pali
has either a long vowel in an open syllable or a short vowel
in a closed syllable:
darsayati
dasseti
shows
simha
siha
lion
vimsati
visati
twenty
samraga
saraga
passion
samrambha
sarambha
anger
1
189
d) . Sometimes the diphtongs e, ai, o, an are reduced to i, u
in a closed syllable or in a syllable that is made closed
by doubling the consonant that follows the vowel;
a is vary a issariya lordship
asrausma assumha we heard
gonam guniwm of cattle
manojna maniuma pleasing
e) . Sometimes a group of consonants is split up by means of
a vowel, and a long preceding vowel is shortened so that
the number of syllabic instants of the whole word remains
the same:
surya
sunva
sun
iirya
ariya
noble
tiksna
tikhina
sharp
irya
iriya
postur
suksma
sukhuma
subtle
f). But there are also several cases in which the Sanskrit
vowels i, u in a closed syllable and the vowels i, u in
an open syllable become c and o in Pali:
vi&iu venhu Visnu
ramaniya ramaneyya delightful
icifsa eddisa > edisa like this
jambunada jambonmda > jambonada gold
sunda send a elephant trunk
151. Change of vowels due to the structure of the word.
a. Final vowels. The final vowels were usually weak in pro-
nunciation and hence they were shortened: akarsit > akasi
>ztkasi he did.
190
b). Influence of the accent. In words of three or more syllables,
when the first syllable had the accent, the vowel of the
second syllable was often reduced and sometimes even
dropped :
cun dramas candima moon
madhyama majjhima middle
jagarati jagrati > jaggnti watches
draksyati dakkhati > dakkhiti will see
Tlie influence of the accent is evident also in the shortening
of the final vowel in some words: asms > asu , hetos > hetu } kftvas
> khattuiu, sadyas > sajju.
152 . Further changes.
a). Sometimes a vowel influences another vowel in the pre-
ceding
or in the
following sylable:
isv
itsu
arrow
iksu
ujju
sugar cane
tamisra
timissfi
darkness
ashy a
USUyS
jealousy
b). Sometimes the nature of a consonant brings about a change
in the vowel that follows it in so far as n appears in
preference after a labial and i after a palatal consonant:
majjati with the prefix ns becomes nimujjati 'plunges’,
jugupsate > jigucchati. In bhuyas > bhiyyo the vowel i
is due to the influence of the following y. In madhyama
> majjhima the change of the a to i is due both to the
influence of the accent and of the palatal consonant that
precedes it.
Sometimes ya, ya, va, va are reduced. In grammar this
change is called samprasarana,
c.
m
ya, ya arc reduced to /:
sty an a
thina
sloth
vi-atinameti
vyatinameti vitinameti spends
va, va are reduced to u and then this vowel becomes
two consonants:
svapna
supinn
snppa > soppa
dream
svasti
sotthi
blessing
svabhra
sobbha
pool
svastyayana
sot than a
greeting
svana has both sooa and suvina dog
In the formation of sovatthika from svasti we have the insertion
of the vowel u and then its lengthening to o; svasii > suvasti
>suvatthi+ka > sovatthika. The same is the formation of sovaggika
< svarga; svarna has savanna, sovanna and also sonna.
Sometimes even ve, vi are reduced in the same manner: dvesa
>doso; svid > su, sudam.
d), aya, aya are
contracted to
a:
svastyayana
sotthina
goodness
upas thay aka
upatthaka
attendant
pratisamlayana
patisallana
meditation
vehayasa
vehasa
sky
Sometimes the past gerund ending in aya has been contracted
in the same way: abhijnaya > abhinnaya/abhinna, upadaya/upada.
e). A vowel is often inserted to split up groups of consonants;
tysna
tasim/tanha
greed
garhati
garahat i
blame
suksma
sukhuma
subtle
192
When a vowel is inserted in the declension ol a noun, the
preceding syllable is not shortened: raj&as > rijino .
f) . The similarity with the suffix iya may account for the
shortening of the vowels in dvitiya > dutiya, tftiya > tatiya
g) . Sometimes the vowel u, on account of its open pronun-
ciation, has become a: ayusmant > ayasmant, punar > puna/
pana.
h) . In the declension in all the cases, with the exception of
the nominative and the vocative, the fmal vowel of the stem
is lengthened in the plural: jatinam , jatihi , jitisu, dhcnuhi,
dhcnunam , dhenusu,
153. Correspondence of the Sanskrit and the Pali vowels:
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
a
a
phala f spares
phala, phassa
a
adarta, alinda
adasa, alinda
i
carama, tamisra
carima, timissa
V
inmate, dabbnoti
tumute , duhbhati
a
a
adi, a kata
adi, akara
a
karsapana, avagadha
kahapana, ogadha
ekanta, arya
ekanta, ariya
0
dhavati
dhovati
1
j
H
J
itara, atithi
itara, atithi
i
vints&tif simha
vlsati, siha
a
diksita, puskarini
dakkhi ta/dikkhita
pokkharani
u
gatrika, iiiu
geruka, susu
e
vicca, nsska
vecca, nekkha
idani
dani
j
u
u
r
i
e
o
a
o
u
u
0
a
a
1
u
e
ra
dipa, dirgha
tirna, alika
darsaniya
kusala, lubdha
ud-hanti
kutumbika ,
bhuyas
ayusmant, aguru
puskara r ustra
dm a , rupa
dusam, curna
jambunada
kurpara
kfpana, mfta
fsi t kftui
rtu, mrdu
gfha, grdhya
brhant
¥
ru brmhayati
iru fgveda
mu fgveda
ii klpta
e eka, netra
o Iowa , krodha
u jyotsna, hetos
apanodana
193
dipa, dig ha
tinna, alika
dassaneyya
kusala, luddha
uhanii
kutum bika/k u l im bika ,
bhiyyo
ayasmant, again
pokkhara, ottha
dura, rupa
dussiina, cunna
jambonada
kappas a
kapana, mata
isi , kiwi
utu, mudu
geha, gedha
brahant
bruhe ti
irubbeda
ambbeda
kutta
eka, netta
Iowa, kodha
jusiha, hetu
apanudana
u
194
ai
e
gairika
gcmka
i
a is va rya, sa in dha va
issariya , sindhava
i
graiveyaka
givey aka
au
0
saiimy a f dauta
soimna, dhota
a
a unni t autsukya
ummi t ussukka
aya
a
prutisamkiyana
patisaliana
c
nay at i
neti
aya
a
upas! hay aka
npatthaka
aya
e
nay ami
net ni
aya
e
bhayami
bh&mi
ayi
c
cintayissati
ciniessati
ava
o
avatarati
otarati
ava
a
yavagu
yagu
avi
e
havissati
hessati
aha
a
unahana
a Jana
ya
i
nyagrodha
nigrodha
ya
I
sty a n a
thfna
va
u
tvarate, kvathati
turati, kuthati
0
svasti, svapna
Kn
O
■.r- -
's/j
i
vi
u
dvhiya
dufjya
VC
0
dvesa
dosa
Pali
Sanskrit
a
a,
a } f, u, i
a
a, aya # aya , aha , ava
i
4
4 r f a , u, a 4 ya
t
4
4 a 4 ya
i
195
t/ u, u t r, i i, o, an, va f vi
U t~4 u, o
e e, 4 4 f, ^4 ya ( aya, aya, aya
o o, l/, u, a, au, va, ava
N.B. The vowels a, 4 u are sometimes inserted lo split up
a group of consonants. Further the Sanskrit word stri becomes in
Pali itthi.
196
EVOLUTION OF THE
CONSONANTS
!
1 54, The consonants. The Pali alphabet contains thirty-four consonants
divided into mute, nasal, liquid, semivocalic and aspirate consonants.
a). Mute consonants. Mute consonants are characterized by a
complete closing or occlusion of the passage of the air
followed by a sudden opening or explosion when the consonants
are followed by a vowel, According to the organ of ar-
ticulation, the mute consonants are divided into
1) . labials when the occlusion is effected by both the lower
and upper lips;
2) , dentals when the occlusion is effected by the lip of the
tongue pressing against the upper teeth;
3) , cerebrals when the occlusion is effected by the tip of the
tongue pressing against the back of "the palate;
4) , palatals when the occlusion is effected by the front of the
tongue pressing against the hard palate;
5) , gutturals when the occlusion is effected in the throat.
lUillMIdliJiilMIUlillbllii
197
According to their quality, the mute consonants arc divided into
hard consonants : k, kh , c, c/j, t, th, r, t% p, ph
soft consonants : g, gh , j, jh t d dh, d t dh 6, bh
According to the quality of the explosion, the mute consonants
are divided into
aspirate consonants : kh, gh, ch , jh, th, dh, th , dh, ph, bh
unasp irate consonants : k, g, c , j f, d, t, d , p, b
There is also the aspirate h.
b) . Nasal consonants. Each set of mute consonants has a nasal
consonant which is pronounced with the air passing through
the nose. Thus there arc five nasal consonants: h, h, n, n,
m. Further there is the niggahita which is not an independ-
ent consonant by itself but is only the nasalization of the
preceding vowel.
c) . Liquid consonants. The liquid consonants are generally
pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the
upper teeth or against the palate and allowing the air to
escape on either side. The liquid consonans are r, /, I, jh,
The liquid consonants are soft consonants.
d) . Semivowels, y and v are semivowels and arc soft con-
sonants,
e) . Sibilant. Pali has only one sibilant s which is a hard dental
consonant.
155. The Pali consonant system. The Pali consonant system is
very dose to the Sanskrit consonant system. The following are the
main differences:
a). Pali has only one dental sibilant s against the three sibilants
of the Sanskrit language: the dental s, the cerebral $ and
the palatal s: dasa > dasa 'ten 1 , visa > visa 'poison', rasa
>rasa taste,
198
b) . The visarga at the end of a word in Sanskrit is eliminafed
in Pali. When the visarga is preceded by a it gives rise
to o in Pali. When followed by any other vowel, it is
eliminated; pmusah > purs so t agnih > aggi, sal ah > sala.
The tendency of ah becoming o is already found in Sanskrit
when it is followed by a hard consonant.
c) . Pali lias retained the Vedic consonants /, ill while classical
Sanskrit has replaced them with d, dh between two vowels.
kridati > klhti, mudha > mulha, daha > daha but paridaha
> parilaha since it is between two vowels.
Though the Pali consonant system is close to Sanskrit, yet there
are many changes that have taken place. This evolution will be
treated with reference to single consonants and to groups of two
and three consonants
156, Single consonants at the beginning of words. The initial
consonant of a word in Sanskrit is generally retained in Pali. But
there are a few exceptions:
a) . The soft consonant becomes hard: b > p: balbaja > babbaja
>pabbaja. In this case the change of consonant may be
due to dissimilation; glasnu > kifasu ‘tired 1
b) . The consonants f, p, b are sometimes aspirated; tu£a >
thusa ‘chaff, pamsa > pharusa ‘rough’, busa > bh usa
‘chaff.
The palatal consonants c, j are sometimes changed to t,
d, and the dental consonant t is sometimes changed to the
palatal c: cikitsati > cikicchati / tiki c chats ‘heals \ jugupsate
>jigucchati / digncchati ‘ abhors’ , tarhi > tan hi / carahi.
In the first two examples the change of consonant may be
due to dissimilation.
d). Change of /) > v; bimba > bimba / vimba, vala > vala /
bah. But in the form bala there is a change of meaning;
vah ‘hair of the tail’, bah ‘hair of the head’.
%
199
e) . By dissimilation / > n: lahgala > nahgah ‘plow’, lahgula
>lahgula/nahguia ‘tail’.
f) . The denial d is changed to d or n in: dahati < dahati
‘burns’, drsad > nisada ‘grinding stone', The change in
drsad may be due to dissimilation.
g) . By dissimilation m > v in mlmamsate > vimamsati
‘investigates’.
h) . The sibilant is changed to c/j in sava > chava ‘corpse 1 ,
sas > cha ‘six’, sepa > chop pa 'tail 1 .
i) . The sibilant s becomes d in saka > daka ‘vegetable 1 .
j) . By dissimilation p > k ; pi pi I ska > pipIlskS/ pip ill ska/
kipillika.
k) , Sometimes in Pali when a word begins with i, u the
coresponding semivowel is prefixed: ueya/e > uccati >
vuccati ‘is said’, /sta > ittha > yittha ‘sacrificed’.
l) . Sometimes the initial vowel is eliminated in Pali and the
word begins with a consonant; idani > dans ‘now’, udaka
> daka ‘water’, api dahati > pi dahati ‘shuts 1 , apihndhati
> pilandhati ‘wears’.
1 57. Correspondence of initial consonants between Pali and Sanskrit.
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
k
k
karoti . kalpa
karoti , kappa
kh
kh
khidati, khih
khadati, khih
0
B
g
gacchati, gisna
gacchati, gums
gh
gh
ghosa , ghana
ghosa, ghana
c
c
carati f cakra
carati, cakka
t
cikitsati
cikicchati /
tikicchati
ch
ch
chaya , chindati
chaya, chindati
dh
/]
P
ph
b
bh
m
y
i
jati , jina
jati, jina
d
ju gup sate
jigucchati/
digucchaii
t
tutha , tudati
tat ha, tudati
th
t usa
thusa
c
ti irhi
tarahi i carahi
d
dadati, desana
dadati, desana
d
dasati, dahati
dasati, dahati
n
dr sad, datyuha
nisada, najjuha
dh
dharma, dhuma
dhamma, dhuma
n
midi, nidhi
nadi, nidhi
P
pacati, pudgala
pacati, puggala
ph
para£u, parusa
pharasu , pharusa
k
pipiiika
pipillika / kipillikS
ph
phala, phena
phala t phena
b
bah, bodhi
bah, bodhi
bh
bus a
bhus a
P
bidbaja
pabbaja
V
baspa , bandhya
vappa t vandha
bh
bhaga, bheda
bhaga , bheda
m
mamsa , muncati
mamsa ,
muncati
V
mimamsati
vimamsati
y
yaksa, yoni
yakkha, yoni
r
raksati, rocate
rakkhati, rocate
l
ruksa
lukha
r
ihWIlwamH^-i
201
1
1
loka, lunati
ioka, lunati
n
lahgala, hlata
nan gala, nalata
V
V
varga , vega
vagga , vega
b
yah, vidala
vah / bah, hidala
£
s
saknoti, sih
sakkoti, sila
ch
sava
chava
s
s
sasti
satthi
ch
sas
cha
s
s
samsarati, sukha
samsarati, sukha
d
saka
daki i
ch
sepa
cheppa
h
h
hanti, hetu
hanti, hetu
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
Saskrit
k
k
n
n, d, 1
kh
kh
P
p, h
g
g
ph
ph, p
gh
gh
b
b, p, v
c
c t f
bh
bh, b
ch
ch, s, s, s
m
m
j
j
V
v , b, m
d
d, s
y
y
t
U c
r
r, l
th
t
1
4 r
d
4 j
s
s, s, s
dh
dh
h
h
202
N.B. The only initial Sanskrit consonant which is absent in Pali
is th. Even in Sanskrit, however, this cosonant occurs initally only
in a few words,
158, Single intervocalic consonants. A single intervocalic San-
skrit consonant is usually well retained in Pali; abadha >abadha
‘sickness’, gatha > gatha ‘stanza 1 , pacati
pacati ‘cooks’, sukha
> sukha ‘happiness 1 , prcma > pema ‘love 1 , etc. Blit there are
instances where the single intervocalic consonant undergoes changes.
a). A hard mute consonant, preceded and followed by a vowel,
is sometimes changed to its corresponding soft mute con-
sonant:
t > d: ntpata > uppada ‘jump 1 , ppsan t>pa sa ta/pa$a da ‘spotted
deer 1 , ruta>ruta/ruda ‘sound’, pratiyatayati > patiyadeti
‘arranges 1 , uta > vda ‘or’.
k > g: pra tikftya > patikacca / patigacca ‘from the beginning’,
muka > muga ‘dumb’.
c > j: sruc > suja ‘spoon 1
p > b > v ; vyapfta > vyabata > vyavata ‘desirable 1 , pupa >
pubn > puva ‘cake’, kapi > kabi / kavi ‘monkey’,
t > d > 1; karkata > kakkada > kakkhafa ‘rough 1
b). A soft mute consonant is sometimes changed into its
corresponding hard mute consonant
g > k: ajagara > ajagara / ajakara ‘python’, upaga>upaga /
upaka ‘frequenting 1 , apaga > fipaga / apaka ‘river 1 ,
chaga]a> chakala ‘goat 1 , pra-ruj > pahka ‘destruction’.
This change of a soft into a hard consonant is found also
in some proper names: Agasti > Akitti, Prayaga > Pay aka.
gh > kh ' parigha > paligha / palikha ‘club 1
j > c: pra-aj > pajeti / paceti ‘drives 1
d > f; kusida > kusita ‘lazy 1
203
v > p; havayati> hapeti ‘offer oblation’, avaplavayati>
opilapeti ‘sink 1 , svana > suvana / supana ‘dog 1
c) . The aspirate consonants gh, dh , bh sometimes lose their
occlusion and retain only the aspiration: laghu > lahu ‘quick 1 ,
mdhira>rudhita/ ruhira ‘blood 1 , narebhih>narehi ‘with
people 1 , agnibhih > aggihi ‘with fires 1 .
d) . Sometimes an occlusive consonant is dropped and y/v is
inserted to avoid hiatus: laukika > lokika > lokia>lokiya
‘wordly 1 , khadita > khadita / khiyita ‘eaten 1 .
e) . The Sanskrit intervocalic cerebral consonants d, dh become
in Pali /, jh: kridati > kilati ‘plays’, mudha > mulha
‘deluded’, daha but pavilaha 'burning 1 . But in a few words
the intervocalic d is retained: paridahati ‘burn’, anudahati
‘set on fire 1 , anudahana ‘burning 1 , devadaha ‘forest fire’,
anudasati ‘sting 1 .
t). When in Sanskrit the dental consonants t, th are preceded
by a syllable containing r, r, in Pali the dental consonant
is changed to the corresponding cerebral consonant prati>pati
‘against’ , prathama>pathama ‘first 1 , kfta>kata/kata ‘done 1 .
g) . j > d: Prasenajit > Pasenadi
d > r > l: trayodasa > t eras a i telasa ‘thirteen 1
h) . n, n > j: venu > vcjv ‘bamboo 1 , apinahyati > apinandhati
/ apilandhati ‘wears 1 .
i) . In the groups aya, ayi , ava, avi the consonant is dropped
and the two vowels arc contracted: aya / ayi > ai > e, avi
> ai> e, ava > a vu > au > o : bhavissati > havissati >
ha-issati > hessati ‘will be’, sthavira > thera ‘elder 1 ,
avatarati > otarati ‘comes down’, bhavati > hoti ‘is 1 .
j) - y > j- gavaya > gavaya / gavaja ‘bull 1
y > r: sramaneya > samanera ‘novice 1
y > v: ayusmant > avuso ‘friend 1 .
204
k) . i > a; karavira > karavira f kanavira *a plant’
r > 1: karira < kalira ‘bamboo joint’, catvlnj3isat>
cattarisa / cattalisa ’forty’
The prefix pari is sometimes changed to pah: paligha ’dagger’,
palikujjati ‘becomes crooked’, paligunthita ‘covered’, paiikhanati
*digs\ palikhadati ‘eats all round’, paligcdha * greediness’ , palipatha
‘fear’, palivetheti ‘wraps’, patipanna ‘fallen’, palihodha ‘trouble’.
r > l: antarikpa > anialikkha ‘sky’, jar&yu > jalabu ‘womb’,
maruta > maruta / maluta ‘wind’, sarika > sahka / saliyi ‘mynah’,
haridra > halidda ‘saffron’, eranda > eranda/danda ‘castor oil
plant’, kumbhira>kumbhila ‘crocodile’, giri>gili ‘hill’, sudrumafa >
sukhum&Ia ‘delicate’, maskarin > makkhall, yudhisthira >yudhittbila.
From the root dr there is udriyati, dalati / daleti.
From the root gf: girati / gilati.
l) . f > r: kila > kiln / to, lambh: alambma > arammana
m) . Sometimes the Sanskrit prefixes ava / apa, abhi / adhi are
interchanged in Pali: avakpntati > apakantati ‘cuts’, avalokita
> apahkita ‘begged permission’, apakaroti >avakaroti ‘remove’,
apa$fta>avasata/osata ‘left’, abhipraya >adhippaya ‘inten-
tion’, abhipatayati > adhipateti.
n) . Interchange of consonant: masaka > makasa (mosquito).
o) . Fractions: ardha-catuttha > addha-ca-utfha >addha-a-uttha
>addhotiha > addhvttha > addhuddha ‘ 3 1/2’, ardha-tftiya
>ad(fha-Utiya > addha-a-tiya > addhatiya ‘2 1/2’.
1S9. Correspondence of single intervocalic consonants.
Sanskrit Pali Sanskrit Pali
k Jr vfka, prakira vaka, pakara,
y laukika, agarika lokiya, agariya
v £uka Suva
kh kh sukha, likhati sukha, likhati
1
I
205
g
8
ruga, roga
raga, roga
k
c hag a hi, sthagayats
ehakala, thaketi
gh
gh
nidaglm
nidagha
kh
parigha
paligha / palikha
h
! a ghu
him
c
c
pacati, nici
pa cat i, ruci
J
j
gaja, raj an
gaja , raj an
c
prajayati
piijeti / paced
d
pmsenajit
p a sen ad i
y
nija
niya
t
t
atavi
atavi
i
■
karkata
kakkhala
th
th
jathara
jathara
d
1
kridati
kilati
dd
krida
kidda / kila
j
vidahga, a dambara
vihhga, alambara
dh
Ih
mudha
mulha
n
n
H
guna, a runa
guna, a run a
1
veins
vcju
t
t
gats, jfita
gati, jata
d
utajatayati
uda , yadeti,
niyyadeti
l
prati, krta
pati , kata / kata
th
th
gatha, kathayati
gat ha, katheti
th
kvathati, prathama
kathati, pathanm
dh
vyath
vedhati
206
d
d
udaka, kada
udaka , kada
t
kusida
kasha
y
khadita
khiyita
i
udara
id an j
dh
dh
bod hi
bodhi
th
apidhiyate
pithiyati
h
rudhira, sadhu
rnhira, sahu
n
n
dina , nidana
dina. nidana
1
enas, anena
eja, ancla
\
Snahana
a liina / ajana
P
P
rupa
rupa
V
apakaroti
avakaroti
ph
ph
saphala
saphala
b
b
abadha
abadha
P
alabu
alabu / alapu
bh
bh
prabha , labhati
pabha, labhati
h
prabhuta
pahhta
m
n 1
preirn 3 sama
pema, sama
y
y
priya
piya
V
ayudha, raya
avudha, rava
b
jarayu
j alabu
bb
puya
pubba
r
r
pant, nara
para , uara
n
karavira
kanavira
I
pari, antariksa
pali, antalikkha
1
da rid™
dalidda / dalidda
ilmiiHUiii
■
207
i'fl
9
/
kala , phala
kala, phala
1
antarafa, alinda
antarala,
afinda/al inda
V
V
evam, dev a
evam, deva
b
avila
avila / abila
s
s
irasati
tasati
,1
J
s
s
yasa
yasa
s
s
bhasa
bhasii
h
h
moha
moha
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
k
K g
P
P, h
: :
kh
kh, gh
ph
ph
g
8
b
b, v, y
|
gh
gh
bh
bh
c
c > J
m
m
j
j
y
y, k } j, d
;
!
t
!, t
r
r
9
th
h
th, th
1
1, r, n, d
n
Oy r
;
d, d, 1, r, n, n
f
t, d
Ih
dh
■
th
th, dh
V
v, y s k
d
d, t, j
s
$, ^ s
[
dh
dh, th
h
h, gh, dh, bh
n
n
i
N.B. In Pali idha lias retained the mute aspirate consonant while
Sanskrit has iha. Further Pali retains the r in the word naharu as
E
i
208
is found in Avestan snavara while Sanskrit r has been changed
to y: nahayu.
160, Final consonants. In Pali no word ends in a consonant.
a). A Sanskrit nasal consonant at the end of a word becomes
niggahila in Pali; agnim > aggim, nipam > mpnm, varan
> varum.
b) . The final visarga with a preceding a becomes o : manah
>mano, purusah > pun so,
c) . The visarga, preceded by any other vowel, is dropped: salih
> sala s agnih > aggi, bhiksuh > bhikkhu.
d) . The Sanskrit consonants k t t, t, p at the end of a word,
arc dropped: tasmat > tasma
e) . When a word ends in a consonant in Sanskrit, either that
consonant is dropped in Pali or a vowel is added to it:
apsaras
> acchara
usman
h
> usma / u simia
vidyut
> vijju / vijjuta
sari t
> sarita
apad
> apada
sarat
> sarada
dr sad
> msada
nirvid
> nibbida
N.B. Sometimes the final consonant of a preposition or of a
pronoun which has been dropped, reappears in composition: puna :
punarahost, tasma: tasmadha.
16 L Groups of two consonants. The various Sanskrit consonant
groups, in passing over to Pali, are either assimilated or split up
by the insertion of a voweL
Assimilation between two occlusive consonants was favoured
by the fact that the first consonant was unexploded and hence very
easily tended to be pronounced like the following consonant which
exploded with the following vowel.
The insertion of a vowel usually took place when the second
consonant was a nasal or a semivowel, or when a liquid consonant
209
was preceded by a mute consonant or by s, Sometimes the same
word may have two developments: assimilation of the consonants
and insertion of a vowel.
A word in Pali generally begins with a single consonant; hence
an initial group of consonants in Sanskrit is in Pali either assimilated
or split up with the insertion of a vowel. When the group is as-
similated, the first consonant drops; but this consonant appears in
compounds; skandha > kkhandha > khandha jiiata > imata > data
but abhinmta. There are, however, a few words beginning with an
occlusive or mute consonant and a semivowel or liquid consonant;
brahma > brahma, vyakrta > vyakata.
The rules of assimilation arc the same as those given in nos.
12-16. Those rules arc briefly repealed here together with elements
that are proper to the evolution of consonants from Sanskrit to Pali.
162, Mute + mute consonant. When in Sanskrit the group of
consonants is made up of two identical mute consonants, this group
remains unaltered in Pali; uddtina > uddana "essence 1 . When the
two consonants are different, the first is assimilated to the second:
pudgala > puggala' "individual’, arabdba > araddba ‘begun 1 .
A group of dental consonants, preceded by r / /; sometimes
remains the same and sometimes the consonants are ccrebralizcd.
The difference of development is usually connected with a semantic
difference: vfddha >vuddha ‘old’, vaddha ‘wealth’, vrtta> vatta
‘obligation 1 , vatta ‘circular 1 .
The consonants are assimilated and cerebral ized in the past
participle dagdha from the root dab: daddba.
In pippati > pipphah the consonant becomes aspirate.
Here are the various groups made up of occlusive or mute
consonants:
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
kk
kk
vrkka
vakk
kt
tt
vukta
vutta
210
211
kth
t th
sakthi
satthi
gdh
ddh
dugdha
duddha
gbh
bbh
pragbhara
pabbhaca
cc
cc
ucoiya
uccaya
cch
cch
gacchati
gacchati
jj
jj
kajjala
kajjala
jjfo
jjh
ujjhaii
ujjhati
tt
tt
ghattayati
ghatteti
dd
dd
Liddayati
uddeti
1 s
%
gg
khadga
khagga
tt
tt
nimitta
nimitta
it
vftta
vatta
tk
kk
satkaroti
sakkaroti
tp
PP
ut patti
uppatti
tph
pp/j
utphalaya ti
upphahti
dd
dd
uddana
u d dan a
ddh
ddh
sraddha
saddhii
ddh
vrddhi
£
vaddhi
bbh
uddhrta
ubbhata
dg
gg
mudga
mugga
dgh
ggh
udghosayati
ugghoseti
db
bb
udbadhnati
ubbandhati
dbh
bbh
udbl lava
ubbhava
Pt
tt
prapta
patta
PP
pph
pippali
pipphali
bj
jj
kubja
kujja
i
■I.
9
i
*
7
P
T
i
■i
I
\
bd dd £abda sad da
bdh ddh Jabdba laddha
N.B. Sometimes in Sanskrit a word has a long vowel before
a single consonant; in Pali the consonant is doubled and the vowel
shortened: akula > akkula, nidha > niddha.
163. Mute + sibilant consonants. In Sanskrit only three mute
consonants are followed by a sibilant: ks, ts, ps.
a) , ks. In this group the sibilant is assimilated to the mute
consonant and the final vowel is aspirated: raksati > rakkhati,
dakslna > dakkhina, ksetra > khetta, ksipati > khipati.
There are some words in which the group ks > cch: fksa > accha,
kuksi > id/ cch/,
In some word we find both kkh, cch: aksi > akkhi, saksikaroti
>$acchikavoti, ksura > khura, ksurika > churika.
In some cases the difference in the simplification of the con-
sonant group has a special semantic connotation: ksama > khama
'forbearance', ksama>chama 'earth 5 ; ksana >khana 'moment 5 , ksana
> chan a 'festivity'.
ks > kkh > ggh: praksarati > pakkharati > pagghamd.
The consonant group ks of the root ksay has various de-
velopments; ghayati/ jhayati ‘to be thirsty 5 , khara ‘saltpetre 5 charika
‘ashes 5 .
b) . is. At the beginning of a word this groupo of consonants
is found in Sanskrit only in the word tsaru > tharu.
When the group ts is intervocalic, it develops into cch: ditsati
> dicchati, vatsa > vaccha.
When a word beginning with the sibilant s is preceded by the
prefix ud f the final consonant of ud becomes hard i.e. ut and then
it is assimilated to the following sibilant: ud-sahati > vt-sahati >
ussahati, ud-suka > ut-svka > ussuka. But ut-sahga > ucchanga.
212
c). ps > C<
:h; apsara.
s > acchara , jugupsate
> jigucchati, psata
>chata.
164. Sibilant + mute
consonant. A sibilant
is assimilated to a
following mute
consonant
1 and this becomes aspirate, unless it is
already aspirate:
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
sk
kkh
skandha,
praskanduti
khandha,
pakkhandati
st
Hh
asti, stana
atthi, thana
st
tt! i
upasthamba
upatthamba
sp
pph
sparsa
phassa
sph
pph
sphati
phati
sk
kkh
niska
nikkha
st
tth
drsti
ditthi
4 1
sth
tth
sresthi, kistha
setthi, kattha
sc
cch
pascal, Mvaryya
paccha,
acchariya
a), The group sk in the root skarnbh- becomes kh / eh but
with a semantic difference: khambheti ‘endures’, chambeti
‘to be firm’.
b). In the root stha the vowel j of the reduplication causes
the cerebralization of the following group: tisthati > titthati.
The cerebral consonants have been retained in all the forms
derived from this root: atthasl, thita, (hassati, thanam, thiti.
But the dental has been retained in the words thami, thavani ,
thira, thera.
c)-
The final sibilant of the prefix nis usually causes the
following consonant to become aspirate; but there are a few
cases where this aspiration docs not take place: nispatti >
213
ni skhn a > nikkinna, niscaki > niccala, niscarati >niccharati,
Y
mstirna > nistinna, nistarana > nittharana.
The final sibilant of dus never causes the aspiration of the
following consonant: duskara > dukkara, dustara > duttara.
d). In some cases the group st has been retained: uttrasta>utrasta,
avadhasta > odhasta.
In the word asthi the consonant group has been cerebral ized:
a tth/.
In lestu the sibilant lias been assimilated to the fo lowing
consonant, and then the group has been softened but without as-
piration: lestu > httu > leddu,
skanna > kannn without aspiration,
165. Mute consonant + nasal consonant. A nasal consonant is
assimilated to a preceding guttural, dental and labial consonant.
Sanskrit
Pali
Sanskrit
Pali
kn
kk
saknoti
sakkoti
gn
gg
agni
aggi
tn
tt
sa patna
sapatta
tm
tt
at man
at tun
pn
PP
prapnoti
pappoti
a) . A palatal consonant, followed by a nasal, is assimilated to
it: rajna > ranna, abijM > abinna,
b) . Sometimes, instead of the two consonants being assimi-
lated, a vowel is inserted: rajni > ranna / rajina , ratna >
rat an a, atma > atuma, papman > papima, padma > padma
/ paduma, agni > aggi / gini, svapna > supina /sop pa.
When the root sak- and the root ap with the prefix pra are
inflected in Pali like the verbs of the ninth class, the vowel u is
inserted before the suffix: pra-ap-nati > pap-u-nati > papunati, sak-
214
nati > sakk-u-nati > sakkunati. This second form has the doubling
of the consonant on the analogy of sakkoti,
c). The consonant group of the root jni is sometimes sim-
plified to a cerebral nasal: ajha > ana, ajhapti > anatti,
ajnapeti >anapeti,
166. Nasal consonant + mute consonant, A Sanskrit nasal fol-
lowed by a mute is retained in Pali: atikura > ahkura , sahgba
>sangha, panca>panca, pandita > pandita, antima >antima, kampati
> kampati, sambodhi > sambodhi, gambhira > gambhira.
a) . In some cases a hard mute consonant is softened: nighantu
*->-■ ■ ■
>nighandu,
b) . Sometimes the consonant i causes the cerebral ization of
a following dental: granthi > ganthi,
c) . In the group mbh sometimes the occlusion is lost leaving
behind only the apiration: vambha > vamha,
d) . The group he in numerals is sometimes represented by nn,
ndy nn: pancadasa > pancadasa / pannarasa, paimarasa /
pancMat > pannasa / pannasa.
167. Mute consonant + 1, v„ y, r. When a mute consonant is
followed by one of the consonant I, v t y, r the usual assimilation
lakes place. But there are cases where the consonant group remains
the same, or a vowel in inserted, or a new group of consonants arises.
a) . Mute consonant + 1. When a mute consonant is followed
by l assimilation takes place or a vowel is inserted: $ukla
> sukka, glana > gilana, klista > kilittha, klesa > kiicsa,
klamati >k Hamad, plavati > plavad f pilavad.
b) . mute consonant + v. When a mute consonant is followed
by v the group remains unchanged, or assimilation takes
place or the vowel n is inserted: Srutva > sutva i, jhatva
> liatva, tvam > tvam, dvara > dvara, dvidha > dvidha,
Assimilation: kftvah > khattum, dvi >ddi > di: diguna, dvesya
> dessa, tvam > tam, jvalati > jalati.
215
Insertion of vowel u: tvam > ftivam, dvi > duvi ,
dv > bb; udvigna > ubbigga, dvadasa > barasa.
Stray cases: dvesa > dosa , cat vara > caccara, avadhvasta >odhasta,
lahhadhvc > labhavhc, jajvalayati > daddalhati
c) . Mute consonant + y,
Guttural consonant + y
L remain unchanged
2. assimilation
3. insertion of a vowel
sakya > sakka / sakiya / sakya > sakka , vakya /viikya, akhyata
> akhyata / akkhata, bhagya > bhagya, bhagga f bhagiya, bhagyavant
> bhagyavant / bhagga vant, arogya > drogya .
Palatal consonant + y: Either the group is split up with the vowel
i or assimilation takes place: jya > jiya , yacyate >yaciyati, jyotsna
> junta / dosina, vanijya > vanijja,
Dental consonant + y give rise to a palatal group: ty > cc, thy
> cch, dy >jj } dhy > jjh: atyanta > accanta , tyajati > cajati, mithya
> miccha, vtpadyate > uppajjati, madhyama > majjhima, dhy amt >
jhana, dyotate > jotati,
N.B. The final consonant of ud is assimilated to the following
y in ud-yana > uyyana, dyuta > duta / juta.
danyuha > najjuha, pratyeka > pneveka f patekka / patiyekka,
d) , Mute consonant + r. This group either remains unchanged
or assimilation takes place or a vowel is inserted:
brahman a>brahm ana, brumi >brumi, anyatra>annatra, nyagrodha
> nigrodha.
krodba > kodha f knda > kija / khiddft, grama > gama, grasati
> gasati.
vajra > vajira , kriya > kiriya, krura > kurum.
]
i
216
The group fr is sometimes assimilated and aspirated: yatra >
yattha, annatra > ahhattha,
168. 1> r + mute consonants.
a) . I + a mute consonant. The consonant /, followed by a mute
consonant, is assimilated to it: alpa > appa, valgu > vaggu
b) . r T a mute consonant. The consonant r, followed by a
mute consonant, is assimilated to it: kini > kiiti, marga>magga,
nirdbsa > niddosa, sarpa > sappa, garbha > gabbha.
Sometimes a dental consonant is cerebralized: arta > atta, ardha
> addha / addha f nirdhati > niddayati, vardhati > vaddhati.
is
The difference between the dental and the cerebral consonants
linked with a semantic difference: vartati > vattati ‘to exist’,
vattati ‘to turn round’.
The word artha has several developments in Pali: attha ‘gain
and meaning’, atta ‘lawsuit’, attha in att/iilcarofj ‘to undesrtand’.
In the word gardabha the consonant r undergoes metathesis:
gardabha > gadrabha.
169. Sibilant + nasal consonant. When a sibilant is followed by
a nasal consonant, the sibilant is changed to h and then metathesis
takes place: tfsni > tahna > tanha, gtisma > ghnha, prasna > panha.
In this last case, the dental is celebralized,
In some cases the sibilant and the nasal have not undergone
any change: asms > asmi t tasmim > tasmim / tamhi ,
Somelimcs the consonant group is split up with the insertion
of a vowel. In some cases the vowel has been inserted even after
the sibilant consonant has been changed to h: snigdha > siniddha,
snana > nahana, snayu > nhaiu > naharu.
Rarely is the nasal consonant assimilated to the sibilant: smarafi;
ssarati > sarati, anustnarati > amt ssarati, smrti > sati.
217
In the word rasmi either the two consonants remain unchanged
or they are interchanged, while in sma§ru the sibilant is assimilated
to the nasal: rasmi > rasmi / rasnsi, smasm > massu.
There are words in which the group sibilant i nasal has un-
dergone more than one change:
asm an asmam, asama, am ha
usman usma . usunm
tisna tanha. tasina
■r r i r ■
bhisma bhisma, bhimsa, bhesma, bhimha
sneha sneha, sineha
snusa sunha, suttisa , husa
smarati sumarati, sarati
smita sita, s/m fa, mi hit a (ssnita > hmittt > mhita
> mihha)
slesman silesuma, semha
170, Nasal + sibilant, A nasal consonant is turned into niggahita
when followed by a sibilant: ansu > amsu, amsa > a ins a.
In some words the nasal has been dropped and the vowel has
been lengthened: v ins sati > visati, sintha > siha,
171, Sibilant + 1, v t y, r. The consonants I, v, j, r are assimilated
to a preceding sibilant: asva >a$sa, nnsyati> nassati, sahasra> sahassa f
svadate > sayati, sasvai >sassata, svasru >sassu,
Sometimes, instead of assimilation, the consonant group is split
up with the insertion of a vowel: tfloka > siloka, < ’desman >sile$uma f
svana > suvana / suvana, svamin > $am in/s u vamin f svas >sve / save,
syat > siyn f sri > sin.
The sibilant with y gives rise to cch in asyati > acchati,
kasyapa > kacchapa.
The group §r may be assimilated into a double sibilant, or
[he sibilant may be preceded by a niggahita, or the niggahita may
218
be dropped and the vowel lengthened: asra > assa / amsa / itsa
(kotthasa ).
1 72 „ r + sibilant. Generally ail r is assimilated to a following
sibilant: darhRa>dassana,varsati>vassad ) karsaka> kassaka,
Sometimes the double sibilant is simplified and a preceding
short vowel is lengthened or nasalized: akarsit > akassi > akasi, karsu
> kassu > kasu, datiayad > dasseti / upadamseti, utkarsati > ukkamsad,
gharsad > ghamsad, harsati >bamsati 3 dharsam > d ha ms ana.
173, Nasal + nasal. The consonant group nn is sometimes
cerebralized: unnamati> unnaimti /unnamati, anna>anna (aparanna,
pubhanna ), janu > jami / jannu (jannuka).
174, Nasal + 1, v, y, r.
ml
m-I
mlayati > mi lay ad
11
pradsamlina > patisalllna,
samlapati > sallapati
my
my
kamyata > kamyata
mm
kamyata > kammata, aga my a
agamma
my
my / hna
samyama > samyama i sauna
mv
mv
samvara > samvara
mr r
mr mr
ny nn
nv nv
nn
nv nn
samraga > saraga
sammksati > samrakkhad
anya > anna, many ad > manna d 3
nyaya > miaya> hiya
an vet/ > anved
sama n vaga ta > sa man n aga fa ,
sa man vesad> sama nn esa d
kin va > kinna
L
1
2
219
175. 1, v, r + nasal. The consonant 4 v, y, r are assimilated
to a following nasal: dhanna > dhamma, pinna > punna, karna
>kanna, kalmasa > kammasa.
N.B,
urmi
> ummi > umi
guima
> gumla > gumbla > gumba
176,
1. v, y,
r + 1, v, y, r.
iv
11
palvala > palla
bilva > hi! hi
iy
iy
kalyana > kalyana
maftgalya > mahgalya
ii
capalya > capalla
kausalya > k os alia
lh
jajvalyad > daddalhad
vy
vy
divya > divya , anuvyanjana > anuvyanjana
by
vyakta > byatta, anuvyanjana > anubyanjan,
viy
vyakta > viyatta, anuvyanjana >
anuviyanjana
vv
vyagra > vagga , vyaya > vayn
bb
bhavya > bhabba, vyudha > bulb a
vya
vi
vyadh > vijjhati
VC
vyatb > vedhati
VI
vv
vraja > va ja
bb
piavvajad > pabbajad
rl
11
durlabha > dullabha
rv
bb
sarva > sabba
PP
carvayad > capped
ry
ry
arya > ary a
riya ary a > ariya, surya > suriya, pratiharya
> patihariya / patihlra (pratiharya > pad hair a
> pat i hem > patihira)
yir mya > ay mi, karyat > kayira
yy ary a > ayya, niryati > niyyati
!! paryahka > pallahka
Sometimes when ii is preceded by the vowel a, contraction
lakes place: a§ varya > acchayira > accha-ira > acchera ,
177. h,
h \ nasal, y, v undergoes matathesis: grhnati >gahnati>
ganhati, jihma>jimha t iruhya > aruyha , jihva >jivha. The consonants
remain unchanged in the words brahman, brahman a.
The group hy is split up with the vowel i: hyas > hlyo > hiyyo.
Leyya < lehya may have been formed on the analogy with peyya
with which it is usually used.
N.B. hr! > hiri
hrada
hrada
hrativa
dm ha daha
ha i a da rahada
mssa
nayhati nandhati. This may be an analogical form: as
baddha< bandhati so naddha < nandhati.
GROUPS OF THREE
CONSONANTS
The groups of three consonants will be treated according as they
contain a nasal or not,
178, Groups of three consonants without a nasal. If the group
of consonants in Sanskrit contains at least one mute consonant, then
221
the general rules of assimilation are followed in passing over into
Pali, Then one of the three consonants is dropped,
a). Mute + mute + s, y, r, v.
ktr
ft
vaktra
vat ft a vatta,
yoktra
yottta yotta
tks
kkh
utksipati
ukksipa ti i ikkkh ip a t i
ukkhipati
Ur
u
chat tra
chatta
ttv
it
tattva
tatta,
ddl
3 v ddh
sattva
uddhvamsati
satta
uddhamsati
djy
ii
udjvalati
ujjalati
In the past gerund the suffix tva
consonant is dropped: praptva > pattva
muktva > mutva.
remains but the previous
> patva , bhuktva > bhutva ,
Sometimes the group fr is retained and the previous consonant
is dropped: uttrasati > vttasati , uttrasta > utrasta / uttasta.
tks > jjh: utksayati > ujjhayati,
b) . Mute + sibilant + y.
ksy > kkh: saksyati > sakkhati/ sagghati,
vaksyati> vakkhati
mo ksy at i > mokkhati.
tsy, psy > cch: matsya > maccha ,
chetsyati > checchati,
lapsyati > lacchati.
c) . Sibilant + mute + y, r, v,
str tth: stri > itthi i ths
sastra > sattha
222
sir tth; ostra > ottha.
N.B. d/'sfva > disva / datthu (in poetry)
£istra > sattham (with the insertion of a vowel)
sty ana > thina .
i
d) . r + mute + y, r, v.
9 [
mrtya > m a tty a > macca
j
ardra > add a / alia / addha
urdhvam > uddham i ubbham
e) . r + s + L
tst > tth akarsta > akattha.
In Pali, in the second person plural of the verbs, the dental group
has been generalized where we might have expected a cerebral group,
f). r + sibilant + y, v.
irsyfi > issa, paisva > pas&a.
Note the future of the verb kasati from the root kfs- : karsyati
> kasssati > kassati > kasati > kahati / kahiti
179. Sanskrit consonant groups wih a nasal. When in Sanskrit
a nasal is followed by two consonants, in passing over into Pali,
the nasal is retained while the other two consonants are assimilated
and then one is dropped,
a) , nasal + mute + mute.
tiki > nt pahkti panti
b) . nasal + mute + sibilant
nasal + sibilant + mute.
hks
> hkh
sahksipati
sahkhipati,
kahksa
kahkha
msk
> hkh
samskara
sahkhara
nsth
> nth
sansthagara
santhagi ha,
■ IiHliitlflirffll
223
c). nasal + mute + y, r, v.
h kr
> hk
cahkmmati
cahkamati
hkhy
> hkh
sahkhyati
sahkhati
hgr
> hg
sahgrama
sangama
ntr
> nt
tantri
tanti
nty
> he
ana nty a
mahea
ndr
> nd
candra
canda
ndhy > iijh sandhya > sahjha , vindhya > vihjha
ndhr > ndh randhra > randha
In some cases the three consonants are retained, and in the past
gerund Pali has three consonants while Sanskrit has only two: indriya
> indriya , sahkhyata > sankhata, hatva > hanlva, gatva >gantva.
Sometimes there is no assimilation but the group is split up
with the insertion ol a vowel: nisincya > nisiheiya. Further satpjha
> sahha.
d). nasal + s + y. hamsyati > hahvhati / hahkhati This
development may have been due to the insertion of t/k
before the sibilant: han-t-syati > hahehati / han-k-syati >
hahkhati.
180. Two consonants + nasal. A Sanskrit word with a nasal
preceded by two other consonants passes over into Pali in different
ways:
ksn > kkh / nh / kh-n
dksna tikkha / tinha / tikhina
abhiksnam a bhikkhanam / abhinham
ilaksna sanha
ksm > kkh / mh / kh-m
suksma
Inks mi
sukkha, sumha, sukhunia
iakkhi
224
tsn
> nh / s-n
jotsna
junta / dositia
kftsna
kasina
tsm
> mh:
u ts may at i u mhaya ti
rtm
> t-m;
vartman vatuma
rsn
> nh:
parsni panhi
rsm
> mh:
aka rsm a akamha
If a Sanskrit word has a group of four consonants, in Pali these
consonants are reduced to one with the lengthening of the previous
vowel; dainstra > datha.
181. Insertion of a vowel. In the evolution of the consonant
groups from Sanskrit into Pali, often there is no assmilation but the
splitting up of the group with the insertion of one of the vowels
4 u 3 a . Sometimes, instead of the vowel u we find o the guna form
of the same vowel. The choice of the vowel that is inserted generally.
foJlows a certain pattern. The vowel i is generally inserted before
the semivowel y and before the liquid consonant i; the vowel u
is generally inserted before the semivowel v and the labial consonant
m; the vowel a is inserted before the consonant r, In a few cases
the vowel inserted has been influenced by the vowel in the following
syllable,
a), y >
ty:
arya
any a
maryada
mariyada
acarya
acariya
sakya
sakiya
a & vary a
acchariya
bhagya
bhagiya
kirya
kiriya
nislncya
nisiheiya
surya
surly a
pniktrya
pnkiriya
vlrya
viriya
yacyate
yaciyati
b). v
> uv:
225
tvam
tuvam
svamin
suvamin
dvi
duvi
svaim
suvana
svas
save
svasti
suv a tt hi
dvandva
tuvantuva
c). m >
um:
atm a
atuma
v a nman
vatuma
h
usman
usuma
suksma
sukhum a
paksman
pakhuma
smarati
sumarati
padma
padmmi
slesrrtan
siksuma
N.B. papman
previous vowel a
> papima (the vowel / may
-)
be due to the accented
smita > mhita > mihita, asm an > a saw a {the vowel inserted
in these last two examples may due to the influence of the neigh-
bouring vowels)
c). r >
ar:
sastra
satthara
datra
datara
pitra
pitara
hr a da
harada > rahada
matra
matara
N.B. arhati :
> arahati
garhati > garahati
sti > shi hrl > hiri
may have been due to the
krura > kurura
influence of the
(the vowel inserted
neighbouring vowel).
d). 1 >
il;
kle£a
kilesa
mlayati
milayati
klista
kilittha
- F
slestha
silittha
klamati
kilamati
sfaka
sihka
glasnu
kiiasu
slesman
silesuma
226
227
glina
gilana
avaplavaya ti
opilapet i
plavati
pi lava ti
e). n:
The vowel inserted,
when the consonant group contain-
mg
an n is split, depends on the
previous or on the
following vowel:
agni
gmi
ratna
ratana
tlksna
tikhina
abhiksna
abbikkhana
snigdha
siniddha
snana
nhana > nahana
sniyu
nharu > naharu
N.B. rijnah > rajino, rajm > tajini , raj hi > rajim ,
In the declension of the stems in an, the vowel u is inserted
when the final is long, and the vowel a when the final vowel is
short:
brahmunS, b rah mu no but brahmani
kammuna , kammuno but kammani
addhuna, addhuno but addhani.
But attan retains the vowel a; attani, attano, attani
In the conjugation of the present stem we find also papmati ,
sakkunati,
In a few cases, the vowel i is inserted before the consonant
tfsna
tasina
svapna
supina
jyotsna
dost nii
snayati
sinayati
sneha
smeha
s ii us a
sinma > sunisa / sunha
f). Insertion of o.
gulma > gumba but in the derivative gobmika, svarga > sagga,
sovaggika, dvara > dvara, dvarika / dovarika.
m i
i
g). When the vowel i is inserted after the consonant r, then
a long vowel preceding the consonant r is shortened:
siirya
suaya
arya
ariya
acarya
acariya
virya
viriya
Similarly
siiksnia
sukhuma
tiksna tikhina
N,B. a). In Pali any consonant can be found at the beginning
of a word, except d, t, dh, n, /, Ih.
b) . Between two vowels all consonants can be used alone with
the exception of ch, jh, n, dh, dh>
c) . All Sanskrit final consonants are dropped in Pali, though
they may sometimes appear in compound words
APOPHONY
182. In Sanskrit the vowel gradation plays a great part in the
formation of words, in the declensions and in the conjugations. In
Pali the vowel gradation has lost much of its importance, In the
building up of the words, it is found since most of the words are
derived from Sanskrit. In the declensions and the conjugations most
of the time there is the tendency to build up the forms from one
uniform stem; thus while Sanskrit has such forms as chinadmi,
chinatsi, chindmah , in Pali we have chindami, chindasi, chindama.
While in Sanskrit the past participle is formed from the verbal root
in its weak grade gam-; gata , in Pali wc have the past participle
formed from the root in its weak grade, but also from the stem of
the present tense: gata, gacchita. The same happens in the dc lensions.
Thus we have the forms silavati, silavato , but the word is also
declined like the ordinary thematic stems: sihvanto, silavantam,
sihvantassa, etc.. (For the vowel gradation, see no. 4 and what has
been said in the declension, in the conjugation, and in the building
up of words.)
228
s
I
7 .
CHAPTER XIII
EVOLUTION OF
THE DECLENSIONS
In Pali the declensions of the nouns and of the adjectives are
the historical development and simplification of the declensions in
:
Sanskrit, Hence when we compare and contrast the declensions in
Pali with the declensions in Sanskrit we can follow their evolution.
Before coming to details, we can point out some general charac-
teristics,
. r
183, Loss of consonant declensions. Since no words in Pali end
in a consonant, the Sanskrit consonant declensions have been lost
and they have become vowel declensions according as the words
end in one or the other vowel; v.g. apad > apada, vidyut > vijju
f vijyuta, ayiis > ayu , di$ > dm. Traces, however, of the Sanskrit
consonant declension are found in stem in -as, -an, -in, -nt,-ar:
manas, mjan, hatihin, silavant, satthar.
184. Prevalence of the -a declension. There is a very strong
tendency to build up a uniform and simple declension, avoiding all
difficult forms, especially those that would entail the application of
difficult sandhi rules. And the simplest of all the declensions is that
of the stems in - a or thematic declension. Hence many new forms
229
have been built on the analogy of the thematic stems. Aggi has
a genitive aggissa , an ablative aggisma, a locative aggismim just
like purisassa, puisasmi, purisasmim. The stems in ant can op-
tionally be declined on the model of the a-stems: si hi van to, sihivantam,
sllavantena , etc. This tendency had already started in Sanskrit in
forming compounds: ahguli / dasahgufa, aksi / catmaksa.
185. Indistinctness of the gender. Pali has retained the three
genders as in Sanskrit, The distinction, however, between the masculine
and the neuter nouns is seen only in the nominative, vocative and
accusative singular and plural. And even in these cases, the distinc-
tion between the masculine and the neuter is not always clear,
especially in poetry. In the Katana Suita we find yani bhutani and
sabbe bhuta in the same stanza (Sn 222); in the Itivuttaka we find
tint sukhani in the prose passage and tayo sukhe in poetry (Jtv
67:5, J 4); in the Majjhima Nikaya we find in the same sutta the
nominative singular dando and the accusative plural dandani (MN
1 373:2 and 374:10); imani padhanani / etc padhana (AN IJ 74:
1, 25); ye keci bhavi i sabba bhavani (Ud35: 15, 21); mvesane
/ nivesanani (Sn 300, 305); putto / puttani (Ud 17:29, 33);
manapike cakkhuna ivpe passitum (Ud 30:27; dhammani (l)pd
270); pane (DN 111 63:11); panini (Dpd 27); padani dhovitva /
pade pakkhaletvi (Theri 176, 178).
Sometimes this variety of endings may be due to requirements
of metre in poetry. On other occasions it may be due lo the influence
of the words that precede or follow. Thus in the Udana we read
sabba puttani occurring soon after sabba bhattani. Again we read
manapike sadde manapike rase manapike gandhe together with
manapike rupe manapike photthabbe.
In some cases the variety of endings may be due rather lo the
fact that Pali is on this point more closely connected with Vedic
Sanskrit than with Classical Sanskrit. In Vedic Sanskrit the nomi-
native plural of the neuter nouns ends more often in -a than in
-ini: priya and also priyiini . The frequency of the case ending
in -a as compared with the case ending in -ani is in the proportion
210
i
of 3:2. Hence the Pali nominative plural priya , besides priyani,
would correspond to the same ending in Vedic.
Further, once there was a nominative in -a, it was easy to build
up an accsative plural in -e on the analogy of the masculine stems:
purisa : purise :: rupa : mpe.
186, Loss of the dual. Pah has retained the singular and the
plural number but it has lost the dual. The main reason for its loss
must have been the tendency towards simplification. It is not easy
to remember forms that are somewhat difficult and that are used
very rarely, i.e. when the subject of the verb consists of two persons
or things. On the other hand, a phonetic reason may have helped
towards the disappearance of the dual. The ending of the nominative,
vocative and accusative dual in Sanskrit, in passing over into Pali,
would be confused with some other case endings: purusau would
become pun so which is already the nominative singular, nadyau
would become nadiyo or najjo which is the nominative plural.
187, Loss of cases. Both the dative and the ablative cases have
been almost entirely lost in Pali,
The dative case takes the same ending as the genitive: purisassa,
purisanam are both genitive and dative. The only exception are the
few dative cases in -aya of the thematic stems: dassanaya, hitaya,
sukhaya,
The ablative in Sanskrit was very often similar to the genitive
in the singular and to the dative in the plural; in Pali the ablative
has generally been assimilated to the instrumenal both in the singular
and in the plural: aggina, aggihi are both instrumental and ablative.
The only exception are the stems in vowel. The thematic stems have
an instrumental in -ena: purisena entirely different from the ablative
punsa. Further all the steins in vowel have an alternative ending
for the ablative borrowed from the pronominal declension: -smi:
purisasma, aggisma.
188, Loss of case endings. The Sanskrit endings of the accu-
sative plural of the masculine vowel stems have been lost since, in
passing over into Pali, they coincide with the endings of the ac-
231
cusative singular. Thus the plural accusatives purusan, again , bhiksun
become in Pali purisam , aggim, bhikkhuw which are the accusative
singular. Having lost its proper ending, the accusative plural nearly
always takes the same ending as the nominative plural; hence aggayo
/ aggs, bhikkhavo / bhikkhu are both nominative and accusative
plural. The exceptions are the stems in -a which have the ending
-e in the accusative plural: purise . Artoher reason for the loss of
case endings is the loss of final consonants in Pali. Thus purmat
> purisa , salah > sal a, agnlh > aggi.
The ending -aih of the plural instrumental case of the stems
in -a has been lost since in Pali it would become -e which is
the ending of the locative singular and of the accusative plural. The
instrumental and the ablative cases have the same ending in the
plural: Skt devaih > devehi in Pali.
In the stems in -u the case endings of the genitive and of
the locative singular have been lost. Skt agneh, agxiau , mfdeh, mrdau.
They have been replaced by aggissa, aggi no, aggismim, nmdussa,
muduno , mudusmim.
The stems in -ant have lost in Pali the forms of the plural
which entail difficult sandhi rules, i,e, silavadbhih, sllavatsu. The
only exception is sabbhi < sank
189. Pronominal case endings. In order to make up for the loss
of some case endings, recourse is had to the case endings of the
pronominal declension. Already in Sanskrit we find the pronominal
endings -ena, -sya, ~esu in he instrumental and genitive singular
and in the locative plural of the stems in -a: purusena, purusasya ,
pumsesu which become in Pali purisena, purisassa, purisesu, Besides
these endings, in Pali we find also the endings -sma, ~$mim for
the ablative and locative singular, and -e, -eh; for the accusative
and instrumental plural : purise, purisehi .
190. Variety of case endings. Though the tendency in Pali is
towards simplification and uniformity, yet wc find a variety of case
endings. The Sanskrit forms rajfiah, rajna develop into Pali as ranno
and raMa with the assimilation of the two consonants. But a new
232
233
development arises from splitting up the consonant group with a
vowel : raj J no, raj inn. The pronominal endings used in the declen-
sion of the nouns appear in two different ways owing to phonetic
rules: purisasma / pur is am ha, purisasmim / purisamhi.
Old forms derived directly from Sanskrit are found side by side
with new forms. Sanskrit: nadya, nadyah, jatya become in Pali najja,
najjo, jacca. New formations in Pali are midi yd, nadiyo, jatiya.
further Pali has some Vedic forms like dhttmmi / dhammena, riipa
/ rupani, panditase / pandita.
Pali has also some Magadhi forms like the nominative singular
and plural in e: baJe / halo, pandits / pandit o, sukhc / sukhani,
panditase / pandita, rukkhase / rukklm. The forms panditase,
rukkhase have passed from Vedic into Magadhi.
Though the dative case has lost its proper endings, yet there
arc a fevv old datives still surviving: sukhaya, hitaya, dassanaya.
In order to avoid confusion between the nominative plural like
purisa and the ablative singular purisa and between the accusative 1
plural punse and the locative singular deve, pronominal endings
have been used for the ablative and the locative singular: purisasma
/ pun sum ha, purisasmim / purisamhi.
On the analogy of purisa, sala with the final long vowel, the
stems in -\, -i, -u, ~u have also a long vowel in the nominative
plural: jati, uadi, dhenu, bhikkhu.
Just as pimsam has purischi, purisanam, purisesu, so also
sattharam has sattharehi, satthavanam, sattharesu.
To avoid difficult sandhi, the stems in -ant have the plural
oblique cases from the stem silavanta: sllavantehi sllavantanam,
silavantesu. Of the old forms, only one survives: sabbhi from sanf
191, Vowel gradation. The vowel gradation in the declension of
the nouns has greatly lost its clearness in some cases, while in others
it has entirely disappeared. This is due either to the desire to build
up a simple uniform declension, or to the phonetic laws proper to
the language.
While Sanskrit has aksi, aksna , aksmh, aksini , aksibhih, aksnam,
Pali has generalized the stem of the nominative: akkhi, akkhino,
akkhina, akkhini, akkhlhi, akkhinatn.
In nouns like sattha, raja , a vowel is often inserted between
the consonants of the weak grade and thus the vowel gradation is
no longer clear: satthra > satthara , raj ha > rajina. Similarly in the
plural the vowel of the stem is lengthened while it ought to be short
according to the vowel gradation: satthuhi, satthusu < Skt sastrbhih,
sastrsu.
Again with the elimination of the Sanskrit vowel p it is difficult
to see how u alternates with r / Sr: satthu : satthara (satthra):
sattharam.
192. Declension of thematic stems. It will be easy to compare
and contrast the Pali and the Sanskrit declensions if we place them
side by side.
Sanskrit: dc
va
Pali: deva
(god)
Singular
Plural
N.
devah
devo
devah
deva
V.
deva
deva
devah
deva
A.
devam
devam
devan
deve
I.
devena
devena
devaih
devehi
Ab.
devat
deva , devasma
devebhyah
devehi
D.
devaya
devassa
devebhyah
devanam
G.
devasya
devassa
devanam
devanam
L
deve
deve, devasmim
devesu
devesu
a).
The changes that have taken
place are the
following:
ah
> o :
devah >
devo
am
> am:
devam >
devam
at > a : devat > deva
234
sya > ssa
dev a sya
> devassa
ah > a
devah
> deva
am > am
devanam
> devanam
b). The ablative and the locative singular deva, dcve were
liable to be confused with the nominative and the accu-
sative plural; hence the alternative endings -sma, -smim
were borrowed from the pronominal declension: devasma,
devasmim like tasma, tasmiin.
e). The Sanskrit case ending -aya of the dative has been
retained by the thematic stems when the dative case is used
to indicate the goal or purpose: dassanaya, hitaya, sukhaya.
d) . The ending of the accuisative plural -an has been lost since
in Pali it becomes -am and coincides with the ending of
the accusative singular. This loss is made good by the
ending -e which is either borrowed from the pronominal
declension or from the plural case endings -e-hi, -e-su ;
pur i sc, dhamme,
e) . The endings of the instrumental and locative plural chi, esu
arc borrowings from the pronominal declension and are
already found in Vedic: pnyebhih, priyesu: piyehi, piyesv
like tehi, tesu.
f) . In the declension of the neuter nouns Pali has in the
nominative, vocative and accusative plural fonns like rupa
besides rupani Either these forms must be taken as
coming directly from Vedic or they must be taken as
required by the exigencies of metre in poetry or finally as
a mixing up of genders.
g) . Both masculine and neuter thematic stems have a Magadhi
ending -e in the nominative singular: sukhe, dukkhe, kamme,
sate (MN 1 517:23, 24,34, 36); vise, timse (MN 1 518:1);
bale, pandite (DN I 155:29,30); attakare (DN 1 153:28);
avitakke, avicarc > pan in a tare (DN II 278:16); chave, sigale,
235
sihanade (DN III 25:3,4); hkamise , samyojane, pavutte
(MN II 254:25).
h).
There are some forms of the nominative plural ending in
-Use. This form seems to go back to the Vedic nominative
plural in -asas: priyasas; but the final vowel -c instead
of -o is a Magadhism: upasakase, a vita tanhase, panditase,
sabkhata-dhammase, samana-brahmanase (Sn 376, 776,
875, 1079); luddhase, dutthase, mulhase, kuddhase, makkhase,
mattase (Itv 1:10, 2:3, 16, 29; 3:7,20}; gatase, savakase
(DN II 255:3; 272:20).
i) . The ending -a which is sometimes used for the instrumental
singular as in sahattha, goes back to the Vedic instrumental
case in -a: pnya besides the more common priycna, The
instrumental in -sa is built up on the analogy of the stems
in -s whose nominative ends in -o just like the nominative
of the thematic stems: mano . manasa :: vego; vegasa.
j) . The endings -to, -so, which are sometimes used in the
sense of an ablative and of an instrumental case, go back
to the adverbial Vedic endings -tab, -salt: daksinatah >
dakkhinato.
193. Declension of stems in 4 and -u.
Masculine stem : Sanskrit: agni, Pali: aggi
Neuter stem: Sanskrit: van, Pali: van
SINGULAR
N.
cignih
aggi
vari
vari
/
varim
1
V.
ague
aggi
vari
vari
/
varim
A.
agnim
aggim
vari
vari
/
varim
L
agnim r
aggini
varim
varina
Ah.
agneh
aggina ,
/ aggisma
vari nab
varim
/
varisma
D.
agnaye
aggi no ,
i aggissa
varim
varino
/
varissa
236
G
agnch aggi no i
aggissa
varinah v
anno / van ssa
L.
agnau aggismim
varim varismim
P L
URAL
i V
agnayah aggayo /
aggi
varini
varini / van
V,
agnayah aggayo i
aggi
varini
varini / van
again aggayo /
aggi
varini
varini / van
l
agnibhih agglhi
vadbhih
viiiihi
Ah,
agnibhyah agglhi
varibhyah
varihi
D,
agnibhyah agginan i
varibhyah
varinam
G.
agninaip agginan i
varinam
varinam
L
agnisu aggisu
varisu
varisu
a) , Both in Sanskrit and in Pali the stems in -u are declined
like the stems in When the stems in -/ have -e/-ay
the stems in u have o/av. Thus in Sanskrit we have agnelg
a gnaye, agnayah / taroh, tarnvc, taravah. Similarly in Pali:
Aggayo / taravo,
b) , In Sanskrit the declension of the neuter steins in -i, -ti
differs from that of the masculine stems. In Pali only the
nominative, vocative and aeusative singular and plural
correspond to the same cases in Sanskrit; the other cases
are built up like those of the masculine stems.
c), Merely phonetic
are the c
hanges of
-ih > -i
agnih
> aggi.
-im > - ini
agnim
> aggim
-ah > -cl
agnayah
> aggayo
-bhih > -hi
agnibhih
v
t/q
_
-am > - am
agninam
> agginam
d), The vocative, ablative, genitive and locative singular, and
the accusative plural have lost their own endings. The
237
ablative takes the endings of the instrumental : aggina
against Sanskrit agneh, The genitive takes the ending
-no: aggi no against Sanskrit agneh, The genitive in -no
is either built on the analogy of the stems in -in: aggino
like pakkhino; or is derived from the genitive of the neuter
stems; aggino like Sanskrit varinah. Both the ablative and
the genitive take the alternative pronominal endings -sm<%
- ssa on the analogy of the thematic stems: aggisma, aggissa
like purisasma, puisassa. The vocative singular lakes the
same ending as the nominative, and the accusative plural
takes the same ending as the nominative plural: N.V, sg.
aggi, pi aggayo / aggl
e) , The nominative plural is optionally formed with the length-
ening of the vowel of the stem: aggayo / aggl The form
aggi is built on the analogy of the other vowel stems which
have a bug vowel in the plural, unless it is taken as a
survival of the Sanskrit dual form,
f) . In the neuter stems, the nominative, vocative and accusative
singular are alternately formed with the ending -tp on the
analogy of the thematic stems; and the nominative, vocative
arid accusative plural are also formed by lengthening the
vowel of the stem on the analogy of the masculine stems
in van / varim, varini / van.
1 94, Declension of the feminine stems in -a: Skt sala , Pali sala.
Singular Plural
N.
iala
sala
sal ah
sala /
salayo
V.
sale
sale
salah
sala /
sal ay o
A.
salam
salam
Salah
sala /
salayo
1
salaya
salaya
tialabhih
salah i
Ah.
salayah
salaya
salabhyah
saiahi
D.
salayai
salaya
salabhyah
salanam
G.
sal ayah
salaya
salanam
salanam
I
l
I
23S
L. sal ay am
a). Merely j;
salayam tafasu
salaya
ihonetic are the following
salasu
changes:
-am
> -am
salam
>
sal am
-ah
> -a
salat
>
sala
-bhih > -hi
salabhih
>
sal ah i
b), In the singular the ending of the instrumental has been lost
and the declension has been made uniform by keeping the
vowel of the stem always long and by extending to the
instrumental and to the dative the ending -yah of the
ablative and genitive. The voweJ of the ending, however,
has been shortened in Pali since it follows a long accented
syllabic: salaya,
e). fhe locative has retained its proper ending, but it takes also
the ending -yah on the analogy of the other cases: salayam
/ salaya.
d). With the loss of the final consonant, the nominative plural
has become identical with the nominative singular: sala
>sala ( sal ah > sala, Hence a new nominative plural lias
been formed on the analogy of the stems in -i: jati : jatiyo
:: sala: saliiyo,
195. Declension of the feminine stems in -i, -I, -u, -u. It may
be good here to give a brief outline of the evolution of this de-
clension.
In Vedic Sanskrit there is a fourfold division:
1. masculine and feminine stems in -u
2. neuter steins in -i, -u
3. masculine and feminine stems ending in -t, -u which before
a suffix change -u > - y , -v.
4. masculine and feminine stems which, before a suffix, change
-i, -u > -ly, -uv
In Classical Sanskrit there is also a fourfold division, though
somewhat different, since masculine stems are different from femi-
nine stems. Stems in -1, -u are only feminine in gender.
1. masculine stems in -i f -u
2. neuter stems in -u
3. Feminine stems in -i, -u, -L - u which change to -y, -v
before a suffix beginning with a vowel,
4. Feminine stems in -i, -a which change to -fy, -uv before
a suffix beginning with a vowel.
In Pali this fourfold division has been reduced to two
1. masculine and neuter stems in -i, -u
2, feminine stems in -i, -1, -if, -if
All the feminine stems in Pali are declined in the same way,
making allowance for the short or long vow'd in the nominative and
vocative singular and for the change of -1, -u, -if > - iy , -uy
respectively before prefixes beginning with a vowel.
Skt; jati, nadi, dhl; Pali: uadi
SINGULAR
N.
jatih
nadi
dhih
nadi
V.
jate
nadl
dhih
nadi
A.
jatim
nadim
dhiyam
nadim
1
jatyii
nadya
dhiya
nadiya
Ab.
jatyah
nadyah
dhiyah
nadiya
D.
jatyah
nadya i
dhiya i
nadiya
G.
jatyah
nadyah
dhiyah
nadiya
L,
jatyam
nadya m
dhiyi
nadiyam, nadiya
240
PLURAL
N.
jatayah
nadyah
dhiyah
nadiyo , nadi
V.
j at ayah
nadyah
dhiyah
nadiyo, nadi
A,
jatih
nadih
dhiyah
nadiyo, nadi
1 .
jatibhih
imdibhih
dhibhih
nadi hi
Ab.
jalibhyah
nadibhyah
dhibhyah
nadi hi
D.
jatibhyah
nadibhyah
dhibhyah
nadinam
G.
jitinam
nadinam
dhiyam
nadinam
L.
jatisu
nadisu
dhlsu
nadisu
a) . Pali has generalized the development of -i t 4, -u, -iv >-
iy, “ uy before terminations beginning with a vowel just
as in monosyllabic stems in Sanskrit: nadiyS, nadiyam,
nadiyo, dhenuya, dhenuyam, dhenuyo.
On the other hand, Pali has generalized the endings of the ,
polysyllabic stems:
-m, -a, -ah, -am in the accusative, instrumental, genitive and
locative singular nadim > nadim, nadya > uadiyi, nadyah > nadiya,
nadyam > nadiyam;
-ah in the nominative, vocative and accusative plural nadiyah
> nadiyo;
-nam in the genitive plural nadinam > nadinam
In Pali both endings -a, -ah have given rise to -a which has
been generalized to all the cases of the singular and has become
optional even in the locative case: nadya, nadyah > nadiya, nadiya
/ nadiyam.
b) . In the plural, the accusative in -ih of the polysyllabic stems
may have given rise to the alternative form with the long
vowel: nadiyo / nadi, jatiyo / jail.
241
c). In the older language we find traces of the distinction that
existed in Sanskrit: jacca < jatya , najja < nadya , najjo <
nadyih.
196* Stems in -s. The neuter stems in -s are declined in Pali
just as in Sanskrit, but only in the singular. These stems may also
be declined, both in the singular and in the plural, like the neuter
thematic stems i.e. like tupam.
N.V.A,
manas
mano
I.
manasa
manasa
Ab.
manasah
manasa
D,
man ase
G
manasah
manaso
L.
manasi
manasi
197. Stem in -ant: Skt iilavant, Pali silavant.
Singular Plural
N.V. silavan ,
si Sava
Silavan tah
slkvanto
A. sih i vaniain
silavan tam
silavatah
sila van to
I. silavatii
silavatii
iilavadbhih
Ah, silavatah
silavatii
41avadbhyah
D. silavato
silavato
Silavadbhyah
si! a vatam
G. silavatah
silavato
Mavatam
silavatam
L. 41a vati
silavati
silavatsu
a). In the singular the stems in -ant in Pali are declined as
in Sanskrit, except in the nomivative and vocative where
the final nasal is dropped and the vowel is lengthened:
silavan > si lava,
b). In the plural the accusative takes the same ending as the
nominative and thus appears in its strong form and not in
its weak grade: Skt iilavatah, Pali silavan to
242
c) . In the plural the endings of the instrumental, ablative and
locative have been lost, most probably to avoid the difficult
sandhi. The only forms still extant are sabbhi, asabbhi <
sant,
d) . These stems may optionally he declined like the thematic
stems by adding the vowel -a to the stein; si la van t + a:
sllavanto, stlavantam, silavantena...
198. Stems in -in: Skt hastin, Pali hatthin.
S i n g u
1 a r
P 1 u r
a !
N. hast I
hatthi
hastinah
hatthino
V. hastin
hatthi
hastinah
hatthino
A, hastimm
hatthin am
hastinah
hatthino
1. hastini
hatthi na
hastibhih
hatthlhi
Ab. hastinah
hatthina
hastibhyah
hatthlhi
D. has tine
batthino
hastibhyah
hatthmam
G. hastinah
hatthino
hastinam
hatthinam
L, hastini
hatthini
hastisu
hatthisu
The Pali declension of the
stems in -in
corresponds to the
Sanskrit declension of the same stems. The only innovation in Pali
is the alternative formation of some cases on the analogy of the stems
in -i: hatthim, hutthissa, hatthisma, hatthismim, hatthlhi like aggim,
a ggissa, aggisma, aggismim, agglhi.
199. Stems in
-an: Skt rajan, Pali
rajan.
S i n g u
I a r
P l u
r a 1
N, raja
raja
raj Uriah
rajano
V. rajan
raja
rajanah
rajano
A, rajanam
rajanam
raj hah
rajano
l raj ha
rahna, rajina
rajabhih
rajhi hi
Ab. rajiiah
rahha t rajina
rajabhyah
rajuhi
243
D. rape ran no, rajino rajabhyah rajunam, rannam
G. rajiiah ranno, rajino rftjnam rajunam, rannam
L, rajhi, mjani raj ini rajasu rajusu
a). When alowance is made for phonetic changes, the main
differences between Pali and Sanskrit are
the insertion of the vowel i instead of a in the locative case:
Skt rajani Pali raj ini,
the use of the strong form for the accusative plural: rajano
against Skt rajiiah;
the change of the stem vowel -a > - u in the plural, perhaps
on the analogy of the stems in -av: rSjuhi; saithuhi.
200. Stems in -ar: Skt datar, Pali datar.
Sing
u 1 a r
P 1 u
r a 1
N. data
data
datara h
da faro
V. datar
data , data
data rah
da taro
A. datara m
dataram
da tin
da taro
l datra
datara
datfbhih
datuhi
Ab. datuh
datara
datrbhyah
datuhi
D, datre
datu
datrbhyah
da tuna m
G, datuh
datu
da t main
da tun am
L. datari
datari
da trso
datusu
The differences between Pali and Sanskrit are the following:
a) . In the instrumental singular the vowel a is inserted between
the two consonants and thus datara is built on the same
pattern as the locative datari.
b) . The final -uh and the semivowel -r have given rise to
-u: datuh > da tu; datrbhih > datuhi.
. ? -J r
244
c). The prevalence of the vowel u has led to the building up
of several forms on the analogy of the stems in -u both
masculine and feminine: dntuno, datussa like bhikkhuno,
bhikkhussa; matuya like dhenuya.
d. The accusative singular diitaram has given rise to new
forms on the analogy of the thematic stems: datara, dMranam,
datarehi, datavesu.
CHAPTER XIV
EVOLUTION OF
THE PRONOUNS
In contrast with the inflection of the nouns which shows a
marked tendency towards simplification, the declension of the pro-
nouns is characterized by a variety of forms.
201. Personal pronouns.
Skt
aham, tvam
Pali aham,
tvam
Sing
u 1 a r
N.
aham
aham
tvam
tvam
A
mam
mam
tvam
tarn
L
may a
may a
tvaya
taya
Ab.
mad
may a
tvad
taya
D.
mahyam
may ham
tnhyam
tuyham
mama
tava
a
mama
mama
ta va
tava
mayham
tuyham
L.
mayi
may i
tvayi
tayi
246
247
IT
l
Plural
N.
vayam
mayam i amhe
yuyam
tumhe
A.
asman
amhe
yusman
tumhe
1
asmabhih
amhehi
yusmabhih
tumhehi
A 6,
as mad
amhehi
yusmad
tumhehi
D.
asmabhyam
amhakam
ymmabh-yam
tumhakam
G.
asmakam
amhakam
yusmakam
tumhakam
L.
asmasu
amhesu
yusmasu
tumhesu
a).
Just as the declension of the
nouns, so also the dclensio:
of the pronouns has no dual
b) . Merely phonetic are some of the changes undergone in
passing from Sanksrit to Pali:
the final nasal consonant is changed to niggahita: aham > aham,
mam > mam;
the interchange of hy > yh: mahyam > mayham;
the change sm > hm > mb : asmakam > amhakam;
the loss of occlusion of bh > h: asmabhih > amhehi;
the assimilation of consonants: tv > tt > f; tvayi > ttayi > fay/,
c) . While the Sanskrit dative case has been lost in the declen-
sion of the nouns, it has here been preserved in the de-
clension of the personal pronouns in the singular. Thus the
dative case has both its own proper ending and the ending
of the genitive as in the declension of the nouns: mahyam
> mayham / mama, tuhyam > tuyham / tava.
d) . Pali has lost the ending of the Sanskrit ablative case and*
has replaced it with that of the instrumental case: Skt nmd,
tvad, asm ad, yusmad, Pali may a, taya, amhehi, tumhehi
e) . The nominative plural mayam may have been built under
the influence of forms like mam, maya, mayi
f) . As/ne / amhe seem to go back to a rare Vedic form and
may have been built in uniformity with the other cases
amhehi, amhakam, amhesu.
g) . Tumhe may have been formed on the analogy of amhe
and on the generalization of the consonant f- in the plural:
tumhehi, tumhesu.
h) . The vowel -e in the plural seems to be due to the analogy
of the demonstrative pronoun: te ; amhe, tumhe; tehi :
amhehi, tumhehi; tesu : amhesu, tumhesu.
i) . Several alternative forms, already mentioned in no, 40, may
due to dialectical influences,
202. Demon strat i ve pro nouns,
Skt sah, sa, tad Pali so sa, tam
Sing
u 1 a r
N.
sah
so
sa
sa
A.
tam
tam
tam
tam
I.
tena
tena
taya
taya
Ab .
tasmat
tasma
tasyah
■ taya
D.
tasmai
tasya i
G,
tasya
tassa
tasyah
taya / tassa
L
tasmin
tasmim
tasya in
tayam / tassam / tasam
Plur
a 1
N.
te
fe
tab
ta / tayo
A.
tan
te
tah
ta / tayo
I.
taih
tehi
tabhih
tahi
Ab.
tebhyah
tehi
tabhyah
tahi
D.
tebhyah
tabhyah
G,
tesam
tesam
tasam
tasam / tasinam i tasanam
tasu
248
L, tesu tesu tasu
a) . Merely phonetic arc the changes
sah > so , tab > in
tarn > tarn, tesam > tesam, tasam > tasam, tasmin > tasmim ,
tasmat > tasma, tabhih > tahi
tasya > tassa, tasyam > tassam i tasam
tesu > tesu
b) . Just as in the declensions of the nouns in Pali, so also here
the accusative plural takes the same form as the nominative
plural; te, te,
c) . In the feminine this pronoun takes the same endings as
the feminine stems in -a; taya, tayam , tayo like salaya,
salayam, salayo.
d) . The feminine has also sonic new forms which seem to be
analogical formations: tissa, tissaya for the genitive and
tissam for the locative.
e) . In the genitive plural tesanam, tasanam seem to he double
formations.
f) . ht the neuter the pronoun has tam, tani respectively for
the nominative and accusative singular and plural. In the
singular the Sanskrit form is tad which in Pali appears
in compounds: tad-karo > takkaro, tad-evam.
203. Demonstrative pronouns.
Skt ayam, iyam, idam Pali ayam, ayam , idam / imam
Singular
N. ayam
ayam
iyam
ayam
A, imam
imam
imam
imani
L anena
imina
anaya
imaya
Ab . asmat
imasma
asyah
imaya
i
i
i
I
j
i
249
D.
asmai
asyai
G.
asya
imassa / assa
asyah
imissa / assi
L.
asm in
imasmim
asyam
imissam
Plural
N.
ime
ime
imah
ima / imayo
A.
iman
ime
ismb
ima / imayo
I.
ebhih
ime hi
Fibhih
imabi
Ab.
ebhyah
ime hi
abhyah
imahi
D,
ebhyah
abhyah
G.
esam
imesam
asam
ima sum
L.
CSLl
imesu
isu
ima su
a) . The neuter pronoun both in Sanskri and in Pali is declined
like the masculine pronoun with the exception of the nominative
and accusative singular and plural: Skt idam, imani, Pali
idam / imam , imani.
b) . Tn Sanskrit the stems from which the forms of the declen-
sion of this pronoun are derived are a-, ana-.
The stem i- is found in the masculine singular as i-, in the
feminine singular as i-, in the neuter as id But these forms have
been extended with the pronominal ending -am and thus the nomi-
native singular of the three genders is ayam, iyam, idam, Tn ayam
the vowel /- appears in its guna grade -am: i-am > e-am > ayam.
In the feminine i- am >iyam,
From the stem i- there was an accusative im; but this form
was also extended wih the suffix of the accusative -am and thus
we have the form imam. From this acusative form there was
abstracted the stem ima- from which are derived the other cases
ime, imam , imani.
250
251
The stem a- is used for the formation of other cases like asmai,
asya etc. In the plural the vowel a- is lengthened to e- in the
masculine and to a- in the feminine: e-bhih, a-bhih.
The stem ana-: in Vedic the instrumental was ena / aya in
the masculine and feminine respectively. The Sanskrit forms anena,
a nay a seem to have been derived from a stem ana- which is used
as instrumental case in Avestan and which is still preserved as an
adverb in Vedic in the sense of therefore,
In Vedic the stem ima- was extended lo form other cases like
imasya, imasmai.
c) . In Pali the declension of the masculine ayam coresponds
to the Sanskrit inflection, Pali, however, has built alter-
natives and more commonly used forms from Ihe stem
ima-: imasma, imassa , hnchi, imesu , imesam.
The form imlna of the instrumental singular shows the ten-
dency to change the vowel a > i just as in tissa, tissam, and seems
to have been built on the analogy of amuna with the long vow r el
ending just as in the nominal declension,
The accusative plural is like Ihe nominative.
d) , In the declension of the feminine stem only a few forms
are historical: imam, assa, ima. Other forms have been
built on the analogy of the feminine nominal stems in
-a: imaya, ima yam, imayo , imahi, imasu, and partly also
i mas am.
e) . The forms esanam, imesanam , imasanam, assays, imissaya
arc double formations.
f) . In the neuter the only difference is that Pali uses for the
singular both idam / imam as compared with the Sanskrit
idam only.
204. Demonstrative pronouns.
Skt: asau,
asau, adah
Pali: asu/amu, asu,
adum
S i n
g u 1 a r
N,
asau
asu / amu
asau asti
A.
amum
amum
amum amum
1
amuna
amuna
amuya amuya
Ab.
amusmat
amusma
amusyah amuya
D.
amusmai
amusya i
Q .
amusya
amussa
amusyah amussa / amuya
L.
amusmin
amusnvm
amusyam amussam / amuyam
P 1
oral
N.
ami
amu
amuh
amu / amuyo
A.
am tin
amu
amuh
amu / amuyo
1.
amibhih
amuhi
amubhih
amuhi
Ab.
amibhyah
amuhi
amubhyah i
amuhi
D.
amibhyah
amubhyah
G.
amisam
amusam / amusanam amusam
amusam /
amusanam
L.
amisu
arniisu
amusu
arniisu
a) . In Pali ihe stem amu- has been generalized; hence the
forms amu, amuhi against Sanskrit ami , amibhlL
b) . In the masculine the only innovation is the form amu
besides asu, Further in the genitive there is the double
formation amusanam. In the nominative singular there is
a slight change owing to the rule of phonetics: asau > asu.
e). In the feminine several new forms have been built up on
the analogy of the noun stems in -u; dhenui The starting
point of such new forms may have been the stein amu-
252
itself and the instrumental singular a muya which corre-
sponds to dhenuya. The new forms are a muya in the
genitive, amuyarp in the locative singular, and amuyo in
the nominative and accusative plural, amusanam is double
genitive,
d). In the neuter Puli has adum in nominative and accusative
singular and atmmi / sunu in the nominative and accusative
plural. These forms correspond to the Sanskrit forms adah
/ a muni, In Pali the nominative singular has been formed
on the analogy of the nomninal stems, Just as adutn is
formed on the analogy of assum, so also in the plural
anriini / a mu are formed on the analogy of assuni, assn,
205, Relative and interrogative pronouns. The relative pronoun
ya and the interrogative pronoun ka are inflected both in Sanskrit
and Pali like the demonstrative pronoun sah / sa, so/s a. In Sanskrit
there is the neuter form yad like tad while in Pali there is yam
/ yad. Both Sanskrit and Pali have a form kirn as neuter of ka>
New formations in Pali are the cases of kim: kissa , kisma, kismim
on ther analogy of tissi, tissam, imissa } imissatn.
253
CHAPTER XV
EVOLUTION OF NUMERALS
206, Cardinal numerals. The Pali cardinal numerals generally
!
;spo
nd to the
Sanskrit cardinal numeral!
J
eka
eka
2
dvi
dvi
3
tri
ti
4
C&tur
catu
5
puna i
parica
6
7
sits
ch a
/
8
SUpti)
asta
satta
attba
9
mva
nava
10
dasa
dasa
11
ckadasa
ekadasa / eka rasa
12
dvadasa
dvadasa / barasa
13
tray od ah
terasa / tejasa
14
caturdasa
ca tuddasa / cudda
254
15
pane a da $ a
pancadasa / pan na rasa / pannarasa
16
sodasa
r 1
sol as a ! so rasa
17
saptadaia
sattadasa / sattarasa
18
astadasa
atthadasa / a Oharas a
19
el kuna vimsati
ekunavisati
20
vimsati
vlsati / vfsa / visa i visam
22
dva vimSati
dvavisati / bavisati
23
trayovimsati
tevisati / tevlss
24
catur vimsati
catuvlsati / catuvlsa / catubbisa
25
pahea vimsati
pa he a vlsati / paheavisa / panna vlsati
26
snd vimsati
chabbisati
30
tr initial
timsati / timsa / timsarn / timsa
33
trayastrimsat
tetlimsati, tettimsa
■
36
sat-trimsat
chat timsati
40
catvarim&at
cattallsati / cattalisa / catiMsa
42
dvicatvarimsat
dvicatt iilisati
dvacatvarimsat
dvacattalisa
43
trayascatvarimsa\
t teccattalisa
50 pahchsat pahiiasa / pannasa
52 dvipahcadat dvepahhasa
dvapancaiat dvapannisa
56 satpancaht chap annas a
60 sasti sutthi
§ I ► 1 ■
62 dvasasti dvasatthi / dvatthi
70 saptati
SO asiti
sattati
a sJti
255
82 dvyaiiti dveasiti
84 caturashi caturashi i cullasiti / culaslti
90 navati navutl
92 d vail a va ti d vana vu ti
dvi navati dvenavuti
96 sannavati channavuti
1 00 satam sat a in
The evolution of Ihe numerals from Sanskrit into Pali show
phonetic changes which arc not of common occurrence in Pali, but
seem to be due to various dialectical influences,
a) . Jn Sanskrit compounds the numeral dvi sometimes remains
unchanged aud sometimes is used in the dual number. In
Puli the form dvi sometimes is retained as in dvisattiifisati;
sometimes is changed to dvc: dvepahnasa , dve asiti ( dve
navuti; sometimes it retains the Sanskrit dual ending:
dvadasa, dvavisati, dvacattalisa, dvasatthi, dvanavuti
b) . The group dv is sometimes assimilated to bb dvadasa
>bbarasa > brnsa, dvavisati > bbavisati > bavisati. The
same assimilation takes place in sad-vimsati > chabbisati,
catur-vimsa > catuvvisa > catubbisa.
c). The Sanskrit form tray as is represented in Pali by tc:
trayodasa > terasu, trayovimsati > tevisatr traya s-ca tvmimsa t
>tecattalisa.
d). The stem catur ha given rise to the several forms: caturashi,
catuddasa, catubbisa (< catuvvisa < catur-visa), catuvlsati
(catu-visati < catur - vlsati with the final r dropped),
cuddasa (< coddasa < ca-uddasa < catur dasa with the loss
of the consonant f, the assimilation of r > d and the
weakening of the vowel o before two consonants. Ciilasiti
/ cullasiti < coiaslti < ca-uraslti < caturashi : in this de-
velopment the dental consonant is dropped, the vowels are
256
contracted and then weakened, the double consonant is
simplified with the lengthening of the previous vowel, the
consonant r is changed to /.
e), The Sanskrit consonant group nc is represented in Pali by
nn, nn, nn: pancada^a > pancadasa, pannarasa, pannarasa;
pancaht > pannasa , pannasa
0 - The numeral sas > c ha with the initial consonant aspirated.
The final Sanskrit consonant reappears in compounds as a
cerebral j > chafabhinna, There is also the change of sas
> sal-: safayatanam. In poetry wc find also sadabhinnii ,
Tn numerals sas >cha and the final consonant is assimilated
to the following consonant; chabbisati f chattinmti , channavuty
but chapannasa.
g) . I he consonant d of da£a has been changed to r and this
consonant has been changed to / ekadasa / ekarasa f tcrasa
/ telasa, cattMsa / cattalm, sornsa / sojasa.
h) - In vjsafi < vimsati the nasal has been dropped and the
vowel lengthened,
i) . In tmnsat > timsi / timsa/ timsani the final consonant has
been dropped and then the vowei has sometimes been
lengthened and sometimes nasalized, A new form tiinsati
appears on the analogy of vlsati.
j) , Pali has navuti for Sanskrit navati due to the influence
of the consonant v.
CHAPTER XVI
EVOLUTION OF
THE VERBAL SYSTEM
207, Simplification of the conjugations and of the classes. In
Sanskrit the verbs are divided into two conjugations
thematic conjugation
athematic conjugation
The thematic conjugation is characterized by the fact that
the stem oi the present ends in -a since it is formed with one
of the suffixes -a, ~ya„ -aya;
the stem of the present remains unchanged in the inflection;
v.g. iabh-a-si, labh-a-ti, iabh-a-tha, kbh-a-nti,
The athematic conjugation is characterized by the fact that
the stem of the present is cither the verbal root or the verbal
root with one of the suffixes -u-, ~nu~, -na
the stem of the present changes, being either strong or weak,
according as the accent is on the root or on the suffix;
v.g. as-mi: s-anti, juho-mi: juhu-mah f krina-mi:krinUmah.
258
The advantage of the thematic over the athematic conjugation
is obvious;
it retains the stem unchanged
it inserts the suffix -a (- ya , -ay a) between the verbal root and
the peisonai endings, avoiding all vowel and consonant combina-
tions.
The thematic conjugation comprises the first, the fourth, the
sixth and the tenth class.
1 lie athematic conjugation comprises the second, the third, the
fifth, the seventh, the eighth and the ninth class.
In Pali (he distinction between the two conjugations has almost
entirely disappeared:
The vowel alternation has disappeared as part of a regular
system, tor, while Sanskrit carefully distinguishes between strong
and weak forms, in Pali either the strong or the weak form has been
generalized:
Sanskrit: karoti : kurvanti china Hi : chindanti
Pali: karoti ; karonti chindati : chindanti
Consonant stems have generally been eliminated in Pali by the
addition of the thematic vowel -a:
Sanskrit: china tsi ; chindmah
Pali: chindasi : chindatna
These changes have alfected the formation of the stem of the
present of the verb, and thus the division of the verbs into ten classes
has also been simplified. The present stem of the verbs of the second
and of the seventh class takes the suffix -a:
Sanskrit: hanti chinatti
Pali: hanati chindati
Some of the verbs of the second class pass over to the first
class, brti- has bravaim as bhu- has bhuvanu.
The verbs of the seventh class form the stem of the present
on the pattern of those of the sixth class which insert a nasal before
the last consonant. The root chid- forms the present stem chinda-
just as muc- has muhea-.
The verbs of the fifth class form the present stem with the suffix
-no (tlic strong form of -nif), hut they generally pass over to the
ninth class and take the suffix -nn; smrati is more eomon than sunoti,
The verbs of the third class are inllected like the reduplicated
verbs of the first class: jahaii like titthatL Even juhoti has an
alternative form juhati.
In the eight class, karoti has many forms built on the pattern
of the -a stems: kubbati, kara, karcyyati , karamana.
In this process towards simplification and uniformity, the preva-
lence of the vowel -a is obvious. The prevalence of the vowel
-a over all the other vowels is already a feature of Sanskrit as
compared with the other Indo-European languages. Pali has inherited
this characteristic and has extended its application still more. In fact,
with the exception of a few verbs like karoti , hoti, pappoti, atthi,
all the others form their present stem with the vowel -a or -a, or
with a suffix ending in -a or -a: bhavati , sumti, cintayati.
An innovation in Pali is the formation of the stem of the present
with the vowel -e. This is merely the contraction of ~aya and the
contracted form has almost entirely replaced the ordinary form. This
occurs in verbs of the first class tike neti for nayati, in verbs of
the tenth class like cinteti for cintayati, in causative and denomi-
native verbs like karoti for kfirayati, dhiimeti for dhOmayati . The
stem in -e is also found in the forms derived from the root /- of
the second class: era/, chi si, pacccti, upecca, This type has grown
to such an extent that the Pali verbs might be divided into two types:
stems in -a and stems in -e.
It has already been mentioned that in Pali several verbs form
the stem of the present in more than one way and thus they may
be classified under different classes. In this respect also Pali comes
closer to Vedic than to classical Sanskrit:
260
Vedic
/ jay at i
II
jeti
IX jinati
Pali
jayati
jeti
jinati
Vedic
i jarati
IV
jhyati
Pali
j a rati
jiyati
Some of the double Vedic forms are not represented in the
simple present in Pali, but such double forms must be postulated
to explain some other derived formations; the causative theti has
not been derived from tnrati but from the Vedic present ttiati; the
present participle asamana Inis been derived from Vedic asati and
not from the present in Pali asanati.
Some of the double forms in Pali do not go back to. Vedic but
arc new formations in the language, often due to analogy. Thus
sambhunati from the root hhii- may be due to the analogy of hmati
from In-,
A completely new formation in Pali is kubbati which is in-
flected like any other verb of the first class. It is usually derived
from the present third person plural of kr-: kurvanti. Some other
new forms worth mentioning are payacchati ‘offers’ usually derived
from pni-ymih, while munfiti Thinks’ seems to be a dialectical
form of mannati from man-.
208. Inflection of the verb, In Vcdie Sanskrit ibe inflection of
the verb was rather rich in forms. The process of simplification,
however, began very soon in Vedic and continued in classical Sanskrit
and in Pali. It may be good to show at a glance this process of
simplification of the finite forms of the verb.
Vedic
Sanskrit
Pali
Present
Indicative
Indicative
Indicative
Subjunctive
(Subjunctive)
Injunctive
Optative
Optative
Optative
J
Pluperfect Indicative
The inflection of the verb is thus comparatively simple in Pali
as contrasted with Sanskrit and Vedic. In the Pali poetry there arc
a few forms that appear to be subjunctive. Further there are two
perfect in Pali canonical literature and a few more in post-canonical
literature.
In the conjugation of the verb in Pali, the dual has been lost
just as in the declension of Ihe nouns,
Pali has retained both the active and Ihe middle voice, but the
personal endings of the middle voice arc very seldom used. Even
the passive verbs usually take the personal endings of the active
voice: Skt labhate, vardhate Pali labhati, vaddhati.
209. Extension of the present stem. Another innovation in Pali
is the extension of the present stem.
262
In Sanskrit the various verbal forms are built by adding suffixes
either to the root of the verb or to the present stem, The suffixes
are generally added directly, but sometimes also by means of the
connecting vowel -f, From the stem of the present are formed the
indicative, the imperative, the present participle, the optative and
the imperfect. All the other verbal forms are built up from the root
of the verb.
hi Pali the various verbal forms may be built just as in Sanskrit.
But very soon the tendency towards simplicity and uniformity led
to making an extensive use of the present stem, which itself had
already been simplified. The starling point of this growing extension
was the fact that in some verbs like kbh- both the root and the
stem of the present coincided; iabh- and labh-a. Further, greater
simplicity was achieved by adding the suffixes by means of the
connecting vowel -i. The result has been that every verbal form
in Pali may be built from the present stem. This will become clear
by means of an example.
Verbal root: gam-;
present stem
gacch-
Sanskrit
Pali
Present indicative
gacchati
gacchati
Imperative
gaccha
gaccha
Optative
gacchct
gacche, gaccheyya
Present participle
gacci uni
gate ham, gacchanto
Aorist
agamat
a gama, agacchi
Future
garni sy ad
gamissati, gacch issa ti
Past participle
gat a
gata , gacch its
Future Participle
gantavya
gantabba, gacchitabba
Infinitive
gantum
ga n turn, ga cch itum
Gerund
gatva
gantvi, gacchitva
26 3
Further, even the causative and the passive can be formed from
the present stem: chid-: causative chedeti and chindapcti; passive
chijjati and chindiyati,
210, Persona] endings.
a). Active endings
Primary:
Skt
-mi, -si.
■ti.
-mat,
-dm,
-anti /-ad
Pali
-mi, -si.
-ti,
-ma.
-tha.
-anti
Secondary:
Skt
- m/-am ,
-s, - 1 ,
-mu,
-ta.
-anf-ur
Pali
-mf-am,
-s, -t.
-ma,
-tha.
•v/-um
The Pali primary endings correspond exactly to the same endings
in Sanskrit. Pali, however, has lost the ending -ad which in Sanskrit
is usd for the third person plural of the verbs of the third class:
Skt: dadad jahati Pali: dadand jahand
In the secondary endings the only innovations in Pali are:
a) , the generalization of the aspirate consonant in the second
person plural on the analogy of the primary endings: Pali
r tha against Skt -ta: Skt agamata, Pali agamatha;
b) . the disappearance of the ending -an in the third person
plural, while the ending -ur has given rise either to the
simple -tt with the loss of the final consonant, or to -u
with the nasalization of the vowel before an -s, or to
-urn with the nasalization of the vowel: Skt abhuvan,
agaman, akmsw, Pali aim, agamum, akamsu.
b). Middle endings:
Primary: Skt -e,
-se.
-te t -make, - dhve , -ante/-ate
Pali -c,
-se.
-te, -mhe, - vhc , -ante/re
Secondary: Skt -i,
-thah,
-fa, -mahi, -dhvam, -anta/ata/ran
Pali -m/am,
-tho,
-tha, -mase, -vho, -re/rum/ram
264
In the Pali primary middle endings
a ) * Sanskrit vowel -a has been lost in the first person
plural: -make > -mhc;
b) . in the second person plural dh- has lost its occlusion:
-dhve > -live > -vhe;
o). in the third person plural, the ending -ate has been lost
and -ante is used for alt the verbs since the Sanskrit
distinction between the thematic and the athematic conju-
gation lias practically disappeared in Pali.
d). A new ending appears in Pali in the third person plural:
-re which is already found in Sanskrit in the perfect tense:
cakrire, jagmire, and in the Vedic third person plural sere
from si- ‘to lie’.
In the secondary middle endings,
a) , the Sanskrit ending -j of the first person has been lost
and has been replaced by the secondary active ending -m/
-am;
b) , in the second person -thah has given rise to -tho perhaps
through a process of shortening: -thah > - thah > -tho;
e). in the first person plural -nme seems to be the middle
ending corresponding to the Vedic active ending ~m$i;
d) . in the second person plural the consonant -dh loses its
occlusion and the final -am is reduced to -o: -dhvam >
-hvam > -vham > - vho ;
e) . in the thrd person plural, the Skt ending -anta and -a fa
have been lost, and there is in their place -ram and
sometimes also -re / -rum. These ending, however, are very
rare.
265
211. Present indicative. Skt labh-, Pali labl i- ‘to obtain’
Active
Middle
Skt
Pali
Skt
Pali
L Iabhami
Iabhami
labhe
labile
2. labha si
fabhasi
labha se
labhase
3. labha ti
labha ti
labha te
labhate
1. labh a mah
labhama
labhama ! ic
labhamhe
2. labhatha
labhatha
labha dhve
lab ha v he
3. labh anti
labh anti
labhani e
labhante, labh a re
In the first person plural in Pali, besides labhamhe there is
also labhamahe, labhamase, labhamhase. The ending -mahe of
labhatnahe is the historical Sanskrit ending, but it is found only
in poetry. The ending -mase of labhamase seems to be the middle
ending corresponding to the Vedic active ending -masL The ending
-ni/jase of labhamhase seems to be a combination of -mhe and
U
-mase
01
212. Present imperative. Skt labh- Pali labh- ‘to obtain’
Active Middle
1 . labhani labhai
2. labha labha, fabhahi labhasva labhassu
3. labhatu labhatu labha tarn labhatam
1. labhama labhaniahai
2. labhata labhatha labhadhvam labhavho
3 . labhantu labhantu labhantam labhantam
a) . The imperative in Pali has lost the first person singular and
plural. Even in Skt these were in reality subjunctive forms.
b) . In Skt the thematic stems have the simple stem in the
second person singular, while the athematic stems take tho
ending -hi / - dhi : labha, ihi, juhudhi. lo Pali this distinction
has been lost. All the stems ending in -a / -«T have either
the stem or the ending -hi ia the second on si ,
The stem must end in a short vowel, while the ending
- must be preceded by a ,ong vowel: IMn, kbhm, sun. I
Dc 6 »“ St ™ s e *>*"8 in -e / fonn the
person ot the imperative with the suffix -hi: chi
dehi, cmteht, karohi, hohi.
C). In the second person plural active, the consonant of the
08 “ S b “" aspirated in Mi: Skt hbhata Pali hbhutha.
d) . In the second person singular middle, the ending -ssu
mav "h S !)° the Sank "' cnd " li! ‘ sva - but tl,e final vowel
" ,ay be due ,0 fht; influence of the preceding -v or
nay be an analogical formation under the influence ofother
famts ending in -u: kbhm. Isbhantu.
e) . For the change of -dlmm > - vho. see no 210
bhu-;
bha va-a
bhnva-
yuj-:
junj-a
junja-
hu
juho-a
juha va-
The conjugation of the subjunctive in Vedic was as follows-
■Singular: b/wam Dual: bhavSva Wnnl;
Wmvas/ bhava/Aah bhavatha
bbam bhavatah bhav5n
267
F
I
i
cases the long vowel may be due to the exigencies of the metre,
but there are a few eases which seem to be genuine subjunctive.
Such are vitarasi, gacchasi, kamayasi, cajasi.
214, Optative.
Sanskrit Pali
/, bhaveyam ch indy am bhaveyyam blmve bhaveyyami
2> bbaveh chindyih bhavc bhaveyya bhaveyyasi
3. bhavet cb indy at bhavc bhaveyya bhaveyyati
1. bhavema cb indy asm bhavema bhaveyyima
2. bhaveta chindyata bhavet ha bhaveyyatha
3. bhaveyuh chindyuh bhaveyyu bhaveyyum
a) . In Sanskrit the optative is formed from the stem of the
present with the suffix -ya / -I and the secondary personal
endings. The verbs of the first conjugation take the suffix
-/ while the verbs of the second conjugation take the suffix
•ya. In Pali the distinction between the two conjugations
has been lost and the optative is formed from the present
stem in -a since nearly all the Pali verbs have a stem in
-a. Even juboti has a present juhati and karoti has a
stem kara,
b) . In poetry there are some optative forms built up with the
suffix -ya derived directly from Sanskrit: jan-ya-m >
jahham, jan-ya-t > jahna , kar-ya-t > karya > kayis% dad
‘ ya-um > dajjum.
c) . Of the optative formed with the suffix 4 there are many
examples which are found chiefly in poetry: bhava-i-am >
bhaveyam > bhaveyyam, bhava-kt > bhavet > bhavc. After
the vowel -e Pali usually doubles the semivowel -y. Further,
in the second person plural the ending has the aspirate:
bhavetha against Skt bhaveta .
d) In the first person singular Pali has a form bhave built
on ther pattern of the second and third person, and we have
in the singular bhave, bhave, bhavc for the three persons.
268
e) The first person bhaveyyam lias given rise to the forms
bhaveyya, bhaveyya for the second and third person sin-
gular and bhaveyyum for the third plum l .
f) . Joining together these various forms wc can discern two
rather uni form formations
/.
bhaveyyam
bha ve
2
bhaveyya
bha ve
2
bhaveyya
bha ve
L
bha vema
2.
bha veiba
3.
bha veyyum
bha veyyi
g) . Pali lias developed a completely new optative. The starting
point may have been the first person singular of the present
and of the future. In this first person the final vowel may
be dropped: bbavami / him v am, bhavissami / bba vissam.
In the formation of the optative the process may have been
the reverse in so far as a final vowel -/ may have been
added; thus bhaveyyam / bhaveyyami. From this form a
kind of composite suffix eyya- has been abstracted. Thus
the new optative is formed by adding to the stem of the
present, without the final vowel, the suffix -eyya and the
primary personal endings: bhava-eyya-mi > bhav-eyya-mi
> bhaveyyami, bhaveyyasi, bhaveyyati, etc, But in this
formation the third person plural is missing and is replaced
by the form in -eyyum like bhaveyyum,
h) , In a few cases we find forms of the middle optative; some
of them are built up with the suffix and some with the
suffix -eyya:
Sanskrit Pali
1. Labhcya
2. labhethah
3. labheta
labheyyam
labhetho
labhetha
269
i. labhemahi
hibhmnasc,
(abbey yamhe
2, labhedhvam
3. labheran
labheram
(abbey yavho
The difference in the personal
endings betwoer
i Sanskrit and Pali
already been explained in no 210,
i). Optative of the verb as-
‘to he;:
1 . syam
2 uvah
assam. siyam
dcpjj
3. syat
i 1 J
assa, siya
1. syanm
assama
2. syata
assatha
3, syuh
assn, siyum
The only historical forms in
Pali are siyam,
siya, siyum. The
consonant group has been split with the insertion of the vowel
-i,
Pali has done away with the weak grade of the root and has
generalized the strong grade as- with the suffix -ya and the
secondary personal endings: as-ya-m > assam. This suffix -ya,
however, has been shortened except in the first person plural: as-
ya-ma > assama.
215* The future, da- 'to give’:
Sanskrit Pali
i.
dasyami
dassami
dadissami
2
dasyasi
dassasi
dadissasi
J.
dasyati
dassati
dadissati
/.
da syama
d assama
dadissama
2.
dasyatha
dassatha
dadissatha
3.
dasyanti
da ss anti
dadissanti
The future tense in Pali is formed from the root in its guna
grade and is conjugated exactly as in Sanskrit. The only innovation
in Pali is the formation of the future from the stem of the present
with the connecting vowel -i: dadissati besides dassati, sunissati
1
270
besides sossath The formation of the future from the stem of the
present is already found in Sanskrit in the case of the verbs of the
secondary conjugations like the verbs of the tenth class and the
causative verbs; cintayisyati, corayisyatili which in Pali become
cin tayissati, corny issan ti.
future formations through various changes of consonants and
vowels have already been explained in no. 79.
216. The conditional. bhu- To be 1
Sanskrit
/, abhavisyam
2, abhavisyab
3, abhavisyat
l abhavisyama
2 , abhavisyata
3. abhavisyan
abha vis sam
abha vissa
abba vissa
abhavissama
abha vissatba
abba vissamsu
The conditional is very rarely used both in Sanskrit and in Pali,
The formation is the same in both languages except that Pali has
generalized the aspirate dental in the second person plural: abbavissatha.
Further the third person plural abhavisyan becomes in Pali abha vissam,
which is already the first person singular. Hence Pali has built up
a new form on the analogy of some s-aorists: abhavissamsu like
adamsu, attbamsu,
217, The aorist. Sanskrit has two kinds of aorists: the sigma tic
and the asigmatic. The sigmatic contains four varieties according as
the aorist is formed with the suffix -sa, -s, -is, -sis. The asigmatic
has two varieties according as it is formed with the suffix -a or
without any suffix at all (this last is called root aorisl). The a-aorist
can also, be formed with the reduplication of the root.
In Pali the aorists formed with the suffixes -sa / -sj's have been
lost, though there are some plural forms which have been built like
the s/s-aorist: adasimha, adasittha, asakkhimha. Of the reduplicated
variety there remains only avoca. Hence Pali has the root and the
27i
a- aorist in the asigmatic type; the s- / is- aorists in the sigmatic
type.
The aorist is formed by prefixing an augment. Rules for the
use of the augment have been given in no. 82. In the use of the
augment Pali is more similar to Vedic since in the Rig-Veda the
forms without the augment are much more numerous than those with
the augment.
In Sanskrit there are minute rules regarding the grade or quantity
of the vowel of the root. In Pali it is difficult to give any definite
rules that will cover all the cases, but usually there is no vowel
alternation between the singular and the plural or between the active
and the middle, since either the weak or the guna grade has been
generalized,
Regarding the personal endings, the second person plural has
the dental aspirate which is a feature proper to Pali: ugamatha,
gacchittha, akattba. And this ending retains the dental even when
the ordinary rules of sandhi would require a cerebral consonant:
akattha, kamittha against Skt akarsta, akramista.
218. The root aorist. The root aorist was rather common in
Vedic. Apparently in the Vedas 100 roots and in the Brahmanas 25
more roots take this aorist. But soon most of the forms were lost
in classical Sanskrit. In Pali the root aorist seems to be confined
to five roots only: ga- } da-, stha-, bhii kr Further, in the inflection
Pali has lost the first and second person plural.
The secondary personal endings are added directly to the augmented
root.
The root retains the long vowel except before the ending of
the third person plural: ada but adu.
The root kr- takes guna in Vedic; in Pali it seems to be
restricted to two forms only, one derived from Vedic and the other
built analogically.
272
Further the ending of the third person plural varies in Vedic:
it is -ur for the roots in -a, and -an for the other roots: adur
and abhuvan. In Pali there is no distinction made and the ending,
hen
it is found,
is -u / -urn.
Vedic
Pali
Vedic
Pali
l.
adam
ad am
a gam
agam
2.
adds
ada (ado)
agas
aga
3.
ad at
add
agiit
aga
1 .
a dam a
agama
2.
a data
agiita
3 .
adur
adu, adum
agur
agu, agusp
1.
as t ham
attham
abhuvam
ahum
2,
asthas
attha
i 1
abhus
ahu
3,
as that
attha
abhut
ahu
L
asthama
abhuma
2,
asthata
abhuta
5,
asthur
atthu, atthum
abhuvan
ahu, ahum
L
akaram
akam
2. akar
3. akar aka
1. akarmn
2. akarta
3 . akaran
a) . In the root bhu- the labial consonant has lost its occlusion.
Further the formation in Pali is on the same pattern as
adam, add, adum, hence ahum, ahu, ahu / ahum. In third
person singular sometimes the final dental consonant re-
appears in combination in sandhi: ahud eva.
b) . The root kf- has aka in third person singular corresponding
to the Vedic akar. The lengthening of the vowel, however,
is rather on the pattern of ada, aga, attha, From this form
there has been built the first person just as ada:adam::aka:akam.
273
c) , ga- has a first person plural formed on the analogy of the
s-aorist: agamha.
d) < As a rule the root aorists take the augment, but in poetry
there are also root aorists without the augment: from adhi-
gam- we find ajjhagam but also adhigam. Apparently
the augment is sometimes missing when Ihe verb is com-
bined with a prefix.
219. The a-aorist The a-aorist is rather common both in Vedic
and in Sanskrit. It is formed by adding the suffix -a lo the augmented
root. The root usually appears in the weak grade, but there are also
some roots that appear in their guna grade: vid- : avidam , gam-:
agamat ; kr-: aka rat,
In Pali the a-aorist is formed in the same way: bid-: abhida,
gam-: agama, dr$-: addasa. The root mad- appears in Us vrddhi
grade in pamado. Further in Pali there are some a-aorists formed
from the stem of the present: man-: amamatp, amanharum , da-:
a da dam, up a -pad-: upapajjatha, vid-: vindatha.
Sanskrit
Pali
/. aga mam
aga mam
2. agamas
agama
3. agamat
agama
1 . agamama
agamama
2. agama ta
agama tha
3. agaman
agamurn
a) . In the second person singular the Sanskrit group -as has
sometimes given rise to -o in Pali: pamado, asado.
b) . In the second and third pertson singular the final vowel
sometimes is long and sometimes is short: addasa l addasa,
agama / agama, abhida, al attha, ahuva.
c) . In the plural there are some forms built on the analogy of
the s-aorist: akaramha, ahuvamha, ahuvattha, pamadattha,
alatthamsu.
274
d) . In the second person plural Pali has the usual aspirate dental
-th: agamatha against Skt agamata.
e) . In the third person plural Pali has the ending -nm which
correponds to the Sanskrit ending <ir alrady lound in the
root aorist: Skt agaman but Pali agamum. Similarly
avocum, ufotthum, addasum.
0 Oi the Sanskrit reduplicated aorist only avoca has been
i da in cd in Pali (see no, 84 b). Pali has further a new
-a -aorist from the root vac-: avaca.
g) . from the root A/- t Pali has the aorist akaram correspond-
ing to the Vedic akaram; from the root bhu- there is the
form ahuvam whose formation may have been influenced
by the Vedic root aorist abhuvam.
h) . Alattha is an s-aorist but it has been inflected like an
a-aorist (see 83)
i) . Of the middle voice Pali has retained only a few forms
for the third person singular and plural and for the first
person plural: abhasatha, upapajjatha, vindatha, ahajjhare,
amaiinatviUf akaramhasc, Here the third person singular
takes the ending -tha against the Sanskrit ending -fa; in
the third person plural the ending -re is already found in
Sanskrit in the perfect tense, while -mm seems to be the
result of the two endings -re i- - um . In the first person
plural the ending -mhase is already found in the present
tense (see no, 211).
220. The s-aorist. The s-aorist is frequently used both in Vedic
and in Sanskrit . In Pali it has become very common in verbs whose
present stem ends in -c; but it is found also in other verbs.
In Sanskrit, in the formation of the s-aorist the root appears
in its vrddhi grade in the active voice, while in the middle voice
the root is sometimes in the guna grade and sometimes in the weak
grade.
275
In the oldest stage of the language the secondary personal
endings were added to the suffix -s, But owing to the rules of sandhi
and of the final consonants allowable at the end of a word, the second
and third person singular became indistinguishable; v.g. bhf- : a-
bhar-s-am > abharsam, a-bhar-$~$ > abhat\ a-bhars-t > abhar, Hence
from the Alharva Veda onwards an -/ began to be inserted in these
two forms and very soon this insertion became the rule in almost
every root that took the s-aorist. Thus while the Rig Veda has adrak
(adrakst < adras-s-t), the later language has adraksit (adras -s-f-
t). In Pali the insertion of -/ has been extended to the first person
singular and thus the three persons singular have been made uniform.
Sanskrit Pali
/, a-kar-s-am akarsam a-kar-s-I-m akasim
2. a-kar-s-M a k arsis a-kar-s-f-s akasi
3. a-kar-s-i-t akarsit a-kir-s-i-t akasi
1. a-kars-ma akarsma a-kar-s-ma akamha
2. a-kar-s-ta akarsta a-kar-s-tha akattha
3. a-kar~SHir akarsur a-kar-s-um akasum , fakamsu
a) . In Pali the vowel -i has been shortened in the first person
singular since it is followed by niggahita, and in the second
and third person, because it comes at the end of a word.
b) , In the second person plural in Pali there is always the
aspirate dental even when the sandhi rules would demand
a cerebral consonant.
c) In the first and second person plural, the vowel -o of the
root is shortened to -u before the double consonant: assosim
but assumha, assiutha. Similarly ahumha, ahuttha from
the root bhu,
d) . In the third person plural either the final vowel -it is
nasalized (Skt -ur> -u/-um) or the final vowel -u is short-
ened and the -a of the previous syllable is nasalized:
adasum/adamsu, samadahamsu (from sam-a-dha-). The vowel
-e / -o, however, remains unchanged: nesum, assosum
i
i
i
276
In the third person plural of the roots in -a, the vowel -a is
sometimes changed to -/, perhaps under the influence of the is-
aorist: aniiasi, ahnimsu, vihasi, vihamsu / vihimsu.
e}. In the plural there are some forms built up both with the
the suffixes -s -f- -is. This may be due to the tendency
at work in Pali to build the first and second person plural
on the model of the is-aorist: adisimha, adasittha, asakkhimha.
f) . The s-aorist has been very much expanded in Pali since
it is taken by all the verbs whose present stem ends in
-e: ncsic neti , cintesi < tinted, kites i < hired, kiitesi <
kitteti, In the aorist of these verbs, however, the first and
second person plural are wanting.
g) . The s-aorist has been extended also with new formations
which can be considered as double aorist s, i.e. an s-aorist
built up from an a-aorist. The final vowel of the a-aorisl
is always long before the suffix -s; agamasi < gam-, addasasi
< drs-, avacasi < vac-, ahuvasi < bhii-, As extended aorist
also may be considered a dasi < da-, atthasi < sthi- built
from the root aorist, unless they are considered as new
formations built up on the analogy of aniiasi (Skt ajnasit)
< Ini-.
h) , J he aorist adrak found in the RigVeda has been mentioned
above. This form is found also in Pali as addi.
i) . In the middle or attanopada there are only a few rare forms
like udapattha < pat-, alattha < Jabh- with the aspirate
dental in the third person singular as in the a-aorist ( see
no. 219 i), Further it is to be noticed tha the -a drops
when occurring between two occlusive consonants: ud-a-
pat-s-ta > udapatta > udapattha. In Sanskrit labh- has
an s-aorist and a sa-aorist: a-labh-s-ta >alabhta > alabdha,
a-labh-sa-ta > alapsata. In Pali alattha seems to be a
mixture of both Skt aorisls since the consonant bh - of the
root has not softened the following dental, but seems to
have become a hard consonant before the s- and then
277
assimilated to the following dental aspirate: a-Iabh-s-tha >
a-lap-s-tha > alaptha > alattha ,
221. The is-aorist, The is-aorist is rather common both in Vcdie
and classical Sansrit. The only difference is that in Sanskrit the is-
aorist becomes more and more confined to the roots in consonants
while the s-aorist is taken chiefly by roots in a vowel. In the is-
aorist the root of the verb appears in its gima grade, The lew roots
in vowel that take this aorist show the final vowel in its vrddhi grade.
kram- ‘to step’
/ , akramisam
2. akramih
3. akramit
1, akramisma
2, akramista
3, akmmisur
kamim, kamisam
kami
kami
kaniimha
kamittha
kami sum
a) In Sanskrit in the second and third person singular the
endings are -ih, -it respectively which do not represent
the phonetic development of the usual suffix with the personal
endings: - is-s , -is-t They seem to be asigmatic formations
based on older imperfects with the connecting vowel In
fact, in Vedic there arc three verbs that retain the same
formation in the first person singular: akramim , agrabhim,
vadhhn.
In Pali the vowel -j is found regularly in the three persons
of the singular. These may be considered as derived from such forms
as akramim, akramih, akramit, but the vowel -/ is shortened in
the first person because followed by niggahita, and in the second
and third persons because final; or they may be considered as built
up regularly with the suffix -is: kam-is-m > kami sm >kamihm >
kamimh > kamim, kam-is-s > kami , kam-is-t > kami .
b) . in the first person singular there is also the ordinary suffix
-is and the ending -am: agammm. In poetry the -s is
sometimes doubled: sandhavissam.
n
278
279
c) > In the third person plural either the vowel of the ending
or the vowel of the suffix is nasalized: agamisum / again imsu,
pavisimsu, vandimsu, vimuccimsu,
In many cases there is a third person plural built up on the
analogy ol the s-aorist; abravum, pakkamum, upavisum, anussarum,
anassum , agacchum, visodhayum t abhinandum, padalayum, acarum.
These forms may have arisen from the confusion between the
a-aorist and the is-aorist in verbs that have both forms; agatna /
agaml
In the inflection of gacchim the vowel of the first syllable is
sometimes nasalized: gacchi / ganchi
d) . The is-aorist has been very much expanded in Pali. In fact
practically every verb may form an is-aorist from the stem
oi the present: gacchi < gacchati, bhunji < bhuhjati, pucchi
< pucchati, asuni < sunati , cintayi < cintayati, khamapayi
< khamipayati, etc,
e) . It has already been mentioned that the verbs whose stem
of the present ends in -e like cinfeti, kareti take the s-
aorist: cintcsi, karesi. The same verbs may take the is-
aorist from the stem in -ay a: cintayi < cintayati, karayi <
karayati.
f) ‘ The root stha- splits up the long vowel into two similar
vowels with the aspirate in between: tha- > thaha- in
utthahi.
g) . Of the medial forms only the second and the third persons
singular are found:
2nd person: pucchittho, amannittho, patisevittho
3rd prison: pucchittha, sandittha, mccittha.
The endings - ittho , -ittha are derived from is-thas, is-ta. Pali
has generalized the dental consonant throughout as in other forms;
has shortened the vowel of the second person and has aspirated the
dental of the third person.
b). Just as in Sanskrit, in Pali the vowel of the root appears
in its guna grade: agami, veditn, abhedi, abodhi. In some
verbs, however, the vowel may appear in the vfddhi grade,
or both in the guna and vrddhi grade: pad-: ndapadi, tras-
: vitthasi, kram-: pakkami but upasahkami, nikkhami; tr-
: atari, atari, car-: acari, acari.
222, The passive. In Sanskrit the formation of the passive seems
to have originated from the fact that some verbs of the fourth class
forming the stem of the present with the suffix -ya had an intran-
sitive meaning while they had also a corresponding stem of the
present with the suffix -a and with a transitive meaning: tapyatc
‘becomes hot’, tapati ‘heats’ pacyate 'becomes cooked’ , 'becomes
ripe’, pacati ‘cooks’.
Such verbs may have been the first nucleus which gave rise
to the ordinary formation of the passive from the transitive verbs.
Then a distinction was introduced between the verbs of the
fourth class and the passive: the verbs of the fourth class had the
accent on the root while the passive had it on the suffix: manyate
‘thinks’, badhyate ' ‘is bound’, But this seems to be a late element
since in both types of verbs the root is in the weak grade and hence
the accent ought to be on the suffix.
The passive verb was generalized with the attanopada or middle
personal endings; but this also was a gradual generalization in
Sanskrit for in Iranian there are passive verbs with the parassapada
or active endings: bairyeiti ‘is carried’*
In Sanskrit the passive is confined to the present, to a special
third person of the aorist, and to the past and future participles. In
the other tenses the attanopada or middle can be used as a passive;
v.g. karisyate ‘will be done’.
Pali seems to retain the older usage since the passive verb is
conjugated more often in the parassapada than in the attanopada:
muccati, hanmti.
286
Several of the verbs that seem to be passive are actually in-
transitive in meaning: a mtappati ‘repents’, miyyati ‘dies’, paccati
‘ripens’, dissati ‘appears’.
There are two innovations in Pali. Just as other verbal forms,
so the passive also may be formed from the stem of the present:
bhid-: bhsjjati ! bhindiyati, chid-: chijjati } chindiyatL
Further there are passive forms in other tenses and moods
besides the present indicative.
Aorists: apachn, vimucci, chijji , apaccatha
Future: paMaymati, khiyissati
Optative: paMayatha
Present participle: vimuccamano
Gerund: chijjitvi
223. The causative verb. On the whole the formation of the
causative verbs in Pali corresponds to the same formation in Sanskrit.
The final vowel of a root appears in the vfddhi grade while a vowel,
followed by a consonant, appears in its guna grade, with the ex-
ception of the vowel -a which is also often lengthened. The only
phonological differences consist in the contraction of the group
-aya > -c in Pali.
bhu-
Skt bhivayati Pali
bhivayati, bhaveti
kf-
kirayati
kirayati , kareti
bhid-
bhedayati
bhedayati, bhedeti
pat-
patayati
patayati, piteti
The roots that end in -a insert a -p
suffix:
between the root and the
mi-
map ayati
mapayati, mapeti
di-
dapayati
dapayati, dipeti
£
I
h
281
In some roots in Pali the final vowel is not kept consistently
long: da pet i but adapeti, samadapeti; thapeti but utthapeti, santhapeti,
sag thapeti; pariyodapeti < da- ‘to wash’.
Just as in Sanskrit, so also in Pali there are some other ways
of forming the causative: dus-; diiseti; pr-: piireti; pa-; pay a ti; pa -
: paleti, etc,
The two main innovations in Pali are the formation of the
causative verbs from the stem of the present and the formation of
double causative. From verbs like mapayati, dapayati, dapayati, Pali
has abstracted a kind of new suffix -apaya / - ape and has used
it to form causative verbs from any present tense: chinda-: chhdapeti,
nisida-: nisidapeti, ocina- : ocinapeti, karo- k a raped, pujaya- pUjapeii,
iimantaya-: aman taped. The double causative is formed by adding
the suffix -a pc to the present stem of a causative verb; kiire-;
karapeti, sod he-: sodhapeti, ghate-: ghatapeti, rope-; mpapeti .
224. The desiderative and the intensive verbs. The formation of
the desiderative and of the intensive verbs in Pali is the same as
in Sanskrit. In fact the desiderative and the intensive verbs in Pali
are directly derived from Sanskrit:
pipasati
Pali pipasati
jigimsati
jigimsati
ditsati
dicchati
siksati
sikkhati
cank rainy ate
cankamati
jajvalyati
daddajhati
225. Present participle. The present participle parassapada in
Pali corresponds to the same participle in Sanskrit:
Skf bhavani Pali bhavant
chinda nt chin da nt
In Pali there is no distinction between the verbs of the third
class and the remaining verbs. In Sanskrit the verbs of the third class
282
have the suffix -at while all the other verbs have the sauffix -ant.
In Pali all the verbs have the suffix -ant, in which the final dental
drops and the -n is changed to niggahita. The suffix -ant has often
been extended with the thematic vowel and thus a new suffix -anta
is often used in the formation of the present participle. In fact this
suffix is the only one used when the present participle is formed
from the stem of the present ending in -e / -o: cintenta, karonta.
In Sanskrit the present participle attanopada is formed with the
suffix -ma/ia for the verbs of the first conjugation and with the
suffix -ana for the verbs of the second conjugation; bhavamana,
juhvana. In Pali this distinction lias been eliminated, Every verb
can form a present participle with he suffix -mana; bhavamana,
sampajjamina, karamfina, cintayamana, Of the present participle in
-ana there are a few forms still extant, but this participle is confined
to verbs which in Sanskrit belong to the second conjugation: esana,
say ana, kubbana, saddahana, sankharana , anutthahana
226. The past participle. The Pali past participle, formed with
the suffix -ta / -na, corresponds to the same participle in Sanskrit.
An innovation in Pali, however, is the formation of the past participle
with the suffix -fa from the stem of the present, not only in
derivative verbs like karita, pujita, but also in simple verbs Jike
gacchita, ganhita, etc.
Further in Pali in the formation of the past participle of the
roots in -h f the suffix -fa with the preceding -h has given rise
to -Ih with the preceding vowel lengthened: -lha: mnh-; tnulha, ruh-
: rujha .
The verb da- has the past participle datta as in Sanskrit but
only in compounds like Devadatta; it has also dta as in Sanskrit
in compounds atta (< a -da-), paritta (< pari-da-X and it has a new
formation dinna v.g. dhammadinna.
227. The future participle passive. In Pali, as in Sanskrit, the
future participle passive is formed with the suffixes -tabba (Skt -
tavya), -an!ya } -ya;
Skt gantavya
g a manly a
Pali gantabba
gamaniya
283
bhavya
bhabba
In Pali the future participle passive with the suffix -tabba can
be formed also from the stem of the present : pucchi tabba, garahitabba.
This is the only formation possible for derivative verbs: pujetabba,
rope tabba.
In Pali there is a new formation with the suffixes dayya /
-taya / -tcyya: hatayya / hateyya, pattayya / patteyya , lajjitaya.
228. The gerund. In general the formation of the gerund in Pali
corresponds to the same formation in Sanskrit:
Skt jhatva, srutva, adaya, agamy a, parity a
natva, sutva.
ya, agamma, pancca.
In Pali the vowel -j / -f, -Lf of the root is sometimes changed
to -e / -o respectively before two consonants:
Skt jitva j nhva, bhuktva
Pali jetva, nctva , bhutva and bhotva
The distinction between simple and compound verbs is not
always kept: hence nisiditva , papunitva, upasankamitva, mya, bhunjiya,
chaddiya.
In Pali the gerund with the suffix -fva is often formed from
the stem of the present: papunitva, gacchitva, nivasetva. Even some
passive verbs form this gerund: chijjitva, paccitva.
Often instead of dva there appears the extended form - tvana :
gantva / gantvma, disva i disvana. There are also a few gerunds
with the suffix -tuna: katuna, janituna. Again the suffix -ya seems
to have been extended into -yam just as -tva to -tvana; uttariyana,
ovariyana.
229. The infinitive. The ordinary infinitive is built up with the
suffix -turn both in Sanskrit and in Pali:
284
Skt jnatum, swtum
Pali nil tun:, sotum.
In Pali often the infinitive is formed from the stem of the
present: pucchitum, papunitum, passitum, desetum .
Pali has also some infinitive formations going back to Vedic.
The Pali suffix -tave corresponds to Vedic -iitvc / -tavai; Vedic:
cfavT / e tavai, Pali: etave.
The suffix -taye also corresponds to the Vedic suffix -tayc but
with the vowel lengthened: dakkhitaye, pucchitnye.
The infinitive with the suffix 4uye seems to be an analogical
formation: hetuye / havhuye, imrituye.
!l
CHAPTER XVII
EXTERNAL SANDHI
230. In building up a sentence in Sanskrit the words are joined
together according to the rules of external sandhi. In Pali the words
are kept separate. But as in a sentence the adverbs, the prepositions,
the pronouns, the numerals, the forms of the verb as - are usually
pronounced together with a preceding or a following word, lliey
undergo some changes according to certain sandhi rules; v,g, ca api
> ciip:, pat to am hi > pattomhi.
Even some longer words, which are generally used together , are
joined together: utthaya asaim > utthayasana.
In Pali a word may begin with a vowel or a consonant, but
it may end only with a vowel or niggahita. Lienee the cases of
external sandhi can be four
vowel
+
vowel
vowel
+
consonant
niggahita
+
vowel
niggahita
+
consonant
It is evident that all the rules of external sandhi do not apply
in Pali.
286
287
231* Vowel + vowel. The final vowel of a word and the initial
vowel of a following word may be subject to sandhi.
a) . Assimilation* Two similar vowels may be contracted inlo
one long vowel, unless the resultant vowel is followed by
a consonant with which it makes syllblc; tatrS'-ayam >
tatrayam , kinca apt >kihcapi, jats iti > jfitlti, tava a ha in >
tavaham, raja a ham >rajaham, seyyatha api > seyyathapi,
tena anjali > tenanjali, dukkhassa antam > dukkhassantasn.
But there are cases where we find a long vowel followed
by a double consonant according to the Sanskrit sandhi
rules: upasanta am hi > upasantasnhi,
b) . Elision* When the two vowels are dissimilar, then one of
them is elided: tatra hue > tat rime, pans eke > paneke,
tattha eva > tattheva, tena upasahkami > tenupasahkami,
idha upapanno >idhupapanno, dam aham > dSnaham, e$o
a ham > esaham, namo atthu >mmatthu, sett ho aham >
setthahaip, patto iti > pattoti, tc api >tcpi, mala iva >
malava, iti api > itipi , dittho asi > ditthosi.
It is not possible to give a fixed rule according to which one
or the other vowel is elided, but generally speaking the vowel of
the more important word is retained,
c) . Sonant vowels, When a final sonant vowel is followed by
a different initial vowel, the final sonant vowel is changed
into its semivowel: its assa > ityassa > iccassa , api eva >
apyeva > appeva, chasu eva > chasveva > chasseva ,
Also the final vowels e, o, followed by a different vowel,
are changed to y, v respectively: fe aham > tyaham, me ay am
> myayam, so eva > sveva, Generally the vowel that follows the
sonant consonant is lengthened.
d) . Insertion of a consonant. Sometimes between a final and
an initial vowel a consonant is inserted to avoid the iatus;
na id am > naysdam, suto eva > sntoyeva, kati akarehi >
katihakarehi, patto iva > pattoriva, ajja agge > ajjatagge,
In such cases often there is no new consonant inserted, but the
original Sanskrit final consonant is restored: dhi atthu > dhJratthu,
patu ahosi > paturahosi, tasma iva > tasmativa , yava eva > yavadeva ,
cha abhihhi > chajabhihna, puna ahosi > punarahosi.
The pronouns ya, ta , followed by a word beginning with a
vowel, retain the Sanskrit neuter forms: etadavoca, yadeva, Similarly
sammi (< Vedic sansyak), bahu , sakim (< sakrth followed by eva,
insert a d: sammad eva, bahvd eva, sakid eva ,
232, Vowel 4- consonant. When a Sanskrit word begins with
a consonant which has been simplified in Pali, sometimes the assimilated
double consonant reappears when preceded by a vowel: na khamati
(<k$amate) > nakkhamati, na pajanati >nappajanati f api sudam >
apissudam.
Sometimes it is the final consonant of the preceding word that
reappears: puna puna > punar puna > punappuna.
233. Niggahita + vowel*
a) . A niggahita, followed by a word beginning with a vowel,
remains the same or is changed inlo the labial nasal: evam
eva / evameva, pasadam aruyha > pasadamaruyha,
b) . The initial vowel of a preposition is dropped when preceded
by a word ending in niggahita. Then the niggahita is
changed into the nasal of the varga of the following consonant:
aham api >ahampi, dutiyam api > dutiyampi , dukkham iti
> dukkhanti, sukham eva > sukhameva,
c) , Sometimes the final niggahita is elided and the two vowels
that come together may be contracted, or one may be
dropped and changed to its corresponding semivowel: labheyyam
aham >iabheyyahain, namassim aham > namassiham, kun
aham > kyaham .
d) . When a word ends in niggahita and the following word
begins with e, y is sometimes inserted and then the niggahita
and the semivowei may remain unchanged, or may be
I
288
adapted to each other: imasmim cva tisane > imasmim yeva
tisane, tesam era > fesamyeva >tesanmv a.
234. Niggahita + consonant.
a) . The final niggahita is assimilated to an initial nasal con-
sonant: yam nun a > y an nun a, param maranti > param
marana.
I
b) . When the final niggahita is followed by a mute consonant,
the niggahita is changed to the nasal of the varga of the
following consonant: lam ca > tahca, kim pana > kimpana,
kim dadati >kindadati.
k
2
1
SYNTAX
CHAPTER XV III
AGREEMENT
235. The noun and its attribute.
a). An attributive adjective agrees, with the noun it qualifies,
in gender, number and case:
digho maggo
‘a long road’
niltini uppalani ‘blue lotuses’
mahatiya parisaya saddhim ‘with a great crowd’
b). The cardinal numbers from l to 18, being adjectives, agree
in number and case with the noun they qualify; the number
1, 3, 4 agree also in gender:
tayo puma
Three men 1
frsso itthiyo
‘three women’
tlni riiptini
paheahi bhikkhuhi saddhim ‘with five monks’
pane ah i devihi saddhim
‘with five ladies’
290
Pali has no articles. Eko t ekacco are often used as indeterminate
articles. Both eko and ekacco in the plural have often the meaning
of ‘some 1 ;
pun so
ekaig phalam
ekacce satnanabrahmana
a man
‘a fruit’
'some recluses and brahmins 1
e). All the ordinal numerals, being adjectives, agree in gender,
number and case with the noun they qualify:
dutiyo pntto ‘the second son'
sattamiya rattiya ‘on the seventh night’
d) . An adjective is sometimes repeated twice to convey a
superlative mneaning:
sambahula abhinnata abhihnata paribbajaka ‘many of the most
learned wanderers’
wahatiya mahatiya gihi par my a saddhim ‘with a very great
crowd of householders’
e) . A qualifying adjective may be a simple word or a com-
pound:
i m e si la va n to bb ikkh 1 i
‘these virtuous monks’
kalyanadhamma bhikkhu ‘monks with lovely qualities’
Buddhadesito dhammo
‘the doctrine preached
by the Buddha’
f). An adjective, instead of agreeing with the noun, is very
often joined to the noun to form a kammadharaya samasa
niiuppalani ‘blue lotuses’
catuyojamni
appalabho
‘blue lotuses’
‘four yoj anas’
‘little gain’
pubbajati
‘former birth’
29 !
236. The noun and its apposition.
a) . A noun in apposition agrees with the noun it modifies, in
case, and, if possible, in gender and number also:
Asoko raja ‘king Asoka’
niahata bhikkhusahghena saddhim addhatelasehi bhikkhusatehi
‘with a great number of monks, i.e. with 1250 monks’ (DN
I 47:1)
When an apposition modifies a proper noun, usually the appo-
sition follows the proper noun:
Vipassi kumaro ‘prince Vipassi’
Maya devi ‘queen Maya’
Cando mjaputto ‘prince Cauda’
Sunidha - Vassakara Maga dh a -m ah ama tta ‘Sunidha and Vassakara.
the chief ministers of Magadha 1
Nanda bhikkhu ni ‘the nun Nanda’
I
maro papima ‘Mara, the evil one 1
gangs nadl ‘the river Ganges’
Sometimes the arrangement of the noun and its apposition
depends on whether greater importance is given to the person and
thing mentioned or to the apposition. Thus we may find Disampati
maharaja, raja Disampati (DN II 232 j, raja Mahasudassano (ON II
I72j
b) . Sometimes the noun in apposition is joined to the noun it
modifies by means of the words nairn , seyyathldam, seyyathfipi,
yadidam ‘namely, indeed’:
amantayi Cundakam nama bhikkhum ‘he addressed the monk
Cundaka’ (DN II 135:11)
t inn am kho me idm kammanam phalanx tinnam kammanam
vipiiko seyyathidam danassa, damassa , sanhamassa ‘ for me
this is the fruit of three actions, this is the result of three
292
actions, namely of liberality, of self-control and of self-
restraint’ (Itv 15.19)
gahanam hi etam yadidam mantissa, uttanakam hi etam yadidam
pasavo ‘deep indeed are men, plain indeed are animals’
(MN 1 340:24)
bhikkhu evam silasampanno na kuto ci bhayam samanupassati
yadidam sila-samvarato ‘thus a monk who is endowed with
virtue is not afraid of anything since he has the restraint
of virtue’ (DN l 181:22)
When a person is introduced for the first time, usually the word
namtt is used between the name of the person and the noun in
apposition:
Subhaddo nama paribbajako ‘the wanderer called Paribbajako’
In a negative sentence containing a comparison, the second
term is introduced with yatbayidam followed by the nominative ease:
na annain ekahgampi samanupassimi evam bahupakamm yatbayidam
kalyanamittata ‘l do not see anything more helpful than
good friendship’
Sometimes the noun in apposition is introduced with yadidam
followed by a noun in a case different from the one before:
cirassam kho bhante bhagava imam pariyayam akasi yadidam
idhagamanaya ‘it is a long time since the Blessed One
made arrangements to come here’ (DN I 179:17)
c). Sometimes the noun in apposition is expressed by the
nominative case followed by the particle ti / iti:
Buddho ti mam dharehi ‘hold me as the Enlightened One’
(AN II 39:3)
Vipassissa kumarassa Vipassi Vipassi tveva samanna i idapadi
‘to prince Vipassi there arose the appellation Vipassi 7
(DN 11 21:4)
p.
El
Ft'
Ll.
LI.
29 3
d) . When a comparison is expressed by means of the particle
iva, va t seyyathzi the second member of the comparison
is placed in the same case as the first term:
appamadah ca medhavi dhanam sett ham va rakkhati ‘the wise
man guards earnestness as the greatest treasure (Dpd 26)
e) . A noun in apposition is often joined to the noun it modifies
to form a kammadharaya samasa;
Asokaraja ‘king Asoka’
Mahakassapathevo ‘the great elder Kassapa’
f) . The cardinal numbers from 20 upwards arc nouns and hence
they are used as appositions agreeing in case with the noun
they modify:
asiti sahassani bhikkhu ‘eighty thousand monks’
satthiya savakehi saddhim ‘with sixty disciples’
dvattimsa mahapurisa -lakkh anani ‘the thirty-two marks ol a
great man 1 (Sn 107:12)
The numerals satum, sahassani form a tappurisa samasa with
the noun they modify:
vassa-satassa accayena ‘at the end of a hundred years’ (DN
11 189:5)
bhikkhu- sata-sahasam ‘one hundred thousand monks’
When satam / sahassani form a tappurisa samasa with a noun,
an adjective which qualifies the samasa or the number by which
satam or sahassani is exceeded, is placed first:
bahunnam vssasatanam bahunnam vassa-sata-sahassanam
accayena ‘after -many hundred years after many hundred
thousand years’ (DN 11 189:10)
anekani gahapa ti-sahassani ‘many thousands householders’
(DN II 249:26)
294
295
caturSsiti nagara-sahassani ‘eighty- four thousand towns’ (DN
II 187:6)
caturasitiya pana-sahassSnam dhamma bhisamayo ahosi ‘there
was the grasping of the doctrine by 84,000 living beings,’
dve~cattarisam naga-sahassam ‘forty-two thousand nagas’
tlhi manavaka-satehi saddhim ‘with three hundred young men’
(Sn 107:2)
When satam / sahassanp i.e, J00 or 1000 are joined with a
multiple, v.g, 200, 3000, etc. then the multiple can form a bahubbihi
samasa with the word inatta, while satam / sahassam forms a
tappurisa samasa with the noun it modifies:
pancaimttehi bhikkhu-satchi saddhim ‘with 500 monks* (DN
I 1:3)
Sometimes a tappurisa samasa formed with satam/ sahassam is
in apposition to a collective noun:
bhikkh u-saitgh o attha-tejasani bhikkhu~$atani ‘an assembly of
monks, that is, 1250 monks’ (Sn 104:1)
maha-jana-kayo caturasitkpana-sahassani ‘a great crowd, that
is, 84,000 living beings’, (DN II 29:32)
237. The noun and its predicative. A noun may also be modified
by a noun or by an adjective used predicatively, The predicative
noun agrees with the noun it modifies in case, and, if possible,
in gender and number also. The adjective used predicatively agrees
in gender, number and case with the noun it modifies.
Suddhodano raja ahosi ‘Suddhodana was a king’
so hots sukhi parattha ‘he is happy in the uext world 1 (Dpd
177)
When the predicate modifies one of the pronouns ahaip / tvasp,
then the predicate must be in the masculine or feminine gender
according as the pronoun is used for a male or female being: aham
pandito asms, tvam pandita asi .
A noun or adjective is used predicatively in the following
instances:
a) , with the copulative verb atthi, hod, bhavati expressed or
understood:
idha bhikkhu silava hoti ‘herein a monk is virtuous’
kiccham maccana jivitam ‘hard is the life of mortal s’ (Dpd
182)
raja mukham manussanarn , nadinam sagaro mukham ‘the king
is the head of the people, the sea is the mouth of the rivers’
(Sn 568)
ye it bhavissanti ana gat a in addhanam arahanto ‘whoever will
be arahats in the future.(DN IJ 82:18)
b) . with the verbs of incomplete predication in the passive
voice:
id am vuccati kammam kanham kanhavipakam ‘this is called
the action that is black and that has a black result* (MN
I 390:4)
c) , to characterize the action done by the subject of the verb.
In this case the adjective is used in preference to an adverb:
VipassI knmaro anhnisanto pekkhati ‘prince Vipassi looks
without blinking 1 (DN II 20:15)
silava silasampanno yam yad eva park am upasaAkamati visarado
upasaiikamati amanku-bhOto ‘the virtuous person, the one
that is perfect in virtue, enters any assembly to which he
goes, with full confidence and without any hesitation* (DN
II 80:9)
Sanmio Gotamo nihitadando nihitasattho iajji dayapanno sabba-
pana-bhuta-hitamskampi viharati ‘the recluse Gotamo has
laid aside cudgel and sword, avoids evil, is full of mercy,
is full of solicitude for the welfare of all living beings,’
{DN I 4:1-3)
!.
:
296
tvam pi narna mogha-purisa sakya puttiyo patijanissasi ‘you
fool, do you claim to be a follower of the son of the
Sakiya?' (DN III 7:1)
Devadatto kapano manssati 'Devadatta will die a pauper*
Dussilo silavipanno sammujho kilam karoti 'the evil immoral
person dies in his infatuation* (Ud 87:2)
d) . Very often one or more simple adjectives or bahubbihi
s omasa are used prcdicatively instead of relative clauses:
adhigato kho me ayam dhamtno gambhiro duddaso duranubodho
santo panito atakkavacaro nipuno panditavedaniyo ‘a doc-
trine has been grasped by me that is deep and difficult to
understand and difficult to realize, true and excellent,
beyond ordinary reasoning, subtle, and that can be per-
ceived only by the learned* (DN II 36:1)
e) . varam in the neuter is used predieatively in the sense of
an excellent thing i.e, excellent, and in comparison in the
sense of more excellent, better than
varam assatari danta ajaniya ca sindha va-kuBjara ca mahanaga
attadanto tato varam 'excellent are well trained mules and
noble horses of Sind, stately elephants, but better than all
those is the man who has trained his own self.’ (Dpd 322).
238. The pronouns.
a) . A pronoun may take the place of a noun. In this case the
pronoun agrees in gender and number with th noun which
it replaces, but takes the case required by the structure of
the sentence:
sace tvam-Aaanda Tathagatam yaceyyasi dve ca te vaca Tathagato
patikkhipeyya 'if you, 0 Anaida, had requested the Tathagata,
the Tathagata might have refused two of your requests' (DN
II 117:16)
b) . A pronoun may be used with a noun agreeing with it in
gender, number and case:
1
297
etehi dvihi dhammehi yo samannagato naro k ay ass a bheda
sappanno saggam so upapajjati ‘the man who is endowed
with these two characteristics and hence is wise, at the
breaking lip of the body will arise in heaven * (Itv 27:7)
c). A pronoun that refers to a collective noun is generally put
in the plural, though the singular is also found:
bahujano cittam pasadeti, te tatiha c ittam pasddetva ... saggam
lokam upapajjanti ‘the people foster a well disposed mind,
and when they have fostered a well disposed mind with
regard to it. they are reborn in a heavenly world’, ( DN
II 142:21)
As so si... mahdjanakayo ... sutvana tesam etad ahosi ‘the people
heard... and after hearing, this occurred to them (DN II
29:31)
sace bhikkhu parisa Anandam da ss an ay a upasahkamati, dassanena
sa attamani hoti 'if the assembly of the monks has come
to see Ananda, it is happy on seeing him (DN II 145:5)
239. Personal Pronouns. The pronominal enclitic forms me, te,
no, vo are never used at the beginning of a sentence, or after a
vocative, or after an enclitic particle like ca, va , eva;
cvain me sutam ‘thus have I heard’
putto te, deva, jato ‘a son has been bom to you.
0 king’.
240. Demonstrative pronouns.
a). The pronouns eso, ayani are used to express a person or
object near the speaker, while the pronouns so, asu, amu
express a person or object far from the speaker:
ayam pana puriso kim kato ‘what has this man done?’
te bhikkhu yens bhagava ten a upasankamimsu ‘those monks
went up to the Blessed One’.
29S
Samano Gotawo ito sutva na amutra akkhata imesam bhedaya,
a rrnitra va sutva sia imesam akkhath amusam bhedaya ‘the
ascetic Gotama never repeats there anything he has heard
here to create dissension among those people, and what he
has heard there he does not repeat it here to create dis-
sension among them here’ (DN I 4:18)
b) , The pronouns so, eso are used to strengthen the personal
pronouns:
esaham Bhagavantam saranatn gacchami ‘I indeed take my
refuge in the Blessed One' {DN II 132:34)
tassa mayham etad ahosi ‘this occurred even to me 7
c) . The demonstrative pronouns ayam, asn, repeated twice,
have the meaning of this and that, so and so, such and such:
idah ca idan ca aha ‘he said such and such a thing’
d) . The pronoun ayam is often used in the sense of here:
ayam samano Gotamo agacchati ‘here comes the recluse Gotama 7
(MN II 2:5)
idam asanam panhattam ‘here is the seal prepared' (MN II 2:13)
241. Indefinite pronouns, Pali has no special indefinite pronouns,
but their absence is made good by the combinations of other pro-
nouns, An indefinite meaning is conveyed by
a) , the demonstrative pronoun repeated twice:
tasu tasu disasu ‘in any direction 7
ayah ca ayah ca amhakam rahho silaciiw ‘such and such is
the good behaviour of our king’,
b) ; the relative pronoun repealed twice. What is expressed by
the relative pronoun is then taken up by the demonstrative
pronoun repeated also twice:
yarn yam passati tain tam pucchati ‘he asks whatever he sees 7
L
NJ
299
c) . the relative or the interrogative pronoun followed by a
demonstrative pronoun:
ye pi fe ahesvm atitam addhanani arahanto ‘whoever in the
past were arahats' (AN II 21:9)
d) . the relative pronoun followed by the interrogative ko ci:
yam kind samudaya-dhammam sabbam tam nitodha-dhammam
‘whatever is liable to arise is also liable to fall away.’
e) . the interrogative pronoun followed by ci, pi. api in a negative
sentence:
kassaci kin ci n a Jet; ‘he does not give anything to anybody’.
f) . the pronominal adjectives amuka, asuka:
amukasmim nama a vase eko them bhikki i vi ha rati ‘in such and
such a dwelling there lives an elderly monk 7 (DN II 125:25)
42. Possessive pronouns, Pali has no possessive pronouns, but
their absence is made good in various ways;
a) . The genitive case of the personal pronouns can be used
to indicate possession;
amhakam pita ‘our father'
tassa potthakam ‘his book 7
b) . The genitive singular attano is used as possessive pronoun
both for the singular and the plural, for the masculine and
the feminine:
|
so modati so pamodati disvft knmma - vis uddhim attano die
rejoices, he is very happy when he sees the purity of his
actions’ (Dpd 16),
c) . The adjectives sa, saka , nija, niya, niyaka are used for
all the three persons to indicate possession:
!
:
nisinno ahatn sake asane T am sitting in my own seal’ (MN
II 66 : 6 )
300
301
nanu sakam geham gantabbam ‘was it not fitting for you to
go to your own house?' (MN II 62:25)
samino hi sam haranti 'the owners carry away their own tilings’
(MN 1 366:7)
schi kammehi dummedho aggi-daddho va tappali ‘by his own
deeds the fool is consumed as if being burnt with fire' (Dpd
136)
nihito sena mansna ‘he has been brought low by his own mind'
d)
(So 132)
The possessive meaning is also
mamaka:
conveyed by the adjective
mamako savako ‘my disciple’
243. Reflexive pronouns. As reflexive pronouns are used the
oblique cases of atta and the adverbs say a in, samam:
so karohi dipam attano ‘make an island for yourself (Dpd 236)
dugga uddharatha attanam ‘draw yourself out of the evil way’
(Dpd 327)
say am ajanam avatinm*kahkho kim so pare sakkhati nijjhapetum
‘when in his own ignorance a person is himself not free
from doubts, how can he enlighten other people?' ($n 320)
tv am say am dahissati attanam ‘you will burn your self (MN
I 338:24)
yad eva samam datum samam dittham samam viditam tad evaham
vadami ‘I declare whatever has been known by myselfj
seen by myself and understood by myself. (Itv 59:4)
so tattha samam nisiditva ‘he himself sat there’ (MN 1 383:18)
244. Correlative pronouns.
a). A relative pronoun is often used as correlative with a
demonstrative pronoun:
yo dhammam passati so Buddham passati ‘he who see the
dhamma, secs the Buddha’.
yassa papa /12 katam kammam kusalena pithlyati so imam lokam
pabhaseti ‘he illumines the world who covers the evil done
by means of good deeds’ (Dpd 173)
ime kho tayn sattharo ye lake codanarahi yo ca panevariipe
satthaw coded sa codana bhuta ‘these are the three teachers
who deserve blame in the world and be who blames such
teachers, his blame is justified (DN I 232:1)
b). Sometimes the same pronoun is repeated twice or oftener
in the beginning of each sentence or phrase:
ahham jivam annum smram ‘one thing is life and another is
the body’ (DN l 188:9)
tarn jivam tarn sariram ‘the body is the same thing as life'
(DN I 188:5)
anhad jivam aMad smram ‘life is one thing and the body is
another' (DN I 188:9)
sabbe kama samucchinna ye dibbayc ca manusa ‘every pleasure,
whether divine or human, has been rooted out.' (Thg 47)
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CHAPTER XIX
SYNTAX OF
THE CASES
A noun is placed in one case or in another according to
its relation to a verb, or noun, or adjective, or preposiion, or prepositional
adverb. The only exception is the vocative case which usually stands
by itself.
Nominative
245. The nominative is used to express:
a) , the subject or subjects of a finite verb:
Bhagava savatthiyam vihavati 'the blessed One abides at Savatthi 1
atha kho Punno ca Koliyaputto acelo ca Scniyo yena Bhagava
tena upasahkamimsu ‘then the young Koliya Punna and the
ascetic Seniya went up to the Blessed One’ (MN l 387:8)
b) . the predicate of the verbs as-, bhii- and the predicative of
the subject with verbs meaning ‘to appear, to become, to
be called, to be appointed or elected’. The verbal forms
of as-, bhu - are sometimes omitted:
L
30.1
aggo sham asmi lokassa 4 1 am the chief of the world’ (DN
11 12 : 10 )
appasadda bhoato hontu ‘please, do not make noise’ (DN 1
179 : 7 )
ay am ettha dhammata ‘this is the rule here’ (DN II 12:15)
simnam brahma-vimanain patvbhavati ‘the place of Brahma
appears empty 7 (DN I 17:25)
so kho panayam akkhato vepuho pabbato maha ‘this indeed is
called a great vast mountain* (ftv 17:16)
yo aimadatthu vijja-carana-sampannasseva paiicarako sampajjaii
‘he is certainly the follower of one who is endowed will
knowledge and right behaviour* (DN I 102:4)
Sambtiddho patijanasi ‘do you profess to be the Buddha?’ (Sn
555)
raja arahasi bhavitum cakkavatti ‘are you worthy to be a
universal king? 7 (Sn 552)
c) . The nominative is used with the indeclinable sakka, labbha
followed by an infinitive; what is possible is expressed with
the nominative:
sakka imasmim dhamma-vinaye anupubba-sikkha atmpubba-kiriya
anupubba-patipada pannapetum ‘in this doctrine and discipline
it is possible to point out a gradual training, a gradual
practice, a gradual path’ (MN III 2:1)
mi heso labbha $apariggah&na phmetum kevalo bhikkhu-dhammo
‘the full law of a monk cannot be realized by one who
is busy with his possessions’ (Sn 393)
d) . The titles of books or of chapters are in the nominative:
sattamo piicchedo ‘the seventh chapter 7
Theri-gatha 'the songs of the nuns 7
e) . For the nominative with the particle Hi, see no. 236 c.
304
Vocative
246. The vocative case is used in addressing people or objects.
a) . The vocative case is never pul al the beginning of a sentence
in the Pali canonical language;
evam deva ‘yes sir’
yojehi sainma sarathi bhaddani bhaddani yamni ‘0 charioteer,
harness the best chariots' (DN II 21:16)
apehi bhikkhu ma me purato atthasi ‘go, o monk, do not remain
before me’ (DN II 139:6)
The only exception seem to be the words bhikkhavo, bhadantc,
avis so, ambho used to draw the attention of the persons addressed:
Tatra kho bhagava bhikkhu amantesi: bhikkhavo ti. B had ante
ti to bhikkhu bhagava to paccassosum ‘then the Dlcssed One
addressed the monks, ‘0 monks'. ‘Reverend sir’, they replied'.
<MN I 101:2)
Tatra kho ayasma Sariputto bhikkhu amantesi: avuso bhikkhavo
ti. Avuso ti kho te bhikkhu ayasma to Sariputtassa paccassosum
‘then the Reverend Sariputta addressed the monks: 0 monks.
The monks replied to the Reverend Sariputta, “Yes, friend”.
(MN I 124:12)
Ambho purisa, yam tvam na janasi na passasi, tam tvam icchasi
kamesi ‘O man, do you desire and wish to get what you
do not know and you do not see?’ (DN I 193:15)
b) . In adressing persons of great authority, besides the proper
honorific word in the vocative case, another word is used
referring to the same person and is put in the nominative
case as subject of the verb:
dcsetu bhante Bhagava dhammam, desetu Sugato dhammam
‘Lord, may the Blessed One preach the doctrine, may the
Happy One preach the doctrine' (DN II 37:15)
305
nisidatu bhante Bhagava ‘Lord, may the Blessed One sit’ (DN
I 179:18)
efu kho bhante bhagava sagalam bhante bhagavato ‘0 Lord,
may the Blessed One come, 0 Lord, welcome to the Blessed
One, (DN I 179:16)
c). In speaking to people, different words are used either to
point put their rank or to show respect or even endearment.
Some of the most common words of address ate: bho,
bhante, avuso, deva, bhadante, devi, maharaja , gahapati,
brahmam, marisa , fata, samma.
The monks are addressed with the words bhikkhu, bhikkhave,
or with their personal name alone or preceded by one of the words
bho, avuso , ayasma, samana . In addressing the monks, the lay
disciples use the word bhante, while the gods address them with
the word marisa.
Kings and queens, princes and princesses are addressed as
maharaja, deva , devi, kumara, kumari.
A person of authority is addressed as ayya, putta, ayye , setthi
Relatives are addressed as tata, amma, daraka, bhagini.
Sometimes with a proper name are used words like braiunana,
gahapati, manava, manavaka, ambho purisa ; sometimes samma is
used as samma sarathi ‘good charioteer’.
Accusative
247. The accusative is used to express:
a), the object of transitive verbs:
atha kho bhagava savatthim pavisi ‘then the Blessed one
entered Savatthi' (DN I 178:8)
alattha kho Magandiyo paribbijako bhagavato santike pabbajjam
alattha upasampadam ‘the wanderer Magandiya received
E
306
the lower and the higher ordination from the Blessed One’
(MN I 513:1)
bhajetha mitte kalyanc ‘one should assoc iae with good friends’
(Dpd 78)
oa so kfisavam arahati ‘he is not worthy of the yellow robes’
(Dpd 9)
atha kho raja magadbo dutam pahesi ‘then the king of Magadha
sent a messenger* (DN II 164:26)
b) . the object of verbs which become transitive when they are
compounded with a preposition like adhi, anu, upa, ati,
abhi , pati , t pari:
oJarikam kho aham attanam paccemi 4 1 fall back on a self that
is coarse’ {DN I 186:1)
aciram vatayam kayo pa tha vim adhisessati ‘before long this
body will lie on the earth* (Dpd 41)
tc bhikkhu bhagavato bhasitam abhinandum ‘the monks rejoiced
at what the Blessed One said*. (DN I 46:27)
sadhu vata bhavantam A nan dam patibhatu sake acariyake dhammt
katha ‘it would be good if a discourse on the doctrine
were to occur to the reverend Ananda with regard to his
teachers (it would be good if the reverend Ananda were
to make’.,..) (MN l 514:25)
c) , the object of an intransitive verb turned into causative:
bandhuma raja Vipassi-kumaram ankhc nisidapesi ‘king Bandhuma
made prince Vipassi sit on his lap* (DN II 20:20)
ka iiham dhammam vippahaya sukkam bhavetha pandko ‘the
wise man should leave behind the path of darkness and
follow the path of light; (Dpd 87)
potthapado paiibbajako sakam par is am santhapesi ‘Pott hap ad a,
the wandering ascetic, built up a group of followers’ (DN
I 179:5)
307
d) . Sometimes an accusative has been used with some past
participles and some verbal nouns:
bbagavantam pitthito pitthito a nubaddha honti ‘they followed
just behind the Blessed One 1 (Ud 89:29)
nimi raja sisam nahato... upari- pasada va ra -ga to nisinno hoti
‘king Nimi, having bathed his head, ..went to the terrace
and sat there’ (MN II 79:11)
addasa kho koliya-putto stippavasam ... arogam puttan j vijatam
‘the son of the Koliyas saw that Suppavasa had given birth
to a healthy child* (Ud 16:9)
m i so mitto yo ... randbam evanupassi ‘he is not a friend who
finds only weak points’ (Sn 255)
imam dhammam bhavam gotamo aradhako ‘Gotama is the one
who practises this doctrine* (MN I 492:2)
e) . Though dassanaya is the dative case of a noun, yet it is
sometimes used as a verb with an accusative, chiefly when
the object of seeing is the Buddha:
samma-sambuddham dassanaya upasahkamissama ‘we shall come
to see the fully Enlightened One* (MN II 46:7)
f) . The accusative is used to express the purpose or the goal
for which an action is done and the place to which an action
is directed:
idam brahmacariyam vussati samvarattham ‘the celibate life is
Jived for the sake of self-restraint* (AN II 26:6)
vipassi kumaro ... uyyanabhumim niyyasi ‘prince Vipassi set
out for the park’ (DN II 21:23)
agama rajagaham buddho ‘the Buddha went to Rajagaha’ (Sn
408)
g) , The verbs gacchati, oli, yati are often used with the
accusative of an abstract noun:
308
attham gacchanii asava 'the defilements come to an end 1 (Dpd
226)
so bah there ti eva satikhm gacchati ‘he is called a foolish
elder' (AN II 22:22)
appamadena Maghava devanam setthatam gato 'by earnestness
Maghava became the chief of the gods’ (Dpd 30)
adassanam maccwajassa gacche ‘he ought to go beyond the
sight of the king of death’ (Dpd 46)
sabbampi tam na catubhagam eti ‘all thast is not worth even
one fourth’ (Dpd 108)
sabbe maccuvasam yanti ‘all fall ino the power of death’ ($n
528)
h) . The accusative is used to express extension of time and
space:
so cattaro mase parivasati ‘he must live under probation for
four months’ (DN II 152:17)
kusin&rS ... puratthimena ca pacchimena ca dvadasa yojanani;
‘Kusinara extended 12 yojanas from east to west' (DN II
146:27)
i) . The accusative is used to express the price or the value
of a thing:
sabbani tani mettaya cetovimuttiya kaiam nagghanti solasim : ‘all
of them are not worth one sixteenth part of the emanci-
pation of the mind through loving kindness’ (Itv 19:4)
248. Accusative governed by prepositions.
The accusative is used also when a noun is governed by a
preposition, or a prepositional adverb or by a past gerund used as
preposition.
a). The prepositions that govern the accusative arc anu t adhi,
pati:
309
am pancaham ‘every five days’
anu vassam ‘every year’
pati vatam ‘against the wind’
pati suriyam thatva ‘standing against the sun’
nadim neranjaram pati ‘towards the river Naranjara’ (Theri 307)
b) . The prepositinal adverbs which govern the accusative arc:
antara , yava, samanta, paccha, yatha:
an tar a ca rajagaham antara ca ualandam addhana -magga -patipanno
hoti ‘he had taken the high road between Rajagaha and
Nalanda’ (DN 1 1:5)
yava sattaham ‘up to seven days’
dadati ve yatha saddham yatha pasadanam ‘people give accord-
ing to their faith and according as they are well disposed’
(Dpd 249)
ctha tumhe t bhikkhave , samanta vesalim ... vassam upetha ‘come,
O monks, and spend the rainy season everywhere in Vesali’
(DN 11 98:26)
c) . Many past gerunds arc used as prepositions governing the
accusative:
gaccha mm Ananda yavatika bhikkhu rajagaham upanissaya
viharanti, te sabbe upatthana-salayam sarmipatchi ‘go, O
Ananda, and summon to the assembly room all the monks
who are dwelling in the neighbourhood of Rajagaha’ (DN
II 76:13)
tam me bhante Bhagava patiganhitu anukampam upadaya; ‘Sir,
may the Blessed One accept it out of compassion for me’
(DN 11 133:13)
idam pathamam thanam yam agamma yam arabbha ekacce samana-
brahmana sassata-vada ‘this is the first reason on account
of which and concerning which some recluses and brahmins
say that the world is eternal’ (DN I 14:15)
310
idam pahutam sapateyyam devam yeva uddissa ahataip ‘all this
wealth has been brought for the king’ (DN I 142:6)
The present participle sampass&mano is used in the same way:
kam althavasam sampassamano Tathagato savake abbhatlte kila-
kate uppattisu byakaroti ‘for what reason does the Tathagata
speak of the future births of the disciples of the past who
have already died?* (MN [ 464:34)
249. Internal object. A verb, whether transitive or intransitive,
lakes an object in the accusative when this object is expressed with
a word derived from the same root as the verb or having the same
meaning as the verb:
atha kho Bhagava imam udanam udanesi ‘then the Blessed One
uttered this utterance’ (Ud 28:5)
idha thapati na kayena papa kam kammam karoti, na papikam
vacaip bhasati, na papakam sankappain sankappeti , na papakam
ajivam ajivati ‘herein Thapati does not commit an evil
bodily action, does not speak an evil word, does not think
an evil thought, does not live an evil life’ (MN II 25:10)
eanitha bhikkhave carikam bahujana hitaya ‘0 monks, wander
about for the welfare of many people’ (DN II 45:29)
raja Mahasudassano ca turas/ti- vassa -sahassani kumara-kilikain
kili ‘king Mahasudassana for eighty four thousand years
played a boy’s game’ (DN II 196:3)
raja maha-yanham yajati ‘the king offers a great offering (i.e.
performs a great sacrifice)’ DN I 193:13)
sa pindacaram caritva ‘he having gone on his rounds for alms’
(Sn 414)
Sometimes even a past participle is used as a noun and as the
internal object of a verb:
api nu so raja-bhanitam va bhanati raj a - man tana m va manteti
tavata so assa raja va raja-irsatto va ti ‘can one be a king
I M i iii Mi ijW
or similar to a king by merely uttering royal words and
holding royal counsels?’ (DN I 104:4)
bahtmi duccaritani caritva 'by doing many evil deeds (Sn 665)
In the examples quoted above it becomes clear that the word
which expresses the object of the verb is never alone but always
qualified by a pronoun, an adjective, a noun: imam udanam, papaka-
kammam karoti, papika-vacatn bhasati, pdpa ka - sankappam, papapakam
ajivam, maha-yamam, pinda-emm , raja-bhanltam, mja-mantanam,
duccaritani.
It may be worth noting that the verb kappeti takes a variety
of objects and so it has to be translated into English accoiding to
the meaning of the object:
yandam kappeti 'to oiler a sacrifice
jivitam kappeti ‘to lead one’s life
divavibaram kappeti to take the noonday rest
vasam kappeti to make one s abode
seyyam kappeti 'to lie down’
nisajjam kappeti ‘to sit down’.
250, Accusative used adverbially. The accusative singular is
often used adverbially,
a). A noun or an adjective can be u?ed adverbially, sukham
‘happily*; stgham ‘quickly’; drain 'for a long time’
sad/juicarn manasikarotba pay attention carefully
dutiyam pi tatiyam pi ‘for the second and the
third time’
» a dh ukam man a sikaro th a
b). There are many compounds used adverbially:
aho-rattiip *by day and by night
yatha-vuddham ‘according to seniority
yathabhirantam ‘according to their desire
yathabhirantam
312
atitam addhanam ‘formerly’
yan ca rattim Tathagato anuttaram sanvm-sanibodhim abhisambujjhati
yan ca rattim anupadisesaya nibbSna-dhStuyS parinibbiyati
*0 monks, between the night when the Talhagata attained
the complete perfect enlightenment and the night when he
passes away without leaving any link behind 1 (Itv 121:20)
d). An adjective or noun derived from the same root as the
verb of the sentence or from a root having the same or
similar meaning is sometimes used in the accusative as an
adverb. This aeusative is found also with a past participle:
Dandapani pi kho sukko jahghaviharam anucahkamamano
anuvicaramano; ‘while the Sakya Dandapani w'as moving
and walking about’ (MN I 108:19)
Tathagato anuttaram sa mb odium abhisambujjhati ‘the Talhagata
is fully enlighencd (is enlightened with the highest enlight-
enment)* (Ud 85:8)
blmvam pi Gotamo anuttaram samma-sambodhim abhisambuddho
ti patijanati ‘the Talhagata is aware that he has attained
the highest enlightenment (is enlightened with the highest
and complete enlightenment) 1 . (SN 1 68:11)
seyyathapi puriso purisam naraka-papataip papatanatam kesesu
gahetvfi uddharitva thale patitthapeyya ‘just as a man
would take by the hair another man who had fallen into
a pit and were to place him on solid ground’ (DN l 234:5)
313
sabba santharim santhagaram santharitva ‘having fully spread
the council hall (having spread the council hall with a
complete spreading)’ (VP 1 227:2)
e). Sometimes the verb of a sentence is preceded by the pariticiple
of the same verb in the accusative or of a verb having
similar meaning as the verb of the sentence:
at ha kho Bhagava nagapalokitam apalokesi the the Blessed
one looked with an elephant look’ (MN I 337:2)
uppannam parappavadam sahadhammena suniggahitam niggahetva
‘having fully refuted with his doctrine the views pul for-
ward by others’ (DN 111 123:15)
suvikkhalitam vikkhaletva ‘having well cleansed (having cleansed
with a complete cleansing)’ (VP I 215:1)
suppabuddham pabujjhanti sada Gotama-savaka ‘the disciples
of Gotama are always fully enlightened (enlightened with
a perfect enlightenment)’ (Dpd 296).
antovanam suvisodhitam visodheyya ‘one should fully clear a
forest (should clear with a full clearing)’ (MN f 124:33)
yathii bbuttam bhunjatha ‘eat well (eat as much as can be
eaten)’ (DN 111 62:19)
25 1 , Double accusative.
a). Verbs meaning “to call, to appoint, to choose, etc,” take
the accusative of the object and the accusative of the
predicative of the object:
rani aham brumi brahmanam ‘him do l call a brahmin’ (Dpd
391)
tam jano kiuvte piyam ‘him do people hold dear’ (Dpd 217)
sangham samaggam katvana ‘having established unity in the
sanglia’ (ltv 12:12)
upasakam mam Bhagava dharetu ‘may the Blessed One hold
me as a lay disciple’.
314
N.B. Tliere are eases where the predicative does not agree in
number with the object. In sueh cases the predicative may be taken
as forming one thing with the verb:
ctlha Bhagavi paniyam ca pi vis salt gattani ca si tarn karissati
‘here the Blessed One will drink water and cool his limbs’
(Ud S3: 1 4)
a) . Some transitive verbs like.yacari, vatti(<vac) t vadati , pucchati ,
duhati take two accusatives;
bhikkhu Bhagavantam ctad avocuw 'the monks said this to the
Blessed One 1
Sakko Bhagavantam pathamam panham pucchi ‘ Sakka put the
first question to the Blessed One’ (DN II 276:1)
gavim khiram duhati 'he milks the cow’ .
vandanam dani vajjasi lokanatham anuttaram ‘now you should
extend your homage to the highest lord of the world’ (Theri
308)
N.B. gacchati takes also two accusatives in the expressions
Buddha in saranam gacchami, dhammam saranam gacchami, sangham
saranam ga cchami.
b) . When a transitive verb that governs two accusatives is
turned into passive* the subject of the verb is placed in
the instrumental ease* the real object of the verb remains
tn the accusative while the other object is placed in the
nominative; v.g. so Buddham pahham pucchi , in the passive
construction becomes Buddha tena pahham puitho ‘the Buddha
was asked a question by him’.
so mayi pahham puttho samano ‘he being asked a question
bv me’ (MN IT 31:10)
c). When a transitive verb is turned into causative, then the
object of the verb is put in the accusative. The agent that
is caused to do the action can also be put in the accusative
if there is no possibility of confusion, otherwise it is put
in the instrumental:
Anando Ma!k Bhagavantam vandapesi 'Ananda made the Mallas
worship the Blessed One 1 (DN II 148:22)
Gotami Bhagavantam thasman payesi ‘Gotami made the Blessed
One suck al her breast’
vicikiccham mam a tares i ‘you made me overcome my doubts’
(Sn 540)
252. Absolute construction. Sometimes a phrase in the accusa-
tive is used as an absolute construction:
arupi cc pi tc atta abhavissa sahhamayo, warn santam pi kho
tc an ha ca sahha bhavissati anno atta ‘even if you were
to have a conscious soul, though this may be so, yet in
you one thing would be the consciousness and another the
soul’ (DN I 187:3)
santam yeva kho pana pa ram iokam: natthi paw hko ti assa
ditthi both sa assa hots miccha ditthi ‘as there is another
world, if one says there is no other world, then such a view
would be a wrong view for him’ (MN I 402:23)
atha kho raja-kumaro bhagavantam bhuitavim onita-patta-panim
ahhataram ntcam asanam gahetva ekam antam nisidi ‘when
the Blessed one had finished his meal and had laid down
the bowl, the prince took a low seat and sat on one side’
(MN 1 393:29)
Instrumental
The instrumental case is used to denote the agent of an action
with relation to a verb or a noun or an adjective or a preposition.
253. a) The instrumnental case is used to express the agent
that performs the action denoted by a passive or a
causative verb:
umw- ■
316
vuttani hi etam Bliagavata vuttain arahata ‘this was said by
the Blessed One, said by the arahat’ (Itv 3:1)
seyyatlmpi pi pur iso nadiya so ten a ovuyheyy
Pali Grammar by Vito Perniola
Anónimo