Leer — The Bektashi Order of Dervishes — John Kingsley Birge

Two BEKTASHIS OF TO-DAY (Cf. explanation of illustration 19, p. 247) Frontispiece] THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES BY . JOHN KINGSLEY BIRGE, PuD. ISTANBUL, TURKEY 1303 areas om LUZAC & CO. 46 GREAT RUSSELL ST., LONDON, W.C.r HARTFORD SEMINARY PRESS HARTFORD, CONN., U.S.A. 1937 UEN'T i PORT AES tO UA Dg Le ty VEL Aco. he SOE 1303s, Date........9.0:. 47 34 seve 660 OC RED Nell No... PID OD | LE soa Printed in Great Britain at the Burverca Press, Lewin’s Mead, Bristow TO MY WIFE RUBY PHILLIPS BIRGE without whose encouragement and help this study would never have been made. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE - = = = = © = = = © «= OE PARTI CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY FACTS I. GENERAL PLACE OF DERVISH ORDERS - - = 3 2. PLACE OF BEKTASHI ORDER IN TURKISH LIFE - - 15 3. History oF STUDY OF THE BEK. ORDER - - - 7 4. PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY - - - - - = = 20 CHAPTER II. THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER A. First PERIOD rt. Anatolia in the Thirteenth Century - - - 22 2. Traditional Life of Haji Bektash- - - - 33 3. Historical Life of Haji Bektash - - - - 40 4. Early Missionaries - - - = = = 51 5. Bektashi Poets - - - - - - = = 53 B. SECOND PERIOD i. Balam Sultan - - - - - - - - 56 2. Hurufi Doctrines - - - - - - =- 58 3. Shah Ismail - ~ = = = = 62 4. Revolt of the ie ateuder out - = = = = 69 5. Bektashiism in Albania - - - - - = 70 6. Literary Activities - - - - - - - 43 7, Janissaries - - - - - = = = = 94 C. THIRD PERIOD x. Growth from 1826 to 1925 ~ = = = = 98 2, Organization - - = = - 8% es Abolition of all Déivish Orders - = = = 83 4. Bektashiism To-day- - - - - - - 85 7 CONTENTS CHAPTER III, DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS A. CHARACTERISTIC PECULIARITIES - tr Wit - - - - = = 2. Mysteriousness - - - - B. Breurers HELD IN COMMON - = 1. Miirsit ee oe ee 2. Four Gateways - - - = - 3. Tasavvuf - - - - = (a) In Experience - = 6) In Theory - - - c d é Cycle of Existence - ( . (e) Sin and Death -~ - C. Doctrines PECULIAR TO BEKTASHIS Sa I. Trinity - = = # & . Ali of Tradition a ae . Doctrinal Significance of Ali - . Twelve Imams - - - - . Fourteen Pure Innocents - . Hurufism - = - - - . Bektashi Secret - - - - NI ootb Wb CHAPTER IV. RITES AND DEGREES - - -~ - = - DEVOTIONAL PRACTICES - - - (a) Ibadet - = ee (0) Giilbenk, Terceman - = (c) Table Blessings - = = (¢) Morning and Evening Prayer (e) New Years, Muharrem - - (f) Service of Repentance - - MARRIAGE AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS TABOOS - a ae ie hey, ee CEREMONY OF INITIATION, AYNICEM ETHICAL LIFE - - - .« «| , g ) ) Four Elements, Perfect Man ) ) - - 88 88 93 95 96 Loz 10g 109 II4 117 I20 126 I3I 132° 134 139 145 147 148 I59 162 166 166 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 175 202 rod CONTENTS CHAPTER V. A BEKTASHI CATECHISM - - 205 CHAPTER VI. RELATION TO OTHER FAITHS t. VILLAGE ALEVIS- - - - - = = = = IE 2, SUNNI ISLAM em BIB 3. SHuIstam - - - - = = - = = = arg 4. SHAMANISM - - - - - = = = = = 213 5. NEO-PLATONISM - - - - -| = = = = 2%4 6. CHRISTIANITY BTS PART II SUPPLEMENT I. NEW YEARS - - - -— = 21g SUPPLEMENT II. ILLUSTRATIONS - - - = - 232 SUPPLEMENT III. GLOSSARY OF TERMS ~ = 251 SUPPLEMENT IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY x. Booxs Grvinc BACKGROUND - - - - - - 292 (a) Islam, Neo-Platonism and Moslem Mysticism - 272 (6) The Turkish and Asiatic Background ~ = 293 2. THe HISTORY OF THE BEKTASHI ORDER - - - 274 (a2) Anatolia in the Thirteenth Century - - - 274 (0) Origin and First Period- - - - ~ ~ 275 (c) Second Period 7 10) (x) In Turkey 7 10) (2) In Albania - = = = = = = 276 (@) Third Period - ee (x) In Turkey ey i (2) In Albania ny 3. Booxs ABouT BEKTASHIISM IN GENERAL ~ = = 297 (2) Turkish Books a er 7: (o) Attacks on the Bektashi ~ = = = = 248 (c) Books in Foreign Languages - = - = 278 CONTENTS 4. BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES em 28 (a) Miscellaneous Books - - - - - - 278 () Divans and Nefes Collections - - - - 280 (c) Hurufi Books ee 28 (@) Caferi and Alevi Doctrines - - - - - 282 5. RITES AND PRACTICES ~ mlm 8B 6. Books oF REFERENCE - - - - - = = 284 INDEX - - - = = = = = = = = 285 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS No, 1 - - facing page 174 | No.17 - - facing page 239 ING: Bi Se Os SNGae Se » 243 No. 3 - - .,, » 232 No.Ig - - - Frontispiece No. 4- - 4, ,, 232 | No,20 - - facing page 247 No. 5 - - 4, 4, 232 | No.ar- -_,, » 2497 No. 6- = ,, » ©6232 No.22- - , «249 - No.7 - - ,, » 233 | No.23 - - ,, » 248 No. 8 - - _,, » 234 | No.2a4 - = ,, » 248 No. 9 - - __,, » 234 | No25 - - ,, » 248 No.to - - ,, » 234 | No.26 - - _,, yo 248 No.ir - - ,, » 236 No.27 - - ,, » 248 NOTQre eo 6 yy BRO He NOpeB- = mC » 248 No.I3 - - _,, » 236 | No.2g - -_,, » 250 No.14 - - ,, » 236 | No.30 - - ,, 5, 250 NOSTR: - <= <p. gp B99 1 NOvar se = |. (250 No.16 - - _,, » 238 | No.32 - - ,, » 250 TO PREFACE Since this study is of a Turkish Order, transliteration of Oriental words has been made in accordance with the usage of the modern Turkish alphabet. Certain words such as Haji Bektash, dervish, etc., since they are already familiar to English readers, are spelt according to the usual English spelling. Where words are spelt in the Turkish way they are ttalicized. As a key to aid in the reading of such words the following list of letters is given, including all those which in any marked way differ from the English letters in pronunciation. A asin English bar. I between English hut and C asin English jam. hit. C asin English child. J as in English garage. E varying from e as in met O between Eng. chalk and to a as in cat. choke. G sometimes with value of O as in German schén. y, sometimes practically S as in English shame. unpronounced. U as in German fdr, or I asin English sheer. French lune. At the end of a Turkish word an apostrophe is placed preceding an English plural ending, as in mnefes’es, meydan’s. Arabic words and phrases are spelt as in modern Turkish usage with the exception of the quotations from the Hutbetil Beyan. The twenty-five “words” from this book are written according to the standard system for transliteration from Arabic. So many friends have given their help in the making of this study that the rendering of proper acknowledgments is quite impossible. The following, however, have given special help for which the author is deeply grateful: Prof. Fuat Képrilu of Istanbul University ; Salih Niyazi Dede, Djemal Bey Frasheri and Sulo Bey Celo of Tirana, Baba Ali Turabi of Tomor, and Selman Jemali Baba of Elbasan, Albania; Bay Riza Tewfik, of Syria; Dr. Emin Kilic Kale, Bay Riza Nasrullah and Miss Keghouhie Hekim, of Istanbul. My associate, Mrs. Sophie II PREFACE Huri, has given great assistance in the reading of difficult manu- scripts and in the correction of the final copy of this study. Profs, E, E, Calverley of Hartford Seminary Foundation, Hiiseyin Pektash of Robert College, and Lutfi Levonian of the Near East School of Theology, Beirut, have all read the original manuscript in its entirety and have given numerous suggestions and criti- cisms that have been of the greatest help. Prof. Paul Wittek of the University of Brussels has read the historical section, and by his criticisms and in many other ways has been extremely helpful. Finally, the writer wishes to acknowledge his deep debt and gratitude to another great scholar, Dr. Duncan B. Macdonald, of Hartford Seminary Foundation, who first awoke in the writer an interest in Islam and whose friendship and help through the years have been a constant inspiration. Since this study was first begun and carried out in partial fulfilment of the requirements fora Ph.D. degree at the Kennedy School of Missions in Hartford, and since the Seminary Foundation . of which that school is a section is participating in the publication of this work, warm appreciation of the part that school has played in making this study possible is most gratefully acknowledged. 50 much of this study is technical to a degree that will interest only special students of Islam, any general readers the book may be fortunate enough to have are encouraged to skip the illustrative quotations and many of the tedious theological discussions, especially in Chapter ITI. Most of the charts and manuscripts mentioned in the course of this work are in the custody of the Hartford Seminary Foundation Library, where they may be consulted by any students who are interested. Illustrations 4-6, 11, 12, 18, 21-29 are by H. H. Kreider of Istanbul, Turkey. Illustrations 3, 7-10, 13-17, 30, 3 are by the Wren Studio, Pratt Street, Hartford, Connecticut. J. K. Brree. ISTANBUL, TURKEY, February rst, 193%. I2 PART I CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY FACTS xr. The General Place of Dervish Orders in Turkey and other Moslem Countries The study of mystic orders in Islam is one of particular importance if the Moslem world is to be adequately understood. The religion left by Muhammad very early developed in two directions. On the one hand it produced a rigid, scholastic theology with an inflexible religious law. -At the same time, even from within the first two centuries, a tendency away from this fixed, external system showed its beginning and quickly developed into individuals and groups who emphasized the ascetic life and the mystical approach to direct knowledge of God. As orthodox canonists and professional theologians objected to this tendency to “‘search the conscience’”’ on the ground that the ultimate result would be in the direction of heresy, organized bands or brotherhoods began to develop, based on the fundamental idea that “the fervent practice of worship engenders in the soul graces (fawazd), immaterial and intelligible realities, and that the ‘science of hearts’ (tlm al kulub) will procure the soul an experimental wisdom (ma’rifa4).”’ Although the article Tavika in the Encyclopedia of Isiam makes the- statement that “As a rule the number of persons affiliated to the brotherhoods in any particular Muslim country is not over three per cent. of the population,” it appears certain that in Turkey and Albania, at least, the proportion of actual members and of those loosely affiliated is far greater. When the writer first visited Turkey in r913 he went about under the impression he had received from books that Turkey was a Sunni (i.e. from the Muhammadan point of view orthodox) country. He quickly found to his surprise that an enormous proportion of the people not only were affiliated with dervish brotherhoods, Encyclopedia of Islam, article Tasawwuf. 13 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES but even the leaders who appeared on Friday as Imams in the formal worship (amaz) in the mosque, were on other days to be found acting as Seyh’s (Shaikhs) in dervish tekkes.* During Muhavrem, the month when Shi'ites especially remember the death of Hiiseyin and the early injustice done Ali and his family in taking the Caliphate from them, the writer visited tekke after tekke, and found in them all dervishes passionately mourning the death of Hasan and Hiiseyin. In discussing this matter later with one of Turkey’s greatest scholars the writer expressed the impression that theeTurkish people while outwardly Sunni were, under cover of their dervish brotherhoods, partially Shi'ite, at least in their tendencies, and certainly mystical rather than orthodox. The scholar replied that there in Constantinople where the proportion was presumably less than in the rest of the country, probably sixty per cent. of the people belonged directly or indirectly to dervish fraternities. He pointed out that in Christian countries we had in church history experienced our persecutions, Catholics killing Protestants and vice versa, but that there was a certain moral advantage in this. Deep sincerity, he said, lay behind these persecutions. Whereas, in Moslem lands, he continued, the practice of éakiye, dissimulation, had grown up to make possible a man’s continuing his standing as an orthodox member of the religious body while at the same time being a member of a mystic fraternity which emphasized an experiential rather than a traditional and formal approach to reality. In Turkey, therefore, this tendency to group life in a brother- hood of those seeking a direct knowledge of God must be recog- nized as a widespread tendency lying sometimes beneath the surface, but influencing probably the lives of a large majority of the people. In general, the ideology of such groups has come from Arabic and Persian sources, the more learned among the dervish leaders being well able to read and to write in these languages. The most important immediate sources of ideas for all the Turkish dervish orders have been the Mesnew, a great poem written in Persian in the thirteenth century by Mevlana Celaleddin Rum, the patron saint of the Mevlevs dervish order, and the two Arabic works Futuhats Mekkiye and Fususul Hikém by Muhyiddini Avabt (rx65-1240). Lying as a foundation wnderneath the system developed by the influence of these books has been the’ +A tekke is a dervish place of gathering for worship and instruction. I4 INTRODUCTORY FACTS common belief and practice of the Turkish people with their inherited customs from the Asiatic past. Certain orders, of which the Mevlevi’s are the outstanding example, grew up chiefly in urban centres, as aristocratic, intellectual fraternities, especially attracting members from the upper classes on grounds largely of zesthetic appeal. Other groups, of which the Bektashis are the notable exponent, developed directly out of the life of the people. On the surface in these latter groups, lies the Islam which became the accepted religion of the people. Underneath have lain, all down through Ottoman history, customs and practices which came originally from the ethnic life of the various peoples who mingled together on the frontiers in the thirteenth century, and from amongst whom grew up a natural religion of the people. 2. The Place of the Bektasht Order in Turkish Life Among the many dervish fraternities which have exercised their influence over the lives of a large proportion of the Turkish people of the Ottoman Empire the Bektashis have held a unique place. From the point of view of mere numbers they have been significant. The Bektashis themselves estimate their numbers at about seven million. Ali Tuvabt Baba, postnisin of the Bektashi tekke on Mt. Tomori in Albania writing in his Historija E Bektashinjvet! says that before the destruction of the Janis- saries in 1826 and the accompanying abolition of the Bektashi Order, annual statistics were kept, and that these figures showed the number of Bektashis to be 7,370,000, seven million being in Anatolia, 100,000 in Albania, 120,000 in Stambul and the re- mainder scattered through Irak, Crete, Macedonia and other sections especially of the Balkans. In October 1933 Ntyazt Dede, the head of the officially recognized Bektashi community of Albania, gave me personally his estimate that in the old Turkish Empire there were 7,500,000 Bektashis not counting the more or less loosely affiliated Kizilbash. There were in the Eastern Provinces of Turkey alone, he said, 1,500,000. In Albania he estimated there were 200,000 or twenty per cent. of the population. The English traveller and historian, Rycaut, writing in the seventeenth century, says that the Bektashis ‘‘ are now grown into that vast multitude as is almost impossible to extirpate them.” He quotes his teacher as saying that 1 Historija E Pergjitheshme E Bektashinjvet prej Ate Ali Turabiut. Tirane, 1929. Page 64. q5 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Bektash had many millions of followers. A more recent observer, Besim Atalay, delegate from Aksaray in the Grand National Assembly, writing in 1340 (1924) estimates their numbers at 1,500,000, including apparently the Kizilbash and Tahtajis in this figure. If we take the lowest figure given by any observer, approximately ten per cent. of the population of Turkey were directly or indirectly under the influence of this Order. * Not a mystical fraternity alone, the Bektashis have played their important military réle all through Ottoman history down to 1826 through thejr intimate connection, apparently from the beginning, with the Janissary army corps. Village groups scattered throughout Anatolia, under the names Kizilbash (Red heads), Tahtaci’s, Abdal’s, Cepni’s, in ways that will be later enumerated, are related intimately with the Bektashi organiza- tion by belief and tradition and religious ceremony and often in organization as well. Perhaps the most important justification, however, for studying the Bektashi Order is the fact, generally recognized by all students of Turkish culture to-day, that all down through Ottoman history, when the orthodox religious life of the people was under dominant Arabic influence, when the classic literature in vogue in palace circles was Persian, and when even a great mystic order such as the Mevlevi’s, based its belief and practice on a book written entirely in Persian, the Bektashis consistently held to the Turkish language and perpetuated in their belief and practice some at least of the pre-Islamic elements of Turkish ° culture. A Turkish investigator in 1926, writing in the official magazine of the national culture society called the Turkish Ocak, makes the claim that the Turkish national ideal never was able to find its expression in the Arab internationalism, but did find it in the tekkes or lodge rooms of the Alevi orders of which the Bektashis and village groups related to them are chief examples. In the secret practices of those religious groups alone was “national freedom” to be found. The very aim, he says, of the founders of these groups, was to preserve the Turkish tongue and race and blood. 5 . +The Present State of the Ottoman Empire by Paul Rycaut, London, 1668. age 149. * Bekiasitk ve Edebiyalt, Besim Atalay, Istanbul, 1340. Page 5. *Hasluck in Christianity and Islam under the Sultans, page 161, gives 80,000 as the number of Bektashis in Albania, and says that Bektashis themselves claim 3,000,000 as their total number. *Tivk Yurdu, no. 21, Eylil 1926, article by Baha Sait on Turkiyede Aleut Zumveleri, Page 204, ‘Ibid. page 207. 16 INTRODUCTORY FACTS That this point of view, while extreme, is not that of an isolated individual is shown by the fact that in 1930 the Department of Public Instruction of the Central Government of the Republic printed 3,000 copies of a book called Bektashi Poets? containing biographical sketches and selections from the religious verse of 180 Bektashi poets. In recent years every history of Turkish literature written for school use has emphasized for each century “ Bektashi Literature,” because in that, more than in any other type of writing, the original Turkish language and Turkish literary forms were used and Turkish.national customs and points of view reflected. 3. A Brief History of the Study of the Bektasht Order Modern interest on the part of scholars in the Bektashi Order may be said to go back to the great history of Turkey written by Von Hammer. In that history publicity is given to the tradition of the first blessing of the Janissary soldiers at their beginning by Haji Bektash Veli.? The first attempt to write of the order itself and its practices came in 1868 when Brown’s book, The Dervishes or Oriental Spiritualism, appeared. An exceedingly valuable, but uncritical, collection of material having to do with the beliefs and practices and symbols of the Bektashi as well as of other dervish orders, this book has recently been reprinted in a new edition with notes, index and better arrangement by Rose.* Unsuspected new light was thrown on the beliefs of the Bektashi Order when, in the spring of 1897, Prof. Edward G. Browne spent an Easter vacation in Paris studying in the Bibliothéque Nationale two manuscripts con- taining several treatises having to do with an obscure sect called the Hurufis. The results of this study were published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for January 1898, and in a second article in the same journal in the July number of 1907, Prof. Browne reported further discoveries. Stirred with interest in the Hurufi sect by his studies in Paris in 1897, he had ordered his bookseller to procure for him from the Orient available Hurufi texts. To his surprise, the treatises of an order thought to have been long dead turned up in quantities revealing that they were in use in some present-day quarter. On inquiry, it was discovered that they came from the Bektashis, and that 1 Bektast, Sairlert, Sadettin Niizhet, Istanbul 1930. * Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches; Pesth, 1834, Vol. I, page 97. * The Darvishes, Oxford Press, 1927. 17 B THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES in the present-day Bektashi Order the doctrines of Fazlullah, the founder of the Hurufi sect, were being perpetuated. In r908 there appeared in Germany the first attempt at a critical study of the Bektashis. Prof. Jacob in his Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Derwisch-Ordens der Bektaschis, not only examined the history and spread of the Bektashis, criticising, among other things, the tradition that Haji Bektash Veli could have given his blessing in person at the time of the founding of the Janissary army corps, but also added a translation of a Turkish book which appeared in 1873 (1290) called Kdsif ul esvar ve Def ul esrar, Discoverer of Secrets and Rejector of Evils, a bitter attack on the Bektashis, especially on account of their acceptance of Hurufi doctrines. Jacob followed up this study with his book Die Bektaschijje, published in 1909, containing a careful analysis of all the material, oriental and occidental, then available bearing on the Bektashi Order. In this book he gave special attention to a study of the sources, Christian, Shiite, Gnostic and pagan from which the Bektashis had received doctrines or practices. Basing his studies on personal travel and investigation in Turkey, the English classicist, F. W. Hasluck, published in the years from rg1I on, especially in the Annals of the British School at Athens, interesting studies of the Bektashis, their geographic distribution, their methods of propaganda, and the relation of their sacred places to Christian sacred places. These studies ‘were translated into Turkish! in 1928. Later, supplementing these personal investigations on the field by a reading of every European book bearing on the subject Hasluck gathered a mass of material which, after his death, his wife published in 1929 under the title, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans. In these studies Hasluck examined the European sources for an understanding of the founding of the Janissaries and concluded that the Haji Bektash Veli tradition in connection therewith could not be true. He tended to find in Fazlullah Hurufi the real founder of the Bektashi Order, and to doubt even the historicity of Haji Bektash Veli’s existence? except as a possible tribal ancestor who contributed only his name. In the meantime Turkish scholars had been at work on the Turkish sources. In 1918 Prof. Dr. Képriilii Zade Fuat Bey’ of the University of Istanbul published his important First * Bektasilik Tetkikleri, Istanbul, 1928. * Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultan _* In accordance with the law requiring choice and names, this'name was changed to M. Fuad Képrilit in 18 S, pages 341 and 488. registration of family 1936. INTRODUCTORY FACTS Mystics in Turkish Literature,! devoting considerable space to the traditions of Haji Bektash Veli and to a critical study of the historic facts. Writing in 1924, Hilmi Ziya, a professor in the Galata Saray school,? noted in the Mihrap magazine® that the study of Haji Bektash Veli having begun in tradition, had passed in the critical stage to an excessive denial of his influence, even of his existence, and that the pendulum was now swinging back to give a more truly historical picture of the founder of the Bektashi Order. In that article he announced the discovery of a copy of a work dated 812 (1409), throwing possible light not only on Haji Bektash Veli’s existence but upon his teachings as well.4 In October 1923 Prof. Fuat Bey delivered at the International Congress of the History of Religions in Paris a most important address on the Origins of Bektashiism. In this he criticised the work heretofore done on the Bektashis, pointing out the necessity of studying the religious history of Anatolia for an understanding of the background of all the dervish orders. He reported new historical evidence discovered since the publishing of his “‘ Early Mystics,’ not only establish- ing more definitely the historical character of Haji Bektash Veli, but also revealing apparently authentic teachings of the master.® Supplementing the direct work of critical scholars an im- portant research has of recent years been made into the life, the doctrines and the practices of the Alevi or so-called village Bektashi groups. In the Magazine of the Theological Depart- ment ofthe University during the years 1928 to 1930 Prof. Yusuf Ziya Bey published a most interesting account of personal visits among the Alevi villages around Eski Sehiy in search of an intimate enough knowledge of Alevi life and thought so that visits in the réle of an actual Alevi might be made to the Tahtacz villages near Smyrna.® The result of these studies from actual life furnishes a fund of information that is of special value in establishing the actual relation of these village Alevi groups with the Bektashi Order, its doctrines and its practices. 1 Turk Edebiyatunda Ilk Mutesavozfiar. * Now on the Faculty of the University of Istanbul. * Temmuz 1340, no. 15, 16, page 515. * Temmuz 1340, no. 15, 16, page 517. ’ Les Origines du Bektachisme, Extrait des Acts du Congres International d’Histoire des Religions. Paris, 1926. Article Bektasiligin Menseleri in Turk Yurdu, no. 8, 1341. * lldhiyat Fakultesi Mecmuasi, nos. 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, years 1928- 1930. An earlier study into a similar subject had been made in 1891 by V. Luschan: ‘“ Die Tahtadji und andere Reste der Alten Bevolkerung Lykiens ”’ in Archiv. far Anthropologie, 19.Pd., Braunschiveig 1891. ig THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES In contrast to others of the dervish orders of Turkey such as the Mevlevi or Whirling Dervishes and the Rufat or Howling Dervishes, the Bektashis have no public service of worship. In fact, the entire ritual of the Bektashi Order is guarded with such absolute secrecy and the beliefs are so obviously kept in con- cealment from the public understanding that there has long prevailed in Turkey a great curiosity as to the Bektashi Secret. Books and articles have been written in an attempt to discover the elusive mystery. Besim Atalay’s Bektasilik ve Edebiyats+ and Ahmet Rifki’s Bekiasi Sirrt,® (The Bektashi Secret) are among the more important of these, both being attempts at fair appraisal of the Order. Ztya Bey’s ‘“‘ Bektasilik’’ in the columns of the daily newspaper, Yeni Giin,® is an excellent study by a Bektashi himself, presenting an account of the history, beliefs and practices from the Bektashi point of view. The articles end with a point of view in agreement with that often expressed by Bektashis since the Republic of Turkey abolished all dervish orders. Since the Republic, they say, has by government action accomplished what the Bektashis long stood for—abolition of the Caliphate, freedom of women from the veil and social restraints, putting an end to the fanaticism of religious leaders—there is no longer need for the continuance of the order within the borders of the Republic. As if to offset the favourable reports of curious students, and as a natural result perhaps of an unorthodox doctrine kept secret, there have appeared in recent years, particularly since November 1925, when all dervish lodges were closed, many articles in depreciation of the Bektashis. Their secret is shown to be something contrary to both religion and morality. The important novel, Nur Baba, by one of Turkey’s greatest writers, Yakup Kadvz, himself at one time a Bektashi, appeared first in newspaper columns then in two editions in book form,’ and is an amazingly frank treatment of abuses, written before the dervish orders were abolished, in the hope of aiding a needed reform. 4. The Purpose of This Siudy It is this order with its mystery which has challenged the 1 Published in Istanbul in 1340 (1924). * Published in Istanbul in 1325-1327 (1909-1911). * Forty instalments, from Jan, 26th, 1931 to March 8th, 1931. ‘See, for example, the articles in Buyiihk Gazette ae a March, 1927. 4 zelte, Nos. 1-26, November 1926 ’ Second Edition, Istanbul, 1923. 20 INTRODUCTORY FACTS attention of students for centuries, with its intimate connection with Turkey’s military history, and her social and literary culture, an order of which descriptions have been written in high praise and in bitter condemnation, that we are in these pages to attempt to study. Our aim will be neither to praise nor to condemn the order, but to study it objectively, with the parti- cular purpose of trying as best a sympathetic outsider may, to see life and its problems, the mystery of the universe and its explanation, as a Bektashi himself sees them. It is hoped that this study will serve as a sufficiently comprehensive exposition of the beliefs and practices of the order, and of the common references in Bektashi literature, so that it may be an introduction to the intelligent reading of Bektashi poetry and other literary expressions. Only in a secondary way is the study interested in showing relations with Islam in general and with other religious origins. Numerous resemblances to other religious systems will be pointed out, but the writer is frankly sceptical of any attempt to trace dogmatically the origin of a particular belief and practice to its exact and single source. Both beliefs and practices have frequently been the result of influences from different directions combining in a new form where the common elements have been retained or differing elements so changed as to attract a very mixed population, making each group find something familiar to that which has been already known. Although this study is chiefly an attempt to get at the beliefs and practices of the Bektashis as such are explained in their own literature and in manuscript manuals actually used by their leaders, it has seemed advisable also to set forth at the beginning such facts as are known about the history and origin of the order. This is all the more necessary since the writer believes that previous studies by European scholars have been misleading. New material discovered by Turkish scholars has thrown new light on this very obscure but significant page of history. Much investigation needs yet to be made, however, before the full story of the origin of the Bektashis and of the part they have played in Ottoman history can be adequately understood. « 2I CHAPTER II THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER A.-~THE FIRST PERIOD FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE ORDER ABOUT 1250 TO THE TIME OF BALIM SULTAN ABOUT I500 1. The Condition of Anatolia in the Thirteenth Century For an adequate understanding not only of the Bektashis, but of the Mevilevi’s and other dervish orders as well, it is of the greatest importance that due appreciation be given to the social and religious conditions existing throughout Asia Minor in that creative thirteenth century when these orders had their birth. In the case of Bektashiism it is particularly important because, as we shall see all through this study, there are combined in this order a considerable number of both doctrines and practices that show the influence of various types of Christian, Islamic, Greek and pagan thought. One of the critical questions of greatest interest relating to this order is the matter of how it arose and from where it received its many ideas. A brief account of the outstanding events of the thirteenth century will help us to picture the situation out of which this Order arose. Long before the beginning of the century the penetration of Asia Minor by hordes of Moslems had begun. Forces of Oguz Turks had entered Asia Minor as early as 1037 when they defeated on the shores of Lake Van a Byzantine force, killing 24,000 of the Christian foe.1_ The chief invasion of the country by Turkish peoples, however, came almost immediately after the battle of . Malazgivt in 1071. After the Byzantine Emperor, Romanus Diogenes, had been defeated by Alp Arslan, the Great Seljuk, at Malazgivt, the conquest and hereditary command of the provinces of the Roman Empire from Erzrum to Constantinople were entrusted by Alp Arslan to Suleyman, the son of Kuilumus, ? 1 J. Laurent, Byzance et Les Turcs Seldjoucides p. 33, n.J, quoting from Arisdagnés de Lazdwerd’s Histoire d'Armenie written abet core ‘ * For the spelling of this word, usually written Kutulmug see P. Wittek’s Deux Chapitres de L’Histoire des Turcs de Roum, in Byzantion, XI 1936, p. 296, nj, These lectures by Prof. Wittek give an invaluable account of this whole period. 22 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER descended as Alp Arslan himself was from Seljuk. Suleyman with his four brothers crossed the Euphrates and in an incredibly short time traversed the length of Asia Minor and established his camp at Kiitahya. He later set up his palace in Nicea, his forces in six years having extended themselves from the Eu-- phrates almost to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Syria. + | This rapid penetration of so important a part of the Byzantine Empire is explained by the peculiar conditions prevailing in Anatolia at this time. Preceding the battle of Malazgirt Alp Arslan appears to have entertained no warlike intentions against Asia Minor. His objective rather was Syria and Egypt. His forces were before Aleppo and he was planning to proceed next against Damascus, when he was forced to turn back at the news of Romanus’ march through Armenia. His haste in turning back led to an appearance of disordered retreat which encouraged the Greeks and aided in their defeat. 2 Following the decisive battle of Malazgivt five factors con- spired to pave the way for a rapid advance over territory which the Seljuk commander had not originally planned to invade. First there was the break up of the Byzantine army. It had been severely defeated in battle and its commander captured. Under Isaac Comnenos, the general who succeeded to authority, mutinies of Norman mercenaries led to further misfortunes, even to the defeat and capture of Comnenos.* The army in its own strength was no longer able to offer effective resistance. Social conditions prevailing among the poor peasantry tended also to alienate the local inhabitants from the Byzantine authority. A considerable part of these peasants had been completely under the power of the rich landowners and were ready to listen to the promises of a rival power. Many estates were worked by slaves. Suleyman declared them free on pay- ment of a certain tax and so won their sympathy for the invader. A third factor was the acritae, frontier guards, upon whom the responsibility was placed for defending the empire from Moslem invaders and from the raids of the apfelatae, or outlaws who roved in bands and were ready to fight for either side. For these guards life had been an almost daily struggle in war, and 1Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, 3rd Edition by Bury VI, 249. *Cahen, La Campagne de Mantzikert d’aprés les sources musulmanes, in Byzantion IX, 1934, 628. 3X, V. Zetterstéen, article on Sulaiman b. Kutulmish in Encycl. of Islam. 4 Tbid. 23 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES following the defeat of Romanus their defection to the side of the Seljuks removed the last barrier to the flood from the east. } Corresponding to the acritae on the Byzantine side were the gazis, or conquerors for the faith, on the Moslem front. Dr. Wittek in his lectures on the History of the Turks in Rum 2 has shown us how important were these fighters, and how the gazi mentality animated the Danishments, the Seljuks and all the Turkish invaders at least down to the time of Muhammad the Conqueror. Driven on by a fanatical zeal they entered Asia Minor with an enthusiasm strongly in contrast to the wan- ing interest of the acritae in the Byzantine cause. A. fifth factor was the nomadic Ttivkmen peoples. How early this penetration by Turkmen tribes began is uncertain, but the Turkish historian Prof. Fuad Képriiliéi has indicated in his Les Origines de L’Empire Ottoman? that by the middle of the thirteenth century Anatolia was in large part, perhaps pre- dominantly, Turkish, a population made up principally of these Ttivkmen peoples. The victory of Malazgivt must have given a great impetus to this movement, and thereby served to furnish an ever increasing Turkish population upon which throughout a large part of Asia Minor the Seljuk forces might depend for friendly support. By the opening of the thirteenth century the capital of the Seljuk State had been removed to Konya, and seven Seljuk rulers had sat on the throne. Rival Islamic states, the Danish- ments of Sivas and Malatiya in particular, had been conquered, and just before the century opened, Kec Arslan II felt so secure that he divided his empire between his eleven sons. The oldest of these, Rikniiddin Suleyman,’ by 1200 had again united the Empire under his solitary rule and the Seljuk State of Rum was ready to enter upon its days of greatest extension and glory. Following the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constan- tinople in 1204, the Turks became the natural allies of the Greeks and the enemies of both the Crusaders and their allies, the +P. Wittek in Byzantion XI 1936 PP. 291, 292. Rambaud’s Etudes sur L’Histoire Byzantine pp. 71-108 gives an account of Digenis Akritas one of the leaders of these frontier guardsmen. In Wittek’s lectures, p. 291 nl, other important references are noted. * Byzantion XI 1936 pp. 285-310. * Lectures delivered before the Centre of Turkish Studies in the Sorbonne and published by the Institut Francais D’Archéologie de Stamboul, De Boccard, aay 1935. For the penetration of Asia Minor by Turkmen tribes see pages : a adycisbeals of Islam, Seldjuks. * Diveli Islamiye, page 210; and Halil Ethem’s Kayseri Sehri, p. ro and n. 3. 24 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Armenians.+ The golden era of the Seljuks came in the reign of Alaeddin Keykubat I whose reign extended from r2rg to 1236. Having spent several years as an exile in Constantinople, Alaeddin was a well educated man, familiar with Christianity. ? During his enlightened reign occurred the great building era which has left to our own day architectural remains of great splendour. Konia, Sivas, and Alaja, in particular, were beauti- fied by palaces, mosques, theological colleges and other buildings constructed when Seljuk art was at its best. Alaeddin extended his territory to Seleucia and compelled the Armenian princes to pay tribute and to contribute soldiers for his army. He annexed the territory of a collateral Seljuk dynasty in Erzrum, and he gained also the city of Ahlat on Lake Van. His greatest victory, however, was one destined to undermine his empire. In 1230 he moved against the Havezm Sah Celalledin who had attempted an invasion of Asia Minor and had captured Ahlat. In a battle near Erzinjan Alaeddin was completely victorious. But the victory served only to remove the last obstacle in the way of the Mongols who had been waiting on the East, hesitating to attack the seemingly all powerful Seljuk Empire of Rum.4 In 1243, however, Alaeddin’s successor Giyaseddin Keyhusrev II was defeated at Késedag (between Erzinjan and Sivas) and was forced to pay a heavy tribute. From this time on, the independ- ence of the Seljuk state was gone. The Mongol Emperor, Hulagu, not only took tribute but decided questions of succession. An attempt to expel the Mongols with Mamluk aid from Egypt resulted only in warfare. A victory for the Mamluks at Elbistan was followed by their defeat. Sivas and Cesarea were captured in 1243 by the Mongols; the people of the latter city were massacred or taken as slaves and the city was burned.6 From 1248 on Asia Minor was virtually under a Mongol viceroy.° As a natural result of this absentee control and the com- pletely enfeebled state of the Seljuk ruler himself, Turkish 1 Britannica XIV, vol. 20, page 310. * Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, p. 370. 8 Britannica XIV, vol. 20, page 310. 4-Von Hammer writing in Nouveau Journal Asiatique in April 1829 quotes the historian Djenabi as follows: ‘ Les provinces soumises 4 Keikobad etaient : Conia, Akserai, Kaisariye, la Caramanie toute entiére, Aidin, Mentecha, Saroukhan, Hamid, Guermian, Kerde, Castemonia, Angora, Malatia, Meraach, Elbistan, Tocat, Amasia, Nigisar, Erzendjian, Samsoun et Sinope.” ’ For a picture of the human suffering caused by these wars which ravaged Asia Minor see ‘‘Ahlat Kitabelert’’ Abdurrahman Serif, Istanbul, 1932, pp. 47-54 and Kayseriye Sehri, Halil Ethem, Istanbul, 1334, pages 8o ff. ‘ Britannica XIV, vol. 20, page 310. 25 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES emirs finally set up independent states in various parts of Anatolia. What had been a united state under Alaeddin Keykubat, by 1300 was broken up into more than a dozen principalities. The following list of these with the names of the ruling families, the dates of their rule and the general localities will perhaps be of value in forming an impression of the political situation in Anatolia at the end of the thirteenth century. * Name of Family Approximate Dates General Locality The Sons of Pervane ©1277-1300 Sinope Samp Ata Last of 13th Cent. Afyon Karamsar Karast 1300-1336 Balikesir Saruhan I300~I4I0 Mantsa Aydin 1299-1403 Aydin Mentese 1300-1425 Mugla Teke 1300-1426 Teke Esref -1327 Beysehiy (near Konya) Hamat ~I3Q9I Hamiteli (near Burdur) Germiyan 1300-1428 Kittahya Denizlt or Ladtk 1277-1368 Demizl Kavaman 1256-1483 Karaman Candar 1292-1461 Kastamonu Osman 1299-1923 Asia Minor, etc. Libkadir 1339-1521 Marash and Elbistan Ramazan 1378-1608 Adana We have seen thus far the rapidity with which Turkish forces overran the whole of Asia Minor, a political fact in itself astonishing enough to make many wonder if there was not some racial or cultural affmity between the local inhabitants and the Turkish invaders.2, We have seen ‘that the Turkish rulers were sometimes thrown politically into close association with the Byzantine rulers, and that after almost incessant war with rival Turkish dynasties, the Crusaders and finally the Mongols, the Seljuk State broke up into more than a dozen principalities each seeking to maintain and extend its territory. The number and geographical distribution of these principalities indicate clearly that by about 1300 the whole of Asia Minor had been well Turkified. 4 The data following are taken from Diiveli Islamiye by Halil Ethem, Istanbul, 1927. Begun originally as a translation into Turkish of Lane-Poole’s, The Mohammedan Dynasties, additions and corrections in the light of more recent ee were made until the present excellent volume of 640 pages came into eing. Sir William Ramsay in his Asianic Elements in Greek Civilization, Yale University Press, 1928, p. vii suggests the possibility that ‘‘the early ground- stock of Anatolia was akin to Old-Turkish in character and in language.”’ 26 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Two factors, at first sight contradictory to each other, were at work in this complicated situation to make for the beginnings of a mystical and secret-fraternity, religious life. In the first place, the witness of a more or less unified state with its outer pomp and glory crumbling before the Mongol invader and the lack of political security involved in all the resulting wars led naturally to a sense of insecurity and of the transitoriness of human life. A dislike of the world and the burning desire for a Good that transcends this life led many to seek escape in a religious mystic- ism that was other-worldly. The céntury, in other words, was a period of such social unrest as to drive even high spirits to the search for inner peace in a life of religious devotion. In the second place, strongly contrasting with this turning to religion for consolation away from the affairs of this transitory world, there was at work also before, during and after the thir- teenth century a militant impulse, a war-like desire to conquer the world in the name of religion. This attitude had characterized many of the first Islamic invaders of Anatolia and is given expression to in the word Gazi by which, first the Danishments about ro7z, and later other Turkish princes, described them- selves. Not only zeal for the faith, but aggressive interest in things of this world as well, the hope and expectation of booty, operated in full measure in this point of view. 1 In Bektashi literature influences derived from both of these two factors are indicated in books which have come down to us to-day. The poetry of Yunus Emre, the Fevaitname of Haji Bektash are expressions of the interest in and longing for the other world. The stories of the Conquests of Ali, the traditions of Seyit Gazt Bottal, the Vilayetname of Haji Bektash Veli and the Vilayetname of Seyit Alt Sultan are expressions of the “‘ Gazi” mentality. The last-named book especially preserves the actual detailed tradition of the part played by the followers of Haji Bektash himself in the early conquests of the Ottomans. The first factor helped produce such mystics as Celaleddin Rums and Haji Bektash who later became the patron saints of organized dervish orders. The second factor is, in the case of the Bektashis, pro- bably in large part, responsible for the building of an organized order and for its growth and spread. As we shall see in the whole course of our study, there is much in Bektashiism that might appeal to the population on 1 For discussion of the Gazt attitude see Wittek’s Deux Chapitres, Byzan- tion XI, 1936, p. 302 ff. 27 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES both the Moslem and the Christian side. Actual origins are not always susceptible of proof, but the later facts suggest a general source in a situation where Moslems and Christians, both here- tical and orthodox, were mingling. In the thirteenth century we find surprisingly close relation- ships between Christianity and Islam. Just before the century began, the Crusaders in passing through Asia Minor captured Konia under Frederick Barbarossa (1190), and for a time the Sultan was forced to furnish guides and provisions. From this time on, contact with Crusaders exercised a constant and far reaching influence. Rzkniddin Suleyman who came to the throne as Sultan in 1196 had already as Prince of Tokat followed the example of other early Turkish states in coining money in imitation of the coins of Christians. The Danishments had even minted a coin with the image of the Messiah stamped on it. 1 Rikniiddin Suleyman’s coins were evidently minted in great quantities and are among the most common of Islamic coins to-day. A great proportion of them bear the picture of a horse- man carrying a mace over his shoulder, a figure quite evidently in imitation of that on a coin minted by Roger of Antioch a hundred years before.2 His brother Keyhiisryev I, whose two reigns both preceded and followed Suleyman’s, had spent a period of exile among Christians, having taken refuge among them - from his brother, Suleyman, and is said to have married a Chris- tian wife, and to have nearly become a Christian himself.? His immediate successor Alaeddin, as has already been stated, lived for some years in Constantinople, and at least appeared to be without prejudice against Christianity. In war his main reliance was upon the Christian soldiers in his army, and he granted extensive privileges to Christian merchants.4 That orthodox Islam with its prejudices sat lightly on other Seljuk rulers of the century is evidenced also by the fact that Alaeddin’s successor, Keyhiisrev II, after marrying a Georgian princess with whom he was deeply in love, sought to mint coins bearing his name on one side and his wife’s on the other, and after being prevented from doing this by his advisors, minted instead in very great Catalogue of the Ottoman Museum Muzei Humayun Meshukatt Kadimei Islamiye Kk atalogu IV, coin No. 107, A similar coin is in Yale Library collection. *Lakvimi Meskukat Selcukiye, com No. 14. Coins in the Vale Library collection indicate that although the dragon on the original which was evidently a representation of St. George, has apparently disappeared, the halo is retained, * Hasluck’s Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, Pp. 370. Hasan Frehmi’s Anadolu Selcukileri, a translation of M. uneccimbast, p. 25. ‘ Britannica XIV. Article Seldjuks. 28 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER quantities coins bearing on one side pictures of a lion and the sun, symbolic of his wife’s beauty and his own majesty.1 It was quite in harmony with the example set by the rulers that Celaleddin, the famous mystical poet of Konia and the Patron Saint of the Mevlevi dervishes, was himself tolerant and friendly toward Christians as is symbolized by the fact that a Christian ecclesiastic is buried beside him.? | Not only were the relations between Moslems and Christians unexpectedly close during this century, but the type of Islam professed by the Seljuk leaders and their followers was in no small measure influenced by the Persian type which later under Ismail the Safevr became formalized as the Shi'ite doctrine. Since in literature, art and the language of the palace they were under Persian influence it is perhaps only natural that they should carry with them into Asia Minor a theological influence also. Babinger, writing in 192r in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, * went so far as definitely to say that the Seljuk rulers were heretical and Alevi in their professions and affilia- tions. Prof. Fuad Képriiiui denies this but admits that influ- ences of a similar nature were at work, veneration for Ali and the Twelve Imams, and also great respect for dervish seyh’s for whom tekkes, or dervish lodge rooms, were built and richly endowed.4 More important perhaps by far than the attitude of Seljuk rulers during this period is the practical everyday life of the common people. The century was one of almost perpetual war- fare, with new political alignments almost continually being made. It was a period of immigration also, especially from the East, and the religious fate of the future was in no small part being wrought out in the social influences operating upon the frontier peoples. Dr. Wittek has shown us that on the frontier the peoples on both sides were nearer to each other in culture than they were to the more highly civilized people of their own capi- 1Von Hammer in Nouveau Journal Asiatique for Avril, 1829, pages 249, 250, quoting from the historian Djenabi. See also Catalogue of Coins of the Ottoman Museum IV, coins 325-379. * Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, p. 371-378. ‘ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, vol. 76, 1922, age 128. F es For a detailed study of this whole question see Edebiyat Fakultest Mecmuast, 1338 (1922) Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, articles on Anadoluda I. slamiyet. In the first number Babinger’s article is translated and in the two following Prof. Képviili gives an extended account of religious conditions in Asia Minor in the thirteenth century. For statements above see especially No. 3, page 191 and No. 4, pages 292, 293. 29 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES tals. The Greeks, and Armenians of Anatolia more closely resembled in culture and habits of life the Muhammedan peoples who invaded Asia Minor than they did the Greeks of Constanti- nople. From the point of view of the Byzantine capital the people of Anatolia were more than anything else a treasure to be exploited. The people on the frontier could furnish soldiers for the army and money for taxes. Otherwise they meant little to the people of the Capital. The common people through- out the country were just enough alienated from the central government in Constantinople because of taxes and other govern- ment pressure so that they were frequently quite willing to go over to the other side and work with the invading force. That, as we have already seen, is one reason why, following the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071, the forces of the Seljuk Swleyman could almost immediately overrun Asia Minor and leave him as a Prince living in Nicea by 1077. A constant interchange of religious influence was going on. The Danishments of Sivas and Malatiya had played the part of invaders and conquerors from even before Malazgirt. Tradition says they were of Ar- menian origin, and according to Dr. Wittek that may be true. Tradition seems also to be supported by history in tracing the dynasty of Karaman, later the chief foes of the Ottomans, back to Karaman, son of an Armenian convert to Islam who married the daughter of Alaeddin Keykubat IT and was granted a fief. It was characteristic of the frontier life that heresies of all sorts received welcome among the common people. Both Christian and Muhammedan heresies flourished. When the central government became strong as in the case of the Seljuks for a time at Konia and the Ottomans later in Brusa, Adrianople and Constantinople, the tendency to develop a high foreign culture was irresistible, there being at the time no local native culture of sufficient vitality. This culture thus developed in the capitals, although Persian for the most part on the literary and artistic sides, was orthodox or Sunni Muhammedan on the religious side. The central governments increasingly being influenced in this orthodox direction, religious influences in the capitals tended to develop in the same direction, while among the masses of the people the heretical Shii tendencies continued. * Von Hammer in Nouveau Journal Asiatique, Avril, 1829; i ; mM. ; ; 9; the otat from Djenabi is of importance not only in showing the origin of thé Caraman dynasty but also in indicating the influence of dervish ‘“ Babas” over Seljuk rulers. The historian Neschri is mentioned in confirmation of Djenabi. 30 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Religion among the common people thus became, as Moslems and Christians on the frontiers mingled, a very mixed affair, and it is out of that mixture of all sorts of elements, Christian, Muhammedan and pagan, that the Bektashi and affiliated Kizilbash sectaries developed.1 How far Christian influences operating upon the Turks from the pre-Islamic period affected the Turkish invaders of Asia Minor in the thirteenth century is completely unknown. That there were, however, great numbers of Christian Turks in Central Asia before and after Islam entered appears to be certain. * Especially influential among the frontier peoples were Tiirkmen babas* who travelled with the Tuvkmen* tribes which made up a large part of the Seljuk armies. Coming from Central Asia, Harezm (Khwarezm) and Hovasan, (Khurasan) they were in large part dervishes or mystics who were followers of Ahmet Yesevr the great twelfth-century religious teacher of Turkestan. They spoke the Turkish language and preserved under the outer 1 For detailed study of the influence of frontier life on religious development see Dr. Wittek’s contribution to Festschrift fur Georg Jacob, entitled: Zur Geschichte Angoras im Mittelalter, and also his chapter Die Byzantinisch- Seldschukische Grenze zur des Reiches von Nicea (1204-1261) in Das Fiirstentum Mentesche. Of particular importance possibly as a heresy from the Christian side which may have had its influence in the formation of the beliefs and prac- tices of the Bektashis is the heresy of the Paulicians. Bury’s Edition of Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, vol. VI, p. r1roff, 540ff. Conybeare, The Key of Truth. Karapet Ter-Mkrttschian, Die Paulikianer im Byzantinischen. The related groups known as Messalians or Euchites seem to have an even closer relationship. It is perhaps significant that the Paulicians were especially to be found in the region of the upper Euphrates where in 1238 broke out the Revolt of the Babas under Ishak. (See page 32). * An important source for a study of Christian Turks is Mingana’s the Early Spread of Christianity in Central Asia and the Far East. A New Document, Manchester, 1925. Other important references are Barthold’s Christianity in Central Asia, Ttivkiyat Mecmuast I, 47-101; Camt Bey’s Hristiyan Ttirkler 2nd edition. Istanbul, 1932 discussing particularly Christian Turks within the borders of the Ottoman Empire; Fuat Képrili’s discussion of Christianity among the Oguz Tiirkmen tribes in Anadoluda Islamiyet Ilah. Fak, Mec. 1338, No. 4, p. 286 ff; The History of Yaballaha III by J. A. Montgomery, Columbia University Press, 1927, the story of a 13th century Christian Turkish Bishop. *The word ‘“‘ Baba” literally means father, but from the earliest, days has been used of any aged man in token of respect, particularly for a man of religious authority, and in recent centuries has been used as the title especially for Bektashi Seyh’s. (Kamusu Turk). The word “ Tiivkmen’’ was as early as 1073 interpreted to mean “like Turks’? (Divan1 Ligat: Tairk III, 307. William of Tyre before 1200 sets us a safe example in differentiating the words Tiirk and Turkmen as follows: ‘‘That there might be some distinction, at least in name, between those who made themselves a King, and thus achieved such glory, and those who still abode in their primitive barbarism and adhere to their old way of life, the former are nowadays called Turks, the latter by their old name Turkomans.” (William of Tyre 1-7, quoted in Yule’s Travels of Marco Polo by Cordier, Scribner, 1903), Gibbon makes the same distinction. (Bury’s Decline and Fall, London, 3rd. Edition VI, p. 232, n. 22.) 31 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES cloak of Islam many of the old pre-Islamic customs.! They wore strange costumes, spread broadcast stories of their mira- culous powers, lived as religious devotees, played the part of wandering minstrels and were more influential with the rude, nomadic tribes than were the more polished and orthodox mystic philosophers of the cities. Following the Mogul invasion the number of dervishes from Turkestan, Buhara and Harezm who sought refuge under the Seljuks was greatly increased. Accord- ing to Prof. Fuad Képrilii the majority of the dervishes thus driven into Asia Minoy were of the Kalenderiye sect, and this Kalendertye movement he considers one of the most notable events in the religious history of Islam although as yet no critical investigation of the movement has been made.?2 In accordance with the tenets of their order these dervishes were committed to lives of constant travel and wandering.* It was fundamental with them that they withdraw from the world, and take no care for the morrow. Their tendency was toward an extreme Alevi theology, and their influence among the Ltirkmen tribes was great. With their Shii doctrines and their secret mysteries, they were also a factor in the political situation. In 1239 led on by a certain Ishak Baba who had established himself in a cave near Amasia and gained the reputation of a Veli or saint, dervishes in the Marash district revolted against the Seljuk Sultan, Giyasuddin Keyhiisrev II. Repeatedly they defeated Seljuk forces sent against them, gaining the ascendancy in the regions of Malatiya, Tokat and Amasia. Tiirkmen tribes, fighting with their women and children, devotedly fought for this revolt until it was finally suppressed, and the leaders hung.! It is in this century with its outer prosperity during the + This phase of the situation is discussed in Kdpriilii’s Turkiye Tarihi, p.rorf. See also Mill Tetebiiley Mecmuast article on Tiirk Edebiyatinin Mensei, a dis- cussion of the pre-Islamic practices in some measure preserved and passed on by the wandering Babas. See also [Jk "7st 7. “es 66, 67. *See his article ‘ Anadoluda Islam: "+ Fakultesi Mecmuast No. 4, pages 207 ff. It is greatly to be regretted that Fuad Bey has not yet been able to fulfil the hope expressed in his note on page 298 to publish a mono- graph giving a detailed, critical study of the Kalender’s. Such a study from his pen would throw fundamental light on all the subsequent religious move- ments of Asia Minor. See also Gibb’s discussion in his History of Ottoman Poetry I, p. 3 57, 0.1., Showing the three uses of the word Kalender, in the original sense as described above, for any dervish who was distinguished for his excessive devotion and finally as a term of contempt for a wandering dervish of dissolute life. See also article Kalander in Encycl. of Islam. *See Anadoluda Islamivet No. 4, p. 298, n.2. ‘ This insurrection known as the Revolt of the Babai’s is described in the articles Anadoluda Islamiyet in Ed. Fak. Mec. No. 4, pages 302 to 305, and in Koéprili’s “ Ilk Mutesavuyfiar” pages 232-234. and Les Origines de Empire Ottoman pages 58, 59. See also Husam ed Din’s Amasya Tarihi, pages 369-377. 32 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER reign of Alaeddin Keykubad, with its constant wars, its mingling of populations and ideas, its uncertainty of life, particularly for the common people, that there grew up in Asia Minor move- ments which finally developed into the two orders that were destined to extend their influence all down through the Ottoman period, the Mevlevt’s, a city order for ever inspired by the Persian poem, the Mesnevi, written by Celaleddin Rumtz, and the Bek- tashis, an order of dervishes related always to the military and in close affiliation with vast numbers of the village population, an order whose literature was in the Tyrkish of the common people, and whose patron saint was a wandering Turkmen Baba. 2. The Traditional Life of Haji Bektash Velt The history of the Bektashi Order rightfully begins with the life of its traditional founder, Haji Bektash Veli. We have already seen something of the political unrest and the intellectual and spiritual fermentation which resulted from warfare and from frontier conditions where Moslem and Christian peoples mingled, sometimes in opposition to each other, but as often drawn together against a common foe. In the last half of the century we saw the complete disintegration of the Seljuk Empire of Rum, and we noted that in such a period of political dissolution and realignment it was natural for strong leaders as well as the common people to turn away from the world with its disappoint- ments and seek refuge in a life of devotion and faith trying to overcome the world. We have seen also that a “‘ Gazi” attitude of conquest of this world for the sake of the faith co-operated with this devotional impulse to find expression for the latter in a militant, organized manner. The constantly recurring migrations from Central Asia brought not only nomadic Turkish tribes but spiritual leaders in the form of wandering holy men who had learned something of the mystic life from such a leader as Ahmet Yesevt. These leaders were able to gain a reputation for miraculous powers among the credulous people both Moslem and Christian. Haji Bektash Veli was such a-leader. He appears to have grown to be the most famous of them all, at least among the uneducated peoples of the rural areas. We shall hope to examine in some detail the historical evidence for his life, but before doing so will find it an advantage to examine the man and his work as his followers have pictured him. We can only critically examine the historical Bektash if we know 33 C THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES him as tradition presents him, and in so knowing him we will enter into the point of view of millions of his followers. As an aid to the memory and in accordance with a well nigh universal custom in the Moslem east the life of Haji Bektash Veli is summarized among Bektashis in four sentences, certain words of each sentence containing letters whose numerical value accounts for one fact or another in the chronology of the Saint’s life. These four sentences are as follows!: I. Hazreti Pirin veladeti miiruvvet, “‘ The birth of the Patron Saint, generosity of soul.” The word miiruvvet with its four Arabic letters mim 40 re 200 ve 6 te 400 rnemee equals 646, which is accepted as the traditional date for his birth, 646 A.H. (1248 A.D.) 2. Horasandan Ruma tesrif eder, reft. He came from Horasan to Rum, the outgoing. Reft has value as follows : ve 200 fe 80 te 400 680 680 A.H. (1281) is therefore taken as the date of his coming to Anatolia at the age of thirty-four. 3. Miidden dmrii Muhammad diy cemal. “The length of his life is the beauty of Muhammad.” This time not the final word but the word Muhammad gives the number of years of his life. mim 40 ha 8 mim 40 dal 4 em 92 This number is therefore accepted as the number of years he lived. * This chronology I first found written on the inside cover of a Divan of Yunus Emve, in the University of Istanbul Library, Halis Efendi collection No. 4762, evidently not an old copy. The same chronology was later given me by Selman Cemal Baba of Elbasan, (See Bektagt Sairleri pages 333-335) and is recorded in footnotes in the printed history of Asik Pasa Zade Istanbul Edition page 204, n. 3; 205, n. 2, 34 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER 4. The date of his death 738 A.H. (A.D. 1337) is represented by the fourth sentence: Bekiasiye tarih asvabt rihlet. “ The Bektashi date of death, very true.’’ In this sentence both the word Bektasvye and the words asvabi rthlet equal 738. be 2 eluf i kef 20 sad go te 400 vay 6 elaf a elaf I SIN 300 be 2 be mae) ve 200 he 5 ha 8 —— lam 30 738 te 400 738 ‘ The story of Haji Bektash Veli, as Bektashis tell and believe it, is to be found in the Vilayetname of Hact Bektas1 and in the Vilayetname of Hacim Sultan.? Both with slight variations trace Bektash’s ancestry back to the prophet Muhammad. As given in the Vzlayetndme of Haji Bektash Veli the descent is as follows :— Muhammad Fatma the wife of Ali Iman Hiseyin » Leyniilabidin » Muhammad Bakir » Cafer Sadik » Musa Kézim Seyit Ibrahim el Mucab » Musa Sani » Sultan Ibrahim Sani Haji Bektash Veli + Translated into German by Gross in 1927, Das Vilajetname des Haggi Bektasch, Leipsig. It should be kept constantly in mind that Turks of the present day are familiar with two Vilayetname’s, which they often call the Small and the Large Vilayetname’s. The Small Vilayetname has been printed in several editions and is really the Makaldt or Sayings of Haji Bektash. The Large Vilayetname is the real Book of Saintship as the name indicates, a collection of stories about the life of Haji Bektash, and has never been printed except in the German translation by Gross. * This book, a very rare one in Turkish, has been translated by Tschudi, Das Vilajetname des Hadschim Sultan, Berlin, 1914. The German edition contains a copy of the Turkish text as well as the German Translation. 35 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES His father, therefore, is shown to be Seyi Sultan Ibrahim, who was ruler of a state in Horasan. When born, the future saint was given the name Bektash, which means “ companion in rank,” or “an equal with a prince.”+ Asa babe in the cradle he was heard to recite the word of testimony to God’s unity. At the age of four years he was assigned for instruction to a certain Lokman Perende who was one of the apostles? of Ahmez Yesevr, the most famous Turkish saint of Central Asia. Once when Lokman entered the school-room he saw two figures teach- ing the Kuran to Bektash. On being questioned by his teacher, Bektash replied that the one on his right was “ my ancestor Muhammad Mustafa, upon him be supplication and peace,” and the one on his left was ‘‘the pole of saintship, the cup- bearer of Kevser, the lion of the lord, the lord of the worlds, the commander of believers Ali el Miivteza.” The one was teaching him external science, the other esoteric learning, both using the Kuran. It was from Ali that Bektash claimed to have received the power to work miracles. Also from Ali was granted the “sign,” a luminous green spot in the palm of his hand and a similar spot on his forehead. One day when Lokman expressed a wish for water with which to perform the ablution Bektash prayed and immediately water began ‘to flow right at hand. Lokman was surprised and exclaimed ‘‘ Ya Hiinkér,”® “ Oh, Lord, Master.’ And after that he was called ‘‘ Bekias Htinkér”’ and the title has continued in use until the present day. The other title habitually used of Bektash, haji or pilgrim, came about in this way. His teacher, Lokman, had gone to Mecca on the pilgrimage required of all followers of Muhammad. After doing the circumambulation about the Kdbe, he went out . to Mt. Arafat. Standing there with his companions he remarked that it was the day before Kurban Bayram* and that those back home must be even then busy with their cooking. Bektash Hiinkdéy was miraculously made aware of this remark and in a state of ecstasy brought him in an instant a tray of food. Lok- man told of this and Bektash was consequently given ee title Haji, for by a miracle he had been to Mecca. By miracles he proved his superiority to all his fellow students. : oe s A taser io Pe Fieve ‘+... from the Persian word Hudavendgar, me or master (See Redtionss and Kamusu Ttirht). es ae ‘ Sacrifice Festival, one of the two great religious festivals of the Muham- madan year, the special feature of this festival being the sacrifice of sheep which are eaten by the family and distributed to the poor. 36 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER So devoted was he to prayer and worship that he refused the throne of his father when that was pressed upon him.! The Vilayeiname of Haji Bektash then continues with a long poem telling of the conquest of the people of Bedahshan. In this story perhaps the most notable thing was that in his effort to convert the people and to keep them converted resort was made to the device of calling down plagues. Darkness, a drought, and finally a destroying dragon were employed until at last the people believed, and in their enthusiasm sought to make him Sultan. He refused this opportunity, also, and returned to the side of the great teacher, Ahmet Yesevt who had sent him on the adventure. It was again at the command of Ahmet Yesevt that Haji Bektash Hiinkdr set out for‘Rwm, the ancient name given by Muhammadans to Asia Minor. He was told that the region of Soluca Kava Uyik was to be given to him. Snatching a fire brand of mulberry wood from a fire he hurled it through the air as a message to the dervishes already in Rum to tell them of his coming. The fire brand was received by Ahmet Sultan, a keeper of mulberry trees, living near Konia, and was planted in front of what was to be Bektash’s threshold, where it immediately sprouted and grew into a tree which is said in the Vilayetname to be still burning at its upper tip.?. On his travels miracles attended his every step. Two lions attacked him and were turned into stone. Coming to a river accom- panied by a crowd the fish came up out of the water and in elo- quent language gave him greeting. He first visited Mecca, Medina, Damascus, Aleppo, then entering Rum he went to Aintab, Elbistan and Cesarea. Dervishes, fearing that he would displace them, bound up the border to keep him out. Jumping, he ascended to the top of the very throne of God where angels met him bearing a “ Kubber ef’’® made of light. He now 1 In this refusal of the throne there seems to be an influence from the similar story of Ibrahim Ethem who also is greatly honoured in Bektashi lore as “‘ the saint who refused the throne.” 4 Tt was believed within recent years that the bark from what was considered to be this tree was efficacious in the healing of disease. The tree stood in front of the tomb of Balim Sultan. The marks of knives having been applied to the bark are reported by visitors to show how many followers placed real faith in this tradition. See article Haci Bektas Tekkesi in Tirkiyat Mecmuast, vol. 2, age 379. - es One of the three head-pieces worn by Bektashis. This piece, usually called the Elifi tac, is, according to the Vilayeitname, one of several articles given by Gabriel at God’s command to Muhammad who turned them over to Ali together with a knowledge of the mystic rites. From Ali they were passed down through certain of the Imams to Ahmet Yesevt in whose convent they were preserved until at Haji Bektash Hunkdr’s final investiture with authority they were by spiritual powers moved from their places and put before Bektash, the “Elif 37 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES changed his shape into that of a dove and descended to the earth alighting on a rock at Soluca Kara Uyiik. An apostle Beyazit Bistamt came in the form of a falcon and discovéred the dove who changed into a man and seized the falcon. The falcon was then sent as a messenger to invite the dervishes to come to Haji Bektash. It was only after a number of miracles had been wrought and especially after a green scroll bearing the divine commission descended from heaven that the dervishes were finally persuaded of his superior powers and authority. After a lengthy series of miracles he approached a woman named Kadincxk who was washing at a fountain. He pleaded hunger, whereupon she ran home and procured for him all the bread and oil she had for her own household. The next morning her jar of oil was full again. It was to this Kadwncrk that later two children were born as a result of having, according to her custom, drunk the water with which Haji Bektash had per- formed the ablution, this time blood from his nose having been mixed with it. Among the many other miracle stories that are told in the Vilayetname three are of special significance because of their figuring in charts and illustrations used to-day on Bektashi walls, or because of their influence on Bektashi beliefs of the present day. On one occasion, as he was travelling, he came to people who were winnowing their grain. They depreciated his power, and he to convince them turned their grain into stone. } When visiting in Albania in October, 1933, the head of the Bektashis of Albania, Niyazi Dede, showed me some of these grains of wheat which had been turned into stone. As he ex- pressed it, ‘‘ This is a story one would never believe, unless he could see the fact with his own eyes. When he actually sees the stone grains, however, there is nothing to do but believe.” When they complained that their grain was of no more use he worked a further miracle by giving them grain which if eaten tac’’ being placed on his head by unseen hands (Vilayetname, MS. copy. in my private library. Leaves 16 and 27). The articles thus transmitted in- cluded the Elifi tac, the hivka or cloak, the givag or candle, the table, the banner and the prayer rug. The Elifi tac is a conical high cap without pleats except on two sides (see illustration No. 26 in chapter on Symbols.) When visiting Albania in Oct. 1933, Selman Cemal: Baba of Elbasan told me that when, as he talks with them, people show doubt of the spiritual presence everywhere of Haji Bektash he proves his point by going to an oil lamp and turning up the wick. As he did so for me his point became instantly clear, for the light assumed the exact shape of the ‘‘ Elif tac." _‘ So with all lights everywhere,” the Baba said, “ speaking their testimony to Haji Bektash.” * My MS. copy of the Vilayetname, leaf 52. 38 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER would cause a barren woman to conceive. A grain of lentil? is eaten if a girl is desired and a grain of wheat if a boy is wanted. The following story is told in the Vilayetname? and was related to me in conversation by Nzyazt Dede in Albania; that a scepti- cal person, standing by scoffed at the idea of anything happening inside one because of eating a grain of wheat. He supported his scepticism by eating two grains of wheat himself. To his chagrin he found that conception had taken place, and in his distress he appealed to the Saint. Haji Bektash ordered a Caesarian operation which resulted in two boys being brought into the world. The Vzlayetname adds that the descendants of these, called Sons of the Wheat, (Bugday Ogullart) are still well known in the neighbourhood of Ankara. In Albania this tradi- tion still persists, and I was told that it is not uncommon for a woman who wants a child to go to her Baba, receive from him the wheat or the lentil grain, supposedly remaining from Bek- tashi’s day, and eat them in order to conceive. My informant, an educated young man of high family, all of whose relatives are connected with the Bektashis, told me that his mother, who had had several girls, bore him after eating one of these wheat grains. The third miracle is one of the most famous in Bektashi tradition. It occurred when Seyit Mahmut Hayran of Ak Sehr, hearing of Haji Bektash, went forth to meet him. To show his own power when he went out from Ak Sehiy to meet Haji Bektash, he mounted a lion, using a serpent for a whip, and took with him three hundred mollas or theological students. Bektash, not to be out-done, spread his prayer-rug on a great rock, standing like a wall in the neighbourhood, and commanded the rock to move. As the two holy men met, Haji Bektash remarked that it was relatively easy to mount and drive an animal but to make a lifeless rock walk was indeed a miracle. The two dismounted and talked together, leaving the rock standing where it may still be seen to-day. ® 1In Albania the oral tradition says rye, gavday. My Vilayetname says mercimeh. *My MS. copy of the Vilayetname, leaf 53. : 2 An interesting relationship between the traditional Haji Bektash and Christians, illustrating one means of propaganda by which in early days doubt- less Christians were drawn into the order, is indicated by the identification of Haji Bektash with St. Charalambos. An educated Albanian told me that the Greeks call Haji Bektash St. Charalambos. Once, he said, there was a plague, and St. Charalambos, being appealed to, diverted the plague. A century or more later the same thing happened when Haji Bektash came, so the Christians recognized him as St. Charalambos returned. (See Hasluck’s discussion of this connection, pages 83, 84.) a9 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES The Vilayetname ends with the sending abroad of five apostles. In all, 36,000 apostles were sent out as missionaries, 360 staying with the Saint. But five, for whom he entertained special love are mentioned by name. Each was given an area to which he was to go after Bektash’s death. Seyit Cemal Sultan went out toward the Mediterranean and his son, Asi: Dogan, crossed the Dardanelles into Europe. Sart Ismail Sultan went to Menteshe in the south-western corner of Asia Minor. Hacim Sultan was sent into the country of the Germiyans around Kuitahya. Baba Resul was sent to Alijn Tas (south-east of Kiitahya) and Pirab Sultan was sent to Konia. This story of Haji Bektash, emphasizing as it does his wonder- working powers, is the traditional picture of the Patron Saint, accepted by millions as entirely true. Where, in the case of the many educated Bektashis of modern days, the element of histo- ricity is denied, the stories remain as familiar folk-lore from which references and illustrations are drawn. 3. The Historical Life of Haji Bektash To draw from such a picture of what to the modern mind appears utterly impossible, a true idea of the Saint is not easy. The earliest reference to Haji Bektash known to the writer occurs in 695 A.H. (A.D. 1295). Hilmi Ziya Bey writing in Mihrap,} July number, 1924, refers to a vakfiye® dated 691 (A.D. 1291) and containing a mention of Haji Bektash preceded by the word “merhum.” Hilmi Ziya argues that this word does not neces- sarily mean “ deceased,” although it invariably does mean that to-day especially when used of one lately deceased. Therefore, he argues, the use of this word cannot be taken as a proof of Haji Bektash’s death before that date.* Unfortunately, Hilmi 1 Sene 1, Sayi 15, 16, page 515. To understand the material which follows in this study and its relation to earlier studies of the Bektashis it should be remembered that nearly all of the historical references here used have come to light since Jacob’s day and even since Hasluck completed his important studies, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, (see pp. 483-493, 501, 502, etc.) Hasluck’s failure to discover references to the Bektashis and to their connection with the Janissaries earlier than about 1591 is due also to k's 2--:-7---y + Euro- pean works or translations into European languages. ‘ eo: ., knew only in the English translation of the first two volumes. Aszk Pasa Zade’s history is not known to him except in the translation of a single paragraph by Brown. Ejflaki is known only in the abbreviated translation by Redhouse who omits the reference to Haji Bektash. Uvuc Bey, Hatip Oglu have never been translated, and were not generally known even by Oriental scholars until after 1920, is * A Vakfiye or Vakifname is a document deeding property as a sacred founda- ion, * For confirmation of Hilni Ziya Bey's theory see Kamusu Ttirht. 40 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Ziya Bey does not mention the source of his information. It appears probable, however, that he is referring to a vak/fiye dis- covered by Alt Emini Efendi and reported in his magazine Tarth ve Edebtyat Mecmuast.1 According to Ali Emiri Efendt, to whose researches and collection of books in the public library bearing his name scholars owe much, a vakfiye dated 695 (1295) is the deed of a certain Seyh Suleyman Velt who in establishing a zaviye near Kir Sehiy dedicated. certain properties ‘“‘ touching on the lands of ‘ Merhum Haji Bektash Veli.’”’ To Ali Emini Efends this use of the word “‘ merhum ”’ is proof that Haji Bektash Veli was a person known to all of that neighbourhood and deceased before that date. The next mention of Bektash is a vakfiye bearing the date 697 (1297).2. In this document occur the following words. “ And that of all arable fields (mezraat) in the district (nahtye) of El Haj-Bektash, may his mystery? be blessed (Kuddisa Sirruhu) and the village (Kariye) called Geyce Kapu in the district of Kukur, and the arable fields called Samavl:, and the arable fields called Suz Kalacak. “And that of all the village and arable fields which are in the district of El Haj Bektash, may his mystery be blessed, (Kuddisa Sirruhu), and the village called Geyce Kapucak, etc.” Here we have two additional pieces of evidence which accord- ing to Turkish usage can only mean that a man named Haji or El Haj Bektash had died previous to the year 697 (1297). A district has been named after him. Evidently, as we shall see Ali Emiri Efendi points out, the village of Soluca Kava Uytik had had its name changed to that of the “ village, or district, of Haji Bektash.’”’ This further establishes the historicity of Haci Bektash, and while not perhaps, according to Turkish custom positively proving, yet further corroborating the theory that he had died prior to this date. In the second place the familiar formula Kuddisa Sirruhu is one used in Turkish practice only of saints not living, con- clusively confirming the evidence that Haji Bektash had died prior to 697 (1297). A third document still further strengthens this evidence. 1 Number 20, page 670, note 2. ‘Istanbul Evkaf Midiiriveti ; Anadolu defter, vol. 9, page 31. 2 Since in the mystical literature of Islam generally the word szry is used in the sense of an inner state of consciousness it will be translated in this study by the word ‘‘ mystery,” when it means a “hidden experience of the heart” ; and by the word “ secret ’’ when it simply signifies knowledge concealed from others. 4 i THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES A vakfive of Ahi Evran dated 706 (1306) contains a reference to the township (Kaza) of Haji Bektash, “although in Haji Bek- tash’s time the name of the place was Kara Hiiyitk.?” It is perhaps a point in confirmation of the fact that the Vilayeiname contains many actual historical hints that not only does Ahi Evvan appear as an actual personage of that era but Hacim Sultan does also and in the exact locality where, accord- ing to the Vilayetname, Hacim Sultan was sent. In the district of Ushak there is a village called Hacim Sultan Village and in the year 721% (1321) Yakup Bey, the ruler of the Germiyan dynasty, dedicated a property to the zaviye, or convent cell, of Hacim Sultan. The next historical reference to Bektash known to the writer occurs in Eflaki’s Menakob ul arifin,® a collection of stories about the great Mevlevt patron saint, Celaleddin Rumi, who died in 1272. Eflaki’s book was written between the years 1318 and 1353. In this early book there is the story of a Haji Bektash of Hovasan who was a mystic of enlightened heart, but a man who had not felt: constrained to follow the law as given by the prophet. In this account given by a disciple of the great Cela- leddin, Haji Bektash is represented as having been made jealous by the stir caused by his rival religious teacher. He conse- quently sent one of his inspectors, Seyh Ishak to inquite why, if he has found or attained to the goal of his mystic search, he is not satisfied with that; or if he has not attained, why 1A Emivi Efendi’s Tarih ve Edebiyat Mecmuast, No. 20, pages 466 ff. Ak Emiri in his article calls attention to the fact that Ahi Evran is mentioned in the Vilayetname of Haji Bektash (Gross, page 87). On one occasion he ’ visits Haji Bektash. Sitting by the edge of a brook they try to talk, but the frogs disturb their conversation. Haji Bektash calls upon the frogs to be silent “and to this day it is said the frogs don’t peep there.” Ali Emiri Efendi, while accountant in the government office in Kir pehir, visited the locality. He finds the tradition still believed by the people. But he himself hears a frog croak. He calls to him a boy living in the neighbourhood and says that he has heard a frog. The boy appears astonished and says as explanation, ‘‘ Oh well, that frog is a stranger here.’ It hadn’t yet learned the local customs! The full text of Ahi Evran’s vakfiye is given in M. Ceudet's study of the Ahi fraternity written in Arabic as a supplement to a chapter in the Travels of Ibn Batuta, and bearing the French title ‘‘ L’Education et Vorganization des Gens adminis- tratifs et industriels en Asie Mineure et Syrie du XIIme siacle jusqu’é notre temps.’”’ Istanbul, 1932, pp. 280-282. * Ismail Hakkt Bey’s Kiitahya Sehvi, p. 65, n. 1. In the copies of this vakfiye in the Evkaf Offices in Afyon Kavahisar, Kitahya and Istanbul there are the words ‘‘ Yakup Bey ibn Mehmet Bey” as the name of the donor. The family genealogy, however, shows no such person, although there isa Yakup II who is the grandson of a Mehmet and whose dates are a hundred years later. My efforts to secure an accurate copying of the original vakfiye have been un- successful, * See French translation by Huart, Les Saints des Derviches Tourneurs, Paris, 1918, Vol. I, pages 296, 297. 42 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER he is stirring up a tumult among the people. Seyh Ishak arrived just as the followers of Celaleddin1 were commencing their service of music and dance. At the very moment of his entry, which was made reverently kissing the threshold, Celaleddin commenced the recitation of a poem which was worded as if asking the newcomer the very question which the investigator had intended to ask him. “Tf you have not yet seen the Friend, why do you not search for him? If you have attained to him, why are you agitated ? ” “Sit down quietly, for it is a wonderful thing; it is you who are to be wondered at not to desire such a marvel.” The visiting dervish wrote down these words, making note of the date, for they seemed to indicate the supernatural power of the Master at Konia. On his return he rendered his report and Haji Bektash saw that the reciting of this poem coincided in time exactly with an experience he had had when Celaleddin had appeared to him in the form of a roaring lion, had seized him by the throat and only released him after he had humbled himself and begged for mercy. Haji Bektash is then represented as testifying to the power and grandeur beyond imagination both of the insight and the eloquence of Celaleddin. In this story, related by the follower of a rival order shortly after the year 1300, Bektash is shown as a celebrated mystic from Horasan known as a Haji or pilgrim to Mecca, a man with a large following of dervishes and recognized even by the followers of Celaleddin as a rival spiritual leader. In historically placing Bektash, perhaps the most important item in the anecdote has to do with the name by which he is supposed to be called. Huart’s translation makes it appear that Haji Bektash is called by his followers Baba Rasoulallah, the father sent of God. But_ Prof Képriilii shows? that this is a mistranslation. The passage should read ‘‘ Haji Bektash of Hovasan who was an apostle (halife) of one called Baba Resul who had made his appearance in Asia Minor and whom his people called Baba Resul Allah.” Quoting from Ibni Bibi, Képritl% shows that this title is a name used for Ishak Baba, the leader of the so-called Revolt of the 1 The followers of Celaleddin came later to be called the Mevievi’s, the urban order of dervishes already referred to on page 38. Their characteristic form of worship is a dance to the time of music on drum and reed pipe (ney or nay). Tt is for this reason they are called the Dancing or Whirling Dervishes. They differ from the Bektashis among other ways in admitting visitors, including Christians, to their Ziky, or service of worship. 2 Anadoluda Islamiyet, Edebiyat Fakuliesi Mecmuast, 1338 (1922), No. 4, p. 307, note 1. See also Abdulbaki Gélpinarly’s Yunus Emre, pp. 5, 6. 43 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Babat.+ He concludes that this is complete proof that Haji Bektash was historically one of the followers of this famous leader whose following we know was widespread in Central Asia Minor and whose revolt was suppressed under Keyhusvev II in 637 (1239). The next important evidence as to the historic life of Haji Bektash comes in 1409. In that year a Turkish poet Hatip Ogiu? completed a metrical translation of an Arabic book attri- buted to Haji Bektash himself. The translator says his patron saint, having written in: Arabic, is not therefore to be understood by all. Therefore he has undertaken a translation into Turkish. The contents of this metrical translation which bears the name, “This book, the sayings of Haji Bektash El Horasani, God bless his dear spirit,’”’ are practically identical with the contents of a prose translation made by Sadeddin which have often been printed in Turkish under the name Vilayetname.? The book contains a discussion of the four gates, the Serzat or religious law, the Tartkat or mystic way, the Mavifet or mystic gnosis, and the Haktkat or realization in experience of ultimate reality. In the account of the mystic way there is a story of Jesus and his going for a walk. He comes to the foot of a mountain where there is a spring, Drinking from the spring he finds the water bitter. The mountain at the same time begins to tremble, and in answer to Jesus’ question as to the cause of the bitter taste in the water and of the trembling, the mountain replies that in the time of Moses a young man had come to this place and recited the verse. (Kuran 2: 22, “‘ Fear the fire whose fuel is men and stones and which is prepared for the infidels.””) The mountain then calls on Jesus to pray, for his praying is always acceptable to God. Jesus prays and immediately the mountain 1 See above, page 32. * For such details of the poet’s life as are known see Tiirkiyat Mecmuast, Vol. 2, 1926, p. 494. This article with a few added notes was reprinted in Turk Dili ve Edebiyati, Prof. K. M. Fuat, 1934. The only copy known. to-day of the Turkish translation of the Makaldt by Hatip O#lu was in the Emniyet Umumiye Kuttiphanest catalogued under the number 775. A copy of this was taken by Hilmi Ziya Bey. A further copy was made by Prof. Képrili, through the kindness of whom I have been able to procure a photostat repro- duction for my own collection of Bektashiana. It is fortunate that these three copies exist, for the original in the Emniyet Library cannot be found to-day. For references to Hatip Oglu’s translation see Hilmi Ziya’s article in Mihrap, July, 1340 (1924), Nos. 15, 16, page 517: Baha Sait in Tiirk Yurdu, Sept., 1926, No. 21, Vol. 4, page 203, and Képrili’'s Anadoluda Islamiyet in Ed. Fak. Mec., 1338, No. 5, page 406, nl. Képriilii’s article contains a discussion of both the prose and the metrical translations of the Makalét. _ * See above, page 35, n. x. for the distinction drawn between the two vilayetnames., 44 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER ceases its trembling and the bitter water becomes sweet. Then the mountain continues its story of the youth who in the time of Israel came out to the mountain, recited the verse quoted above and began weeping for the day when he might behold Muhammad or his people. Now the Youth’s weeping has ceased.! The young man is interpreted by Bektashis to be Ali,* and Jesus is thus shown to have aided Ali by his acceptable prayer, and to have been himself warned away from all worldliness. The rhymed version of Hattp Oglu indicates a strong love on the part of Haji Bektash for the family of the Prophet, for Ali and for the Twelve Imams. The two Shii principles of ““tevellé” and “‘ teberrd,” love for those who love the holy family, and enmity for those who are its enemies, are openly expressed.® The spiritual hierarchy of the three, the seven and the forty is mentioned; the four gates are related to the four elements and in other ways present-day Bektashi beliefs, which will be more fully described in the chapter on Doctrines and Beliefs, are shown to be doctrines believed by the year 1400 to have been actually taught by Haji Bektash himself.* Among the Turkish historians of the fifteenth century there are two who mention Haji Bektash and his followers. Aszk Pasa Zade, who lived in the neighbourhood of Haji Bektash Village from the early years of the fifteenth century, completed in 1502, toward the end of his very long life, a history which in 1332 (1916) was printed by the Department of Public Instruction,® another edition by Giese being printed in Leipsigin 1928. Accord- ing to the testimony contained in this history Haji Bektash came from Hovasan with a brother named Mentes. They came first to Sivas; from there they went to Baba Ilyas’? ; then to Kar Sehiy; from there to Cesarea; and then on to Kara Yol.8 1 The prose version gives the story thus. The rhymed version varies to the extent of having the mountain itself be the weeper. 2 So interpreted in conversation by Zylfo Baba of the Turan tekke near Korche in Albania. * Page 5, lines 7 and 8. 4 Page 7, line 7. 5’ Hilmi Ziya Bey in Mihvap, Nos. 15, 16, page 517, also mentions a Vilayet- name attributed directly to Haji Bektash formerly in the library of the central tekke at Haji Bektash village dated 888 (1484). _ Although the books from this original library are now supposed to be in the Library of the Department of Public Instruction in Ankara I have been unable to find this particular copy. * The Giese edition is considered more trustworthy. With reference to the Bektashis the Istanbul edition contains two small sections not included in Giese. The translation in Brown’s Dervishes, p. 142 (Rose, 164-167), is somewhat different from either of the printed Turkish texts. 7 Baba Ilyas is the early name for Baba Ishak, whose revolt is mentioned above. See Amasya Tarihi, Vol. II, p. 374. * Evidently Soluca Kava Uytik, which was later called Haji Bektash Village. 45 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Although not a direct propagandist himself as described in this book, he taught a certain Hatun Ana, evidently the Kadinctk of the Vilayetname, and through her his teachings were handed down to disciples. Evidently by the year 1500 the tradition that the Janissaries received their headpiece from the Bektashis was well understood, for Aszk Pasa Zade replies to that very question, stating that it is the other way around. A certain Abdal Musa, who was a disciple of Hatun Ana, in the time of Orhan went to war in company with Janissary soldiers from one of whom he asked and received a hat or felt helmet. On being asked about this he said: “They call this the elif.” ‘‘ By God,” Astk Pasa Zade exclaims, “ this is the truth about their tac’s.” + Agik Pasa Zade ends the passage with another vehe- ment denial that Haji Bektash had had any personal relations with the Family of Osman. Anyone who says so is lying, the historian asserts. The Janissaries came into being, he says in this way”: In the reign of Murat Han (1359-1389) a man from Karaman named Kava Rustem suggested to the Military Judge (Kaztasker) GVenderelt Halil, that according to the law of God one out of five of the prisoners taken in war belongs to the ruler. The Judge reported this to Murat Han who ordered that this be carried out, These two men then brought the ruler’s orders to a certain commander Evrenos* who had captured Ipsala, near Adrianople. Evrenos appointed a judge who selected out in this way a great quantity of prisoners who were brought to Murat Han, On Halil’s suggestion they were given to Turks who taught them Turkish. They stayed with the Turks for some years and became Moslems. Then they were brought to the royal gate, were given a white headpiece, and called Yeni Cert, new troops. Except in one important particular this account of the formation of the Janissaries and the relation of Haji Bektash to them is confirmed by another fifteenth century historian, Uruc Bey.* According to this historian, the brother of Orhan, * Astk Pasa Zade Tarihi, Istanbul ed., p. 206, Giese, p. 201. Tac means crown and is the word used by Bektashis for their headpiece. In Giese’s edition the headpiece is called a Biuhme tac, folded crown. The reference here is to the Elifi Tac referred to above on p. 37 n. 3. * Ibid, Giese 50, Istanbul Edition 54. * A military commander famous in Ottoman History. Cf. Art. Ewrenos in Enc. of Islam. * See Tevariht Ali Osman, containing copies of two texts of Uruc Bey’s history, edited by Franz Babinger, Hannover, 1925. The title in Babinger’s edition describes the author as Uruc ben Adil Elkazeaz Katip el Ediyvnevi. It has been objected by Dr. Wittek that a Aazzaz or silk-weaver could not possibly 46 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Alt Pasa, turned from the way of political leadership to the religious way and became a dervish.! One day as he was talking with Orhan he called his brother’s attention to the fact that the soldiers under his command were now numerous and should have some distinguishing mark. “ Let all the rest of the soldiers wear red headpieces* but let those immediately connected with the ruler wear white headgear, that it may be to the world a sign of his soldiers.” Orhan accepted this and sent to Haji Bektash in Amasya for permission and blessing to wear the new gear. First Orhan himself wore it, then his followers, thus making it possible for one in battle to recognize another. Since Haji Bektash himself is seen to have died before 1295, the state- ment of Uruc Bey cannot be accepted here as literally true. If, however, instead of Haji Bektash himself personally, we under- stand a follower of his, recognized as speaking with his authority, the story becomes immediately and fully plausible. The send- ing to a dervish Seyh for an “‘ icazet ’’ or “‘ permission and approval with blessing ’”’ is entirely natural according to the custom and mentality of that day. As to-day in certain circles men need the authority of a diploma or degree or certificate, so in that day a change of custom, the official donning of a new costume, required a ceremony of blessing and approval, from a popular religious leader. It would seem possible from this story that Ali Pasa was a Bektashi. Whether the Elifi Tac of the Bek- tashis was adopted by the soldiers of Orhan or the Bektashis later came to use what the official soldiers wore as Asik Pasa Zade asserts seems to be a puzzle impossible to solve. The account as interpreted here, at least serves, both to reconcile the fact of Haji Bektash’s early death with the report current from the earliest days that there was some relationship between Haji Bektash and the headpiece of the Ottoman soldiers. Uruc Bey continues by asserting that the Janissaries had their beginning between the years 763 and 766% (1361-1364) in the reign of Murat Han. Nis account squares so completely with Asik Pasa Zade’s that there seems to be either the influence be also a Bey, and that therefore this history is that of an unknown 15th cent. historian, and cannot be the work of the Urue Bey mentioned by early Turkish writers. + Uvruc Bey, pages 15 and 89. ? Suggesting a relationship with the Kzzl-bas or Red Heads, the village type of sectarian intimately associated with the Bektashi Order. ’ See page 93, reference to an eclipse in 763, preceding the formation of the Janissaries, and page 22, a reference to the date 766,at some time following the formation of the Janissaries. 47 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES of one on the other or else that the account as given was well known and generally accepted as true in the fifteenth century.? In Uruc’s account as well as in Assk Pasa Zade’s, Kava Rustem,? a man from Karaman suggests to Cendeveli Kava Halil, the Kaziasker, that their commander is at present losing what should of right belong to him. One-fifth of all plunder should go to the ruler. Muvat Han approves of this because it is the divine law. Kara Rusiem then settles in Gallipoli. As in the account of Asek Pasa Zade, a third officer named Gazi Evrenos is called in to help carry out the order. After every raid one- fifth of the prisoners are taken and are sent to live among Turkish people in Anatolia. They plough the fields and learn Turkish. After four years they are brought to Murat Han, and recruited into his army. The white headpiece is put on them and their corps is named the Yeni Cert. The final evidence for the historical life of Haji Bektash is from the Vilayetname itself. The collection of wonder stories is a naive collection. With the exception of certain additions such as the story of Murat Han and his determination to build a ttivbe over the grave of Haji Bektash,* and the story of Bek- tash’s relation to Osman,4 which varies markedly in literary style from the other parts of the Vilayetname, the book bears no mark of having been written in a later era. Except for the portions indicated which appear to have been added to prove a connection with the royal house of Osman, the very absence of later accepted doctrines indicates that the collection had its origin prior to 1400, Running through the stories especially of the events that follow on Bektash’s entry into Anatolia are real names of geographical places and real historic characters. We have seen that Ali Evran and Seyh Suleyman were historic characters. Hacim Sultan, one of Bektash’s apostles, has been traced to the exact locality to which in the Vilayetname he is sent.6 The constant references in the Vilayetname to Alaeddin are perhaps no indication of date in themselves, for in popular works Alaeddin is frequently the name given to each Seljuk Sultan. Other evidence, however, suggests that the period the ultimate origin pies ede aeus te nen ee eae * Leaf a in my MS. copy of the Vilayetname; p. 151 in Gross’ trans- ee Leaves 121 to 127 in my MS. copy; pages 133-139 in Gross. s See above, pages 42, 41. * Leaves 68B and 108B. 48 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER involved covers at least a part of the reign of Alaeddin the Great, 1219-1236, and the ten or fifteen years following. At least twice the Sultan of the period is described as ‘‘ Alaeddin who is Keyhusrev, the son of Kilie Arslan.” A slight miscopying of a single letter would have made this the correct name ‘‘Alaeddin, the son of Keyhusrev the son of Kuiltc Arslan.’ In these refer- ences the extent of the Seljuk state reaching to the borders of Persia suggests the same period. The Caliph Addas is mentioned, a possible reference to El Nasiveddin Allah called Abu Abbas Ahmet whose dates 1180 to 1225 coincide, in part with those of Alaeddin.1 Echoes of the Mongul invasion run through the Vilayetname. The Tartars are described as Christians, a con- firmation of the report which sent Friar William on his journey to the Mongols of Asia.2, The capture of Bagdad with the execution of the Caliph is mentioned, an event which occurred in 1258, and the coming of the Mongols into Anatolia in the years following is described. Bektash is represented as sending a messenger to the Mongol ruler in an effort to convert him. The Mongol ruler called Kuluhan, evidently meaning Kuyuk, (1246-1251) calls in a Christian priest. Since it is known that Kuyuk had a Christian chapel before his tent and his two chief ministers were Christians,* there is the suggestion that we are dealing with historical material. On the ritualistic side the Vilayeiname is of very special interest. Later ritual such as was introduced by Balm Sultan ‘shortly after 1500 appears to have no mention, far less is there any touch of Hurufi influence such as may have entered by the middle of the fifteenth century. There is, however, constant reference to shaving which we know was the practice among the early Kalender’s,> with whom Bektash doubtless had rela- tions. Bektash is represented as one who is criticised for not saying his wamaz or formal prayers in public,* a reputation which may account for Eflakz’s statement, that though a man of enlightened heart, he was not fully obedient to the religious law.’ Some form of ritual was evidently used and was of a secret nature, for on one occasion the remark is made “ The rites t Leaf 108 in my MS. copy. * My MS. copy, leaf ro9. See Contemporaries of Marco Polo. * My MS. copy, leaf 110. ‘ Britannica XI, Article, Mongols, p. 713. ' Képriili’s Tiirkiye Tarihi, page 199. 6 Vilayetname, my MS. copy, leaf 95. * See above, page 42. 49 D THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES whatever they were, were observed,” evkan ne ise goértildi.+ Evidently it was the custom to bring in tables afterward and to serve honéy or a thick juice like honey and sour curds, women, especially Kadincik, participating as well as men.* Obedience to the saint is taught as of importance equal to confession of faith in God and the prophet.* Various terms, later a part of Bektashi ritual and tradition, are already in use. Dem, or drinking, presumably of the honey-like sherbet; and Sema, the dance, are already in vogue. The telkim or secret instruction is a part of the ritual at least by the time the section dealing with Osman was added.‘ Followers are called Muhipler.5 The Elift Tac is mentioned again and again,§ and once it is specifi- cally stated that the Bektashis have two headpieces, the Elifi Tac and the Hiseyms Tac.’ The ¢givag, or candle, so important in the later ritual, is mentioned and Pivab Sultan, one of Bektash’s apostles is called the gsvagc1® or candle-lighter. In speaking of his disciples the expression is used to “ awaken their candles,’ pivag uyandwmak.® As will be seen in the section on practices of the order all these terms and ideas are to continue to be a part of the very life of the order down to to-day. Although it is not possible to prove that all these originated with Haji Bektash himself it does seem probable that something at least of the later ritual began with him and that at least by 1400 the fundamental ideas were already a part of the whole order, widespread among the village groups as well as in the specifi- cally Bektashi organization. From this brief study of Bektash’s life it would seem to be reasonably clear that a man named Haji Bektash came to Asia Minor in the thirteenth century; settled in the neighbour- hood of Kir Sehiv in the village later called by his name; was himself a part of a general movement of Tiirkmen babas carrying on under a guise of fairly orthodox Islam both social and religious practices of earlier Turkish life, combined with a system of mys- ticism influenced by the Central Asian Sufi, Ahmet Yesevi; gradually won for himself a general recognition among these Ttirkmen tribes as the leading Saint of the times: won and initiated definite followers; taught the beginnings of a simple * Tbid., 1., 31, 35, 133. 7 Thid., L, 35. * Tbid., 1, 127. 9 thd oF 590 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER ritual including the use of the candle, and a ceremonial meal and dance; wore himself and gave his followers a characteristic headpiece‘; and before he died appointed and sent into areas in different directions apostles who were to carry on his teachings. 4. Early Missionaries of the Bektashi Way Both the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are too obscure to justify us in drawing a clear picture of the early develop- ment of the order. It seems reasonably certain that from the early part of the fourteenth century at least the order was closely associated with the military career of the Ottomans. The tradition early arose that the Bektashis and Janissaries felt that their characteristic costume was worn with the official approval and blessing of the Bektashi order, and as Astk Pasa Zade* pointed out in the case of Abdal Musa, early Bektashis apparently accompanied the Janissaries on their campaigns of conquest. Impossible as it is to draw a detailed historical picture, _ tradition has stepped in to give a wealth of detail. The two early missionaries around whom most tradition has gathered are Savt Salk and Seyit Ali Sultan. Savi Salttk’s story is told in the Vilayetname?® and is discussed at some length by Evliya Celebi, the great Turkish seventeenth century traveller.? Ac- cording to this tradition Save Salizk first met Haji Bektash Veli as he was watering sheep at a fountain and gained his name from Bektash’s commission, “ We have sent you (Saldzk) to Rumels (Europe).”” On a rug given by Haji Bektash he crossed the Black Sea, visited Georgia, converted the people there, put upon them the Huseyn: tac and finally went to Kilgra* in the Dobruja in Bulgaria; he killed a seven headed dragon, aided by Hzzv® and finally on his death was found in seven coffins, 1 His printed history, Ist. Ed., p. 205, Giese, p. 201. 2 My MS. copy, leaves 75 to 79, Gross, pp. 73 ff. * Eng. Translation I, ii, 245; Turkish text I, 659; ITI, 366. See also Hasluck’s Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans for many references to this whole cycle of traditions. ‘ Kaliakra. Since Ibni Batuta twice stopped at the tekke or the town of “ Baba Saltuq,’”’ whom he describes as ‘‘an ecstatic mystic, though stories are told of actions by him which are condemned by the law” (Gibbs’ Travels of Ibn Batiuta, Argonaut Series, pp. 153, 165) it appears that by the years 1325-1354 Salitk was known as a historic personage, another evidence that lying behind the fantastic tradition in the Vilayetname a nucleus of historic truth is to be found. In the 16th cent. the zaviye of Sar: Salitk is the scene of several legal actions as dervishes become accused of using expressions contrary to the orthodox faith. (Ahmet Refik’s Osmanlt Devrinde Rafizilik ve Bektasilik, pp. 16, 17.) ‘ Ency. of Islam, art. Khadir, Vol. II, pp. 861-865. 1303 i) THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES thus accounting for the traditions of his burial place in many localities. In Albania among Bektashis the tradition of Sart Saltik’s coming in the fourteenth century still survives. Seyit Ali Sultan in the vilayetname attributed to him? is described as one of Forty Heroes who were told in a dream by the prophet Muhammad to go to Haji Bektash by whom they would have swords girded on them. The rites were revealed to them, and with Bektash’s blessing they went to Orhan Han to whom similarly by a dream their coming had been revealed in answer to his prayer that God might give him victory in a conquest of Rumeli. Of the forty, Bektash appoints Seyzt Alt Sulian as commander, Emir Sultan as banner bearer, Seyit Rustem Gaz as Kaztasker, and Abdul Samad as Imam. On arrival at Ovhan’s camp they were welcomed with honours. A council of war was called, but Orhan’s pashas were unable to draw up a plan of campaign that appeared reasonable. So Orhan turned to the Forty Heroes. Seyit Rustem Gazi proposed that Orhan advance with the left wing, Savca Pasa in the centre, while the Forty would go forward with Swleyman Pasa on the right. The Dardanelles were crossed, Gallipoli was taken ; by divine revelation the Forty were ordered to take tribute from prisoners and to reserve one out of five prisoners to be held for Orhan. There follows then the story of one conquest after another. Three shepherds are on one occasion taken prisoners and one of them is killed and his body speared on irons as if for roasting. The others are terror-stricken, thinking the new enemy is an army of cannibals. Allowed to escape they hurry to the fortress about to be attacked and report their experience. While the enemy quarrelled amongst themselves some wanting to flee, some to stay and fight, the Forty approached. Seyit Alt Sultan gave a loud cry and the city wall crumbled, leaving its defenders to be killed and captured. On one occasion water was lacking for the abdest or ritual ablution. Emir Sultan, in a hurry to show his power, struck his staff on the ground and water like the water of life sprang forth. Seyit Ali Sultan, however, rebuked him for his unseemly haste, saying that there was a Saint present more powerful than he. Emir Sultan immediately died and his post of banner-bearer was given to Tahir, In each city taken much plunder was seized, the cap- x Through the kindness of Niyazi Dede, the head of the Bektashi community in Albania, a copy of this Vilayetname copied for him in the Kaygusuz Dergah in Cairo, in 1932, was loaned to me so that I might take a photostat copy. 52 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER tured inhabitants either becoming Moslems, paying tribute or being held as slaves. Gallipoli, Adrianople and Silistre were captured among many other places. A long poem in the Vilayet- name recites the deeds of the Evrenos Gazi of whom Astk Pasa Zade and Uruc made mention at the time of the organizing of the Janissaries. Finally, after many conquests, the dervishes separated and chose permanent abiding places where tekkes were built and where their acts of miracle made a deep impression on the surrounding people. This book with its stories of wonders serves historically to indicate the ‘‘ Gazi’ character of early Bektashiism and to show the type of story told to win wonder and interest and to impress possible converts. The occasional reminiscence of Bible tradition would perhaps appeal to ignorant Christian villagers, and the close association in tradition of the Bektashis with the early campaigns of conquest is certainly made plain. The appearance in the account of two names already associated with the beginning of the Janissaries, Rustem and Evrenos, suggests that here, mixed with impossible details, are echoes of genuine history. 5. Bektashi Poets of the Early Period There is to-day in Turkey no poet more honoured than Yunus Emye, for he wrote with an obvious sincerity and depth of religious feeling and in the language of the Anatolian Turkish peasant. The Vilayetname of Haji Bektash Veli tells the Bektashi tradition of his conversion.! In a little village called Sar. Kéy, to the north of Sivvt Hissar, lived a farmer named Yunus. One year on account of famine his crops failed. Hear- ing of aid often given the poor by Haji Bektash Veli, he himself went to the tekke of the saint with a load of fruit as a present. After staying a few days he made it known that he wished to leave. Bektash asked which he would like, wheat to take with him, or the inspiration (literally, breath, nefes) of the Saint. Yunus chose the wheat. Bektash sent back word suggesting that for every piece of fruit two breathings® be given. Yunus 1'Gross’ translation, pages 78-80. In my MS. copy, leaves 82-84. 2 The custom of breathing on or blowing is one practised down to most recent days by dervishes in Turkey. It is believed that the breath conveys to the one breathed upon the spirit of God. Ills of all sorts, spiritual and physical, are believed in this way to be cured. By Law No. 677, passed in Nov. 1925, the Republic of Turkey forbade the practice of blowing, ufirikgiluk, Cf. page 84, note 2, 53 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES still preferred the wheat and he did so even when ten “ breaths ”’ were offered for each piece of fruit. The wheat was therefore given, but when Yunus came to the “ little hill on the other side of the hamam (Turkish bath) in the lower part of the village - he began to repent of his choice. He might have had the “nasip” or initiation into the mystic order, something which would not pass away with time as would the wheat. He therefore turned back and, lowering his load of wheat, he asked for the initiation instead. Bektash replied that that could not be, for the “‘ key of his journey ” had been sent to a certain Tapduk Emre. There- fore Yunus was sent to Tapduk Emre whom he served as a wood carrier. So faithful was he that a wet or crooked stick was never brought in, for such, he said, would be unworthy of his master. After forty years of this service, during a ritual meeting Bektash Htnkéy turned to him and commanded him to sing, for his “return” journey had now been opened up. Yunus to the amazement of all, opened his mouth and poured forth such sweet hymns of love and adoration as the listeners had never heard. To this day his poems are loved by Turks of all types and discussed in many a journal. Probably the majority of critics doubt if he was a real Bektashi, feeling that the tradi- tion in the Vilayetname is rather an example of a very common tendency, then as now, for a sect to claim as a member one whom they honour. One of Turkey’s best scholars, however, Abdiilbakt Bey, writing in Yeni Turk Mecmuast,1 points out considerable proof that he was a Bektashi. The lines: The meaning of Baba Tapduk We have learned; praise belongs to God seem to be in confirmation of the traditional story as given in the Vilayetname. Yunus’ contempt for outer form and his hints at hidden truths both are in harmony with a Bektashi allegiance. The following poem if really Yunus’ would prove him rather positively to be a Bektashi, 2 My Seyh is an exalted person, He is the head of the three, the seven, the forty. With the twelve Imams he is a fellow possessor of the secret. . I will not turn from my Seyh; how can I turn ? * July, 1933, p. 831. Since the above was written A bdilbaki has published a book, Yunus Emre, H ayaty, in which the same point of view is elaborated. * Ibid., page 832. + THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Other verses refer to the incident of Bektash’s riding the wall to meet Seyit Mahmut Hayran who was coming to meet him on a lion,+ and to the incident mentioned in the Vilayetname of his kneading a rock into dough. Unless we feel compelled to assert that such passages are not Yunus’ at all we must conclude that these do indicate a strong enough Bektashi flavour to indicate a direct relation with the order. In the lithographed edition of his Divan, the prayer * placed just before the collection of hymns is another evidence of Bektashi affiliation, for the spirit of the whole poem is, as we shall see in the sectign on Beliefs, character- istically Bektashi. The lines: Thou hast set a Balance to weigh evil deeds; Thou hast purposed to cast me in the Fire. A Balance is suitable for one who would be a grocer; or one who would be a jeweller or a seller of perfume. Thou art the All Knower ; thou thyself knowest my condi- tion; what need is there for weighing my acts? bear in every word the mark of the Bektashi protest against the religious teachings of the orthodox Sunni teachers. The Abdal Musa mentioned by Astk Pasa Zade appears to have been a Bektashi imitator of Yunus Emre and is famous in Bektashi lore.? The dervish who according to tradition was his disciple, Kaygusuz Abdal, the traditional founder of the famous Bektashi tekke in Cairo, is another and even more famous follower in the same religious and literary succession. Every Bektashi collection of verse includes a goodly number of his poems, and every recent history of Turkish literature mentions him as important in the literary history of the Turkish people.® In addition to a collection of his poems there is a printed treatise on mysticism also attributed to him.® 1 See above, page 39. * Divan, 1340, edition, page 34. * Bekiasi Sairleri, pages 3-7. For a detailed study of Abdal Musa see Képrili’s Turk Halkedebiyats Anstklopedist, 6off. ‘ [bid., pages 196-200, 6’ Mehmet Fuat’s Divan Edebiyats Anatolojisi, pp. 30, 31. Sadettin Niizhet’s Tiivk Edebiyats Tarihi, p. 96. Agadh Sirri’s Edebiyat Tarihi Dersleri, p. 81. Hasan Aki’s Turk Edebiyatina Toplu Bir Bakis, p. 63. * Risalei Kaygusuz Sultan, 55 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES B.—THE SECOND PERIOD OF BEKTASHI HISTORY t. Balrm Sultan In about the year 1500 there came to the leadership of the Bektashis a man named Balem Sultan, under whom new influ- ences entered which gave permanent form and content to the practices of the order. Unfortunately no critical study has been made of the life of Balim Sultan. All one knows as a certainty is that certain innovations are believed to have been introduced by this leader who is often called Pirt Sant or Second Patron Saint. All accounts? of Balim Sultan trace his origin back to Dimotika, a town located some forty kilometres south of Adrianople, where, according to Bektashi tradition was located a dergah, or lodge house, of the Bektashi order called by the name of its supposed founder, Seyit Ali Sultan. According to the oral tradition as given me in October 1933 by Nvyazi Dede of Albania, there was in the region of Dimotika when Seyit Ali Sultan entered the country a Bulgarian king whose daughter made a prayer rug and hung it on the wall remarking to her mother that she would marry whoever prayed on it. Seyit Alt Sultan and Miirsel Baba visited the home, and without asking permission took down the rug and prayed upon it. Since they were both old men such as the girl would not care to marry, the Bulgarian princess lifted up the rug, and both men fell off. Seyit Ali Sultan remarked that this act showed abnormal strength, a strength which really came not from her but from a Balom Sultan who would be born from her. Asking for honey, Mirsel Baba dipped his finger in it and put his finger in the princess's mouth. The girl, still a virgin, became pregnant, and Balim, whose name is derived from “‘ bal,”” honey, was born. On the death of the child’s mother he was taken to Seyit Ali Sultan’s tekke at Sofular. Until he was eighteen he lived in a room said to be still known as “the school-room of Balam Sultan.” The version of this story accepted by students of a more critical nature is that Miirsel Baba at the advanced age of ninety years went to Bulgaria, married there a Bulgarian girl, from which union Balim Sultan was born. The traditions all point at least to a Christian mother of this leader. = For one of the fullest accounts of Balim Sultan see Baha Sait’s article in Tiirk Yurdu, No. 28, Nisan, 1927, pages 314 ff. See also Kamus ul Alam. 56 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER According to Baha Sait,1 Beyazit the Second, whose rule extended from 1481-1512, was much attracted to the Seyit Alt Sultan tekke and in 907 (1501) appointed the posinisin® of that tekke, Balam Sultan, to the headship of the so-called Pir Evi, or House of the Patron Saint at Haji Bektash Kéy. Under the influence of this new head certain innovations were made. The present-day initiation service of a Bektashi is sometimes called “ The Method of Balim Sultan.”® According to Baha Sait Bey the use of twelve candles in this service, and the wearing of the palihenk* or large symbolic stone with the twelve flutings, are among the new practices brought in by this leader. It is agreed by all Bektashis that the custom of setting aside some Babas as a celibate group dates from him. In the group of buildings in the Haji Bektash tekke, where the heads of the order have always resided until recent days, there is a tomb which is reputed to be that of Baltm Sultan. The inscription over the door calls the one buried there Hizty Balt, the son of Resul Bal1, the son of Haji Bektash of Horasan, and the date is given as 925 (1510). In front of the door is the mulberry tree which tradition said Haji Bektash hurled as a burning brand from Horasan and which was planted where his home was later to be.6 Bektashis believe that to rub on any ailing part of the body bark from this tree is to effect a cure. On the threshold of this tomb it has been the custom for Bektashis wishing to take the vow of celibacy to have their ears bored, after which an earring, called Mengus’ is worn. Although the historical evidence for Balim Sultan’s life has not been studied as yet, so far as the writer knows, by any historian, it seems probable that from Haji Bektash himself and men of his type came the influences which created the total Bektashi or rather Alevi sect of Asia Minor, including the village groups such as the Tahtajis and Kizilbash, who in all of their traditions revere Haji Bektash. In the case of the so-called Kizilbash elements,’ as will be outlined in more detail in the 1 Turk Yurdu, No. 28, Nisan, 1927, p. 314. * Postnisin means literally ‘‘ he who sits upon the sheep’s skin,” and is the term used of the master of the lodge. * It is so called in Evkdnname, No. 2, in my private collection, a private notebook of a Bektashi Baba containing a brief form of the initiation ritual. 4 See Part II, illustration No. 10, article 8. 5 See above, page 37. ® See article Haci Bektas tekkesi by Hamit Zubeyr in Ttirkiyat Mecmuasi, Vol. II, p. 379. 7 Horseshoe shaped said to be in memory of Ali’s horseshoe, Rose, 198. On my trip to Albania in Oct., 1933, I observed this mengus only once being worn, in all other cases the celibate dervishes wore round, brown earrings. ® See below, page 64, n. 4, and air ff. 57 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES proper place, there has been a direct organizational connection with the Celebis of the Haji Bektash Tekke. From Balm Sultan, on the other hand, has come the more closely organized Bektashis in the stricter sense of the word, the Bektashis who have been initiated by the rite developed by Balm Sultan. To this group with their head, called the Dede, who until 1925 lived also in the Haji Bektash Tekke, belong the Bektashis of Albania, Stambul, Cairo and elsewhere, wherever the tekkes bear the definite name Bektashi. That is, in the writer’s under- standing of the historic origins, beginning in the thirteenth century there grew up in Asia Minor a type of people’s religion containing mixed elements from the various religions to which the people nominally belonged. Haji Bektash, being one of the wandering spiritual leaders who helped in this movement, his pre-eminence was gradually recognized until, not only in the village named after him near Kir Sehir, but also in countless villages all over Asia Minor his name became revéred as the Patron Saint. With Balam Sultan there began a more perfected ritual and organization in tekkes in or near towns. This organi- zation became the more formally organized Bektashi Order, as in some measure distinct from the village groups who continued their very similar beliefs and practices, but outside the regularized system of Bektashiism. Gradually there came to be at Haji Bektash Village two leaders. The Celebi’s who claimed descent from Haji Bektash were recognized by the village groups of Kizilbash and others as their spiritual authority. On the other hand, the Dedes, who were celibate, and who asserted that Haji Bektash had no children other than children of the way—bel evlad degil, yol evladtdty—became the spiritual and organizational head of the system as fixed by Balim. 2. Hurufi Doctrines Following the new lead given by Balm Sultan with its emphasis on a celibate vow for dervishes, the next important step of the second period is the entry of Hurufiism into the Bektashi belief. Although the Bektashi reaction to Hurufiism will be studied in some detail in the chapter on Beliefs, it may make the situation more clear to tell at this time the main historic facts about this most interesting philosophy. In the year 800 (1398) a man from Esterabad named Fazlullah pro- Claimed himself divine. He taught a cabalistic system of belief in numbers and their relations to letters which are the 58 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER ultimate elements of the “ word,’ which in. turn was taken, as in John’s gospel, to be the supreme manifestation of God himself. Since the doctrines of Hurufiism, so far as they con- cern the Bektashis, will be described at some length in the chapter on Beliefs, it is sufficient in this preliminary historical sketch to mention along with the doctrine of letters the other essential characteristic of their faith, namely that since ‘‘ Whoso knoweth himself knoweth his Lord,’ man himself becomes a divine revelation of deity.1 Fazlullah’s astonishing claim of his own divinity having been brought to the ears of Timurlenk, the latter commanded his immediate execution.? But not before certain disciples were won who were destined to exercise their influence in Turkey down through the years to the present day. The most famous of these is the poet Nesimi,* a native of a district called Nesim, near Bagdad. In part, at least, Turkish in blood, he appears to have made the personal acquaintance of Fazlullah prior to 1401, and to have become an enthusiastic missionary of the new faith. Finally in Aleppo he was con- victed from his own poems of heresy, and was flayed alive. To posterity he left two Divan’s, or collections of poems, one in Persian and the other in Turkish. Although there is no evidence that he was in any way associated with the Bektashis, he is nevertheless revered to-day by Bektashis for his doctrines and especially for his bold espousal of Mansur al Hallac’s famous assertion En el Hak—I am God. He is famous in Turkish literature for the lyric quality ofhis passionately religious verse; and as an example of bold intellectual independence he has entered into the culture of the Turkish race as a distinct moral influence. 1: See Gibbs’ History of Otioman Poetry, Vol. I, p. 341. * Huart’s Textes Houroufis, pages 223, 224. * See Gibb’s History of Ottoman Poetry, Vol. I, p. 343 ff. “ Hiseyin Cahit writing in Fikir Harehetleri, No. 5, in April, 1934 (later printed in book form, Edebt Hatiralar, Ist., 1935, p. 8), in giving an account of his literary memoires mentions the books which as a boy influenced him most. He speaks of the Conquests of Ali, and the Adventures of Battal Gazi, all books beloved by the Bektashis ; and then after mentioning some of the ‘classic poets he writes as follows: ‘‘ Of all these books the work which produced on me the deepest impression was the Divan of Nesimi, not so much because of its contents, which I could not well understand, but because of the personality of the writer. I listened to his adventures from the mouth of my father. In all that story this is what remained in my mind: They flayed his skin while he was alive, alive! He said, ‘The God whom you worship is under my foot.’ His fault consisted of this. And under his foot was a piece of money! For a long period on my bed at night I would go to sleep still under the excitement which I felt on account of the story of this great man who was flayed alive. He challenged all the powerful and bad men of his day. Without fear he spoke what he thought. They seized him and brought him to the public square. Even in the face of death he was not silent. He still refused to give up speaking the truth and on account of that he suffered a terrible death.”’ 59 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES From the point of view of the Bektashis the most important disciple of Fazlullah was a certain Ali ul Ala who in the fifteenth century is represented as carrying on an aggressive activity spreading his master’s teaching. The chief source of informa- tion regarding this leader appears to be the Kasif ul Esvrar ve Def ul Esvar,+ a highly controversial religious tract written by Ishak Efendi, a learned exponent of Sunni Islam, in 1873 (1290 A.H.) The book is written in a spirit of bitter hatred against the Bektashis especially on account of their Hurufi teachings. Although this book appears to be more helpful in misleading than guiding aright one’s understanding of the true nature of Bektashiism, it has, nevertheless, attained to considerable reputation among Western students. According to Ishak Efendi who wrote toward the end of the nineteenth century, Ait ul Ala in the early part of the fifteenth century entered into Bektashi tekkes and spread the doctrines of Fazlullah by representing them to be the teachings of Haji Bektash. There appears, however, to be no historical support for this statement. Rather it appears that Hurufiism and Bektashiism are to a certain degree, and have always been separate systems of doctrine. My reason for believing this is that I can nowhere find the slightest evidence that Fazlullah’s doctrines are or have ever been, accepted by Bektashis as the teachings of Haji Bektash. Bektashis, on the other hand, frequently show that there is a distinction in their minds between the necessary beliefs of their order and those of Hurufiism.2 In the earliest * Jacob printed a translation of it in his Beitvage zuy Kennt. des Derwisch~ Ordeys dey Bekiaschis, Berlin, 1908. WHuart refers to this trans. in his Textes Houroufis, Leyden and London, 1909, pages xii to xviii. ; *Sulo Bey CGelo of Tirana, one of the best read Bektashis I have ever met, and himself an enthusiastic Hurufi, in giving me a list of books important in the Bektashi Way, mentioned the following :— Mivatiil Mekasit Divani Al Makalati Haci Bekias Veli Hutbet ul Beyan Vilayetname (menakib) Nehcul Belaga Fevaitname . Noktatul Beyan Risaleli Kaygusuz Sultan Cifrt Ali The important books of Hurnfiism formed an entirely different list: Cavidan Zubdetun Nejat Ustuva Name Risalei Mebde ve Mujat Ars Name Mudekkik Namei Arifin Besavet Name Tevathi Name Mahrem Name Iskender Name Mesele Name Erresail Tevzihul A sliyat Zevve Arsi Baba Divani Vucut Namei Seyit Serif Amili Mahser Name Fisalei Esma ve Musamma Nokta Name Isk Name Mesihti Name Risalet Virani Baba 60 * THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER references to Bektashiism there is no confusing the two. The fifteenth century historians, As?k Pasa Zade and Uruc, speak of Bektash and his followers, but make no mention of Hurufi precepts. A manuscript book in my possession written in 1653 as a defence of the orthodox faith attributes misfortunes in war to the spread of Hurufi heresies among the soldiers. Evidently the teachings of Fazlullah were reaching the Janissaries as well as the civilian Bektashis, but there is no identification of Hurufi teachings with Bektashi Principles. Tas Képrui Zade, (see below, page 62) writing in the Sakatki Numaniye in the sixteenth century gives in some detail the story of Hurufi missionaries at the court of Muhammad II. There is, however, no suggestion that these are propagating their teachings as the ideas of Bektash. In fact the Bektashis themselves tend to attribute very little substance of doctrine to Haji Bektash, the Makaldt even being considered to be the work of Sadettin. Always the two sets of doctrines, though mixed, are recognized as of separate origin save in Ishak Efendi’s vitriolic attack. Personal contact with Bektashis and those who have known them intimately confirms the impression that while Bektashiism is saturated with Hurufi teachings, such teachings in their clear form are recognized as coming from Fazlullah, They are never attributed to the Patron Saint of the order; and Bektashis differ from each other in the degree of their attachment to Hurufi beliefs. It does appear, however, to be true that by the middle of the fifteenth century Hurufi missionaries had spread their teachings widely in Asia Minor with an amazingly favourable response, and that from that time onward Bektashis have been among the most enthusiastic believers in the teachings of Fazlullah. According to the oral tradition among Bektashis themselves, * Ali ul Ala was among those missionaries called ‘‘ certain accursed ones of no significance,” mentioned in the “ Sakatkt Numantye,” * a most important encyclopedia of biography written by Tas Although it may be objected that there is some confusion here and that the Nohktatiél Beyan at least is Hurufi in its character the point is arguable, and to Sulo Bey there appeared a clear distinction between the two doctrines. 1 This interpretation was given me by a learned Bektashi, Selman Cemalr Baba of Elbasan, in Oct., 1933. He said that Ali ul Ala was a Halife of Gil Baba, the famous Bektashi buried in Buda, see Moslem World, Jan., 1935, article entitled A Moslem Shrine in Buda. He also said that Gil Baba was in turn the Halife of Sart Saltsk, see above p.51. Murat II, he said, was a dervish of 41: ul Ala. *See Turkish translation by Mecdi Efendi, page 82 in article on Mevlana Fahveddin Acemi. For an account of this author and his books see Diction- naire Encyclopédique de Bibliographie Arabe, col. 122rf. Che THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES K6prit Zade in the sixteenth century. According to the Sakatk these ‘‘ accursed ones’ whose names were not worthy of being meritioned so insinuated themselves into the graces of the royal monarch, Muhammad II, son of Murat IJ, that the ruler became himself an initiated follower definitely attached to the Hurufi sect and its teachings. The learned wlema’s naturally became genuinely alarmed. In the immediate entourage of the Sultan was a certain Mahmut Pasa who, fearing to interfere himself, reported the situation to Mevilana Fahveddin, and consulted with him as to what could be done to save the Sultan. By agreement Fahreddin Efendi was concealed in the palace so that he might in secret hear for himself the doctrines being taught. Enraged at their heresies he reviled them with curses. Although they fled into the presence of the Sultan for protection, the learned judge so accused them of blasphemous heresy that the ruler was silenced in their defence. Fahreddin Efendi then took them before the mosque in Adrianople, called the Mosque of the Three Galleries, publicly condemned their teachings and proclaimed them worthy of death. In his own eagerness, while blowing on the fire which was being prepared to burn the here- tics, his beard caught fire. The fire did its work of complete destruction of the heretics in question and we hear no more of such teachings gaining again the favour of the monarch himself. Possibly because of the secrecy which has apparently from the first characterized the practices of the Bektashis, the Hurufi doctrines could be perpetuated in the Bektashi lodges as nowhere else. The question of whether or not Balim Sultan was a Hurufi is not capable, with our present evidence, of positive proof either way. The poem attributed to him in Sadettin Nuizhet’s Bektasn Satirlert, page 419, clearly has Hurufi ideas in it, but there is no evidence establishing Balim’s authorship. The absence else- where of poems even attributed to Balim counts against the authenticity of this one. 3. $ah Ismail of Persia In the year 1502 there was crowned at Tabriz a new Shah, Ismail, the founder of the Safevs Dynasty, a man destined to exercise a great influence over the Bektashi and Kizilbash elements of the Turkish population for generations to come. He was a descendant in the sixth generation from Seyh Safiyuddin of Erdebil in Azerbayjan. It was from this ancestor that the 62 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER dynastic name came, and from him also originated both a mystic devotion and a dervish organization which played their deter- mining parts not only in the establishing of the Safewr Dynasty on the throne of Persia, but also in bringing anxiety and danger to at least two Ottoman rulers. A descendant of Sajiyuddin, (Safiyuddin himself according to D’Herbelot and Sir W. Jones, Seyh Sadreddin, his son, according to Malcolm,! and Hoca Ak, his grandson, according to E. G. Browne,” the last seeming more probable since the dates of his leadership were from 1392— 1427, the period of Timurlane’s invasion, of Asia Minor,) was visited by Timur out of respect and reverence for his piety, and was asked what favour could be conferred on him. “ Release the prisoners you brought from Turkey,’”’ was the reply. This being immediately done, the grateful tribes vowed devotion to the saint, and the same spirit of loyalty was passed on to their descendants and became later both the strength of Shah Ismail and the weakness of Sultan Selim. According to Browne, it was this same Hoca Ali* who first of his dynasty showed a strong tendency toward an extraordinary devotion to the Imam Alt. The grandson of Hoca Ali, Seyh Cuneyd, and his son, sevyh Haydar, the father of Ismail, were the first to assert their claims with the sword. They carried on an active propaganda in Asia Minor as well as in Persia. Cumeyd was driven out of Persia for a time by the ruler of the Kava Kwyun (Black Sheep) dynasty, Jihanshah, and he took refuge at the court of Uzun Hasan, (1453-1478) of the Ak Kuyun dynasty whose capital was at Diarbekir in eastern Asia Minor and North Mesopotamia. There he married the sister of Uzun Hasan, Hadije Begum. He appears first, however, to have travelled somewhat exten- sively in Asia Minor visiting Konia, Karaman, Aleppo, Sivas and Amasya, making contact with the Turkmen tribes and boldly in the face of danger proclaiming his devotion to the 1Malcolm’s History of Persia 1829 Edition, 1, 321, n.f. mentions the accounts of Jones and D’Herbelot. * Persian Literature in Modern Times, page 19. * In order to keep straight the influences which prepared the way for Ismail and made possible his widespread influence in Asia Minor, it will perhaps help to insert here the following list of Ismail’s ancestors and the dates of their exercise of power as heads of their mystic order: (compiled from Browne’s Pers. Lit. in Modern Times, pages 43-49.) seyh Safiyuddin, 1300-1334 Seyh Ibrahim, 1427-1447 Seyh Sadreddin, 1334-1392 Seyh Cuneyd, 1447-1456 loca Ali, 1392-1427 gevh Haydar, 1456-1488 Sah Ismail born 1487, crowned 1500 or 1502, died 1524. ‘Von Hammer’s Histoive de L’'Empire Ottoman, 1844 Ed., I, 388. 63 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES family of the Prophet as alone entitled to the imamate.* In this way the attachment felt for his family by Turkish tribes was strengthened and his doctrines were scattered broadcast. His son, Seyh Haydar, succeeded to the favour of Uzun Hasan and was given his daughter, Alemshah Bana,? as wife. Thus for two generations, following on the strategic intervention of Hoca Ali, personal efforts were expended by this family of militant spiritual leaders in or on the immediate edge of the territory of the Ottoman rulers. In the days of Seyh Safiyuddin it is said that as many as 13,000 visitors came in three months along one road from Asia Minor to visit the Saint. Under Seyh Haydar it is said that his followers were asked to remove the Tiirkmen cap they had worn and to put on a high conical turban in twelve folds with a red Kaftan wrapped around, and it is apparently from this that the term Kizilbash,* or Red Head, originates as a name for the Alevi village peoples of Asia Minor. Few characters in history are more interesting than Ismail the Safew. Travellers in the sixteenth century praised his beauty of appearance and the nobility of his manner. Caterino Zeno speaking of him when he was thirteen years old, described him as ‘‘of noble presence and a truly royal bearing, as in his eyes there was something, I know not what, so great and command- ing, which plainly showed that he would one day become a great ruler. Nor did the virtues of his mind disaccord with +See Baha Sait’s article on Behtasiley in Ttirk Yurdu, vol. 5, no. 28, pages 07, 308, ae Von Hammer I., 1844 Paris Ed., page 389. * Browne's Persian Literature in Modern Times, p. 44. ‘Tt is perhaps in place at this point to insert a brief statement of the rela- tions between the Kizilbash and the Bektashis. The latter term is used properly of those actually initiated into the ritual of the order of that name, the initia- tion usually, if not always taking place in a Tekke or Dergah, a lodge building usually near but somewhat apart from a town or city. The initiation is volun- tary for the individual and does not necessarily involve the whole family. The Kizilbash, on the other hand, are village groups, and it is apparently expected that all members of the village will become at the proper age, initiated members. The Bektashis look down upon the Kizilbash as related but inferior and some- what degenerate group of believers. In actual fact, however, the points of resemblance ate many. Their rituals bear points of striking resemblance. Their beliefs and traditions are similar, especially their faith in Ali and the Twelve Imams. They both, doubtless with some exceptions, read from the same books and sing the same hymns. The Kizilbash used to recognize the authority over them of the Bektashi Celebi who resided with the Bektashi Dede in the Piy Evi or House of the Patron Saint in Haji Bektash Village. Even in the case of the Tahtajis who denied any such allegiance there was still a veneration for the name of Haji Bektash, who was their Patron Saint. A common origin and a moulding through history by common traditions appear to unite them; while separating them are chiefly the differing mentality of town and village and the stricter organization, dating perhaps from Balm Sultan, of the Bektashi tekkes proper. (See above, p. 57 and below, p. 211 ff.) 64 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER the beauty of his person as he had an elevated genius, and such a lofty idea of things as seemed incredible at such a tender age. . . . He had vigour of mind, quickness of perception, and a personal valour ... never yet equalled by any of his contemporaries.” . . . “‘ This Sophi,’’ another Venetian traveller, Angiolello says, ‘‘ is fair, handsome, and very pleasing. He is almost worshipped, more especially by his soldiers, many of whom fight without armour, being willing to die for their master.”’} In spite of all this excellence, however, Ismail was a ruler characterized by almost incredible cruelty. As soon as he was crowned he not only commanded that throughout his realm the phrase, ““I bear witness that Ali is the Friend of God,” should be introduced into the profession of faith and that the first three Caliphs, Ebubekir, Omer, and Osman, should be publicly cursed in the streets and markets, but he also threatened to decapitate any who conscientiously objected.2 To avenge the murder of a “Sufi of pure disposition and right belief” he conquered the stronghold of Usta and massacred the prisoners. In dismissing with honour ambassadors sent by Beyazit ITI of Turkey, he first required them to witness several executions including that of a learned man whose offence was that he was a Sunni, or orthodox follower of Islam.* The extent of his savagery is shown by his treatment of the body of Shaybani, a Uzbek enemy of fanatical Sunni faith, whom he defeated and killed in 1510. ‘‘ When his body was found under a heap of slain, Shah Ismail ordered the limbs to be cut off and distributed to the different parts of the kingdom, and the head to be stuffed with straw and sent as a grim gift to the Ottoman Sultan,. Beyazt II, at Constantinople. The bones of the skull he caused to be mounted in gold and made into a drinking cup for his use, and one hand he sent to Aga Rustam Ruz-afzun, the ruler of Mazandaran, by a special messenger, who cast the hand on to ‘ Rustam’s skirt as he sat in the midst of his courtiers at Sari, crying ‘ Thou didst say, ‘“‘ My hand on Shaybak Khan’s skirt ”’ ; lo! his hand is now on thy skirt.’ ’’4 It is this mysterious personality with the strange mixture Both of these quotations are taken from Browne’s Pers. Lit. in Mod. Times, pages 60, 61, which in turn is quoting from Narrative of Italian Travels in Persia Hakluyt Society, London, 1873). * Browne’s Persian Literature, p. 54. * Tbid., p. 57. “Tbid., page 65. 65 E THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES of good and evil, the power to attract by thousands loyal followers who were eager to die for him, and the cruelty toward his foes and those not of his faith that could drive him to be utterly merciless, who carried on the work of his ancestors in propagating in Asia Minor Shii doctrines, and who, under the pen-name Hatay:, wrote Turkish religious verse of a quantity and character to make him for over 400 years one of the most influential personages among both the Bektashis and Kizilbash. To understand his influence, however, we must continue the story of his political adventures. The last years of Beyazit II’s reign were darkened for him by a revolt of Shii villagers in the province of Tekke around Adalya. Their leader, son of a disciple of Ismail’s father, Seyh Haydar, called himself Sah Kulu, slave of the Sah, and announced himself as the representative of Ismail. + The Turks, in return, called him Seytan Kulu, slave of the devil. With his followers he defeated Kavagéz, the Beylerbey of Anatolia and he then proceeded to advance as far as Brusa. The Grand Vizir, Alt Pasa was forced to take the field and only after a bitter struggle and at the cost of his own life was able to defeat the rebels in a battle in which Sah Kulu also lost his life. When Selim I ascended the throne in the following year, 1512, he determined once and for all to rid himself of the internal danger from Shii subjects. By means of spies he prepared a list of all the Shiites in his empire from seven to seventy years of age. The number of such is said to have reached 40,000 all of whom were executed or sentenced to life imprisonment.? He then proceeded to prepare to march against Shah Ismail with whom in the year 1614 he exchanged correspondence of a nature hardly diplomatic. In one letter to the Han of the Uzbegs Selim speaks of Ismail as ‘‘ that vile, impure, sinful, slanderous, repre- hensible and bloodthirsty Sufi cub.”® In the campaign which resulted in a decisive victory for Selim on the field of Chaldiran in 1514 there are two events which, from the point of view of the Bektashi faith, are of particular significance. Before he started, he announced at a council of war his intention of gather- ing an army on the plain of Yenisehir and was greeted by absolute silence until finally a simple Janissary soldier expressed gratitude for the chance to be sent against Ismail.4 How far there is here any realization of the difficulty of sending against the Shi'ite * Von Hammer’s Histoive de L’Empire Ott 5 7 ‘Ibid., p. 414 pire Ottoman, 1844 Ed., I, 394-395. * Browne’s Pers, Lit. p. uoting f Feri : ; 4Von Hammer, I, ee. 734 § from Feridun Bey’s Munsaat, Salatin. 66 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER Ismail, Janissary soldiers who are themselves avowed followers of Haji Bektash, tinged at least with the doctrines of the enemy, is perhaps impossible to say with our inadequate information. The probability, however, seems to be that in the whole cam- paign of Selim against Ismail the secret tendency of the Bektashi influence toward the Shiite devotion to Ali and the Twelve Imams operated to make Selim’s task harder. It is asserted, but without mention of the source of his information, by Baha Sait Bey in his article in Tivk Yurdu,! that just before the Battle of Chaldiran, Sultan Selim held another council of war. He had completed a six months’ forced march. His men and his animals were tired out. Not one of his advisors thought it wise to attack without allowing some time for rest. But the Defterdar, Pivt Efendi, objected to the stand of the others. ‘‘ We must attack immediately,” he said. When Sultan Selim asked for his reasons he said, ‘‘ We will be giving opportunity for the working of the Kizilbash heresy in the Janissaries and in the soldiers from Rumeli. It is necessary not to allow time for them to think and to show the love that is in their hearts.” “‘ Behold a man worthy to be Vizir,” replied Selim as he ordered the attack. It is common knowledge that the restlessness of his Janissary soldiers compelled Selim to forego the full fruits of his victory and retreat before he had consolidated his gains. ? This restlessness appears due not only to the distance from ‘home, and the lack of booty, but also to their secret sympathy for the doctrines of the enemy. Prof. E. G. Browne in his Persian Literature in Modern Times sums up Ismail’s reign in a striking sentence.’ “In his reign 1Vol. 5, 1927, No. 28, p. 319. * In connection with this very brief attempt to reconstruct something of the history of Selim’s relations with Ismail it is perhaps worth while to point out that according to Bektashi tradition both Selim and Ismail were initiated members of the order. Selman Cemal Baba of Elbasan gave me the story as follows: Selim I was one of the dervishes of Balim Sultan. Selim even wore the mengus, the horseshoe shaped earring inaugurated by Balim as the sign of a celibate dervish. Pictures of Selim, he said, show this earring. At one time in their youth before either had come to power Selim and Ismail were sitting together, talking in the presence of Balim Sultan. It was suggested and agreed between them that on coming to power they would do away with the differences in Islam (presumably meaning that they would {make Bektashis or at least Shiis of all Moslems). Later, when they both came to power, Ismail ‘wrote to Selim and suggested that they now work together to carry out their pledge. Selim replied that his vizirs were Sunnis, and that he must therefore go slowly. Ismail in anger replied, calling him a liar and one untrue to his word. That is the reason, Selman Baba assured me, for Selim’s campaign against Ismail. Like Baha Sait, Selman Baba also pointed out that Sem won by the sword, but Ismail’s victory by the pen was the greater. * Page 81. 67 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES the sword was more active than the pen.” The sentence is impressive because it contrasts so absolutely with the situation as it appears from the Turkish point of view. Sultan Selim administered with his sword a crushing defeat to Shah Ismail. It is said that Ismail never smiled after this disastrous battle. + But, as Baha Sait Bey points out,? the real victor, nevertheless, was Ismail, for his pen was mightier than Selim’s sword. Selim, as we have seen, prepared for his campaign against Persia by a systematic attempt to destroy every believer in the Shii heresy. The power gf the spoken and written word, the power of a faith believed with enthusiasm, all the time was working against him. He himself was a poet who used for his verse the Persian tongue, the classic literary language of the Turkish court. But Ismail used the Turkish of the common people. His doctrines he expressed in a language which moved the heart. They spread his teachings as could no power of physical force. To-day there is preserved a Divan of Hatayt,® but far more important than that rare collection are the scattered nefes’es found in practically every collection of Bektashi or Kizilbash verse. In Sadetiin Nuzhet Bey’s Bektasi Sairleri,4 there are thirty-four pages devoted to Ismail’s religious verse under his pen-name Hatay1®, only one other poet having as much space given to him. In the three manuscript collections of Bektashi verse in the private collection of the writer there is at least five poems by Haiayt in each. Yusuf Ziya Bey in his travels among. the Alevi villages of Anatolia and the Tahtaji villages around Smyrma found Hatay:’s poems among the most popular,® par- ticularly the so-called Duvazdeh Imam poems proclaiming the glory of the Twelve Imams. Even if all the poems bearing his 1 Browne’s Pers. Lit., p. 77, quoting from Malcolm’s Hist. of Peers. *Tirk Yurdu, No. 28, p. 320. _ > Sadettin Nushet Bey in Bek. Sair. p. 135, reports copies in Képriilii’s private library and in the Ali Emiri Library, No. 167. ‘A collection of Bektashi verse from 180 different poets, published in 1930 for the Department of Education. * The reason for choosing this pen-name appears obscure, The Bektashi tradition, however, was reported to me by Sulo Bey Celo of Tirana, an en- thusiastic student of Bektashiism. In our conversation together he had been remarking that Bektashiism stands essentially for oneness, “ Birlik,” the enemy of all multiplicity ; oneness with God and all mankind. In response, I asked about Hatay1, the author of many poems that extolled “Oneness.” His answer was that Ismail had been a sinner, but after becoming a Bektashi changed. His name, Sulo Bey Said, shows that: Hata ettim, ‘I have erred.” As a matter of fact there is no evidence known to the writer that Hatayt was ever a Bektashi at all so far as initiation into the rites of the order are concerned. ‘ Ilah. Fak. Mec. and year 1928. In No, 8 on p. 117 is a long poem de- scribing the heavenly ascent of Ali, and in No. 19 p. 80, is a Duvazdeh Imam, both by Hatays, 68 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER name are not authentic, the very fact that imitators have used his name to gain favour for their own songs is a testimony to his influence. In Bektashi history he must be considered one of the most influential teachers and propagators of doctrine the order has ever had. 4. Revolé of the Kalenderoglu Early in the reign of Suleyman the Lawgiver, there took place a revolt of Bektashi dervishes in the province of Kara- mania.1 The reason for the revolt appears obscure. It occurred under the leadership of a certain Kalender who claimed to be a descendent of Haji Bektash.? Turkish historians indicate that he gathered around him in 1526-1527 twenty to thirty thousand ‘‘dervishes, abdals, kalenders and others.” Local authorities were powerless to handle the situation. A battle fought in the neighbourhood of Tokat resulted in the death of the Beylerbey of Karamania, the Beys of Alaja, Amasya and Birejik and the Defterdary’s of Karamania and Anatolia. It became necessary for the Grand Vizir, Ibvahim, to march against the insurgents in person at the head of an army of three thousand Janissaries and two thousand Spahis. Hasluck points out that the use of Janissaries against the Bektashis would seem to show no connection between the two at this time. It is, however, worth noting that Ibrahim did not dare proceed in direct open warfare. Two measures he deemed essential for success. First he forbade under penalty of death the entry into his camp of any man from the armies defeated by the rebels. The fear was expressed that terror would otherwise be spread by the accounts of the fugitives. It seems altogether probable that this unusual measure taken to prevent fear from seizing his soldiers was rather to keep his Janissary soldiers unaware of the nature of their foe, lest their sympathies rather than their fears should weaken them. A second measure taken by Ibrahim was to give assurance of his favour to the Tiirkmen tribes attached to Kalender Oflu, and to win them to his side by the distribution of fiefs among them. It was only after taking these two pre- cautions, which served both to blind his Janissaries to the situa- *’'Von Hammer, Histoive de L’Empire Ottoman, 1844, I, 489. * Pecgevi in his Tarvih I, 120, states that Kalender was descended from Haji Bektash through Habib Efendi the “ nefesoglu”’ or ‘‘ son of the breath ”’ of Kadinak by a drop of blood from Bektashi’s nose. The genealogy then is as follows: Habib Efendi, Resul Celebi, Balam Sultan, Iskender Kalender. * Christianity and Islam I, 163. 69 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES tion, and to reduce the foe to a relatively inconsiderable number of the obstinate, that Ibvahim felt in position to definitely attack. The remaining rebels were defeated near Elbistan and the heads of the leaders were borne back hanging from the saddles of the Vizir’s troops. The full story of this revolt, however, seems not to be finished with this defeat, for as late as 1607 the city of Brusa was burned by the Kalender Oglu. + 5. Bektashiism in Albania Since in our own day the Bektashi Order has found its most congenial home in Albania, let us turn for the moment our atten- tion to that land and consider the spread of the Bektashi doctrines there. Any satisfactory investigation is made difficult, if not impossible, by the absence of definite historical data. We know that the invasion of Albania by Turkish troops under Murat IT began at least as early as 1431 when Yannina was captured. Evliya Celebt, who reports that the famous Evrenos Gazt, with whose name we are already familiar in connection with the founding of the Janissaries, advanced as far as Lake Ochrida. 2 Since Evrenos is known to have died in 1417,# and is supposed to have been over roo years old at the time, it is probable that his advance campaign must have taken place in the reign of Beyazt I who was campaigning on the borders of Albania when attracted away by the invasion of Timurlane in 1402. With his soldiers, and even more probably with those of Murat IT, must have gone some of the Bektashi companions of the Janis- * Britannica XI, article Brusa. Some of the early European writers of this period mention the Kalenders but do not apparently know the Bektashis by that name. Spandoni or Spandugino who died before 1511 (Petite Traicte de L’Origine des Turcoz, par Theodore Spandonyn Cantacasin, Publie et Annoté par Charles Schefer, Paris 1896, says (p. 319ff) that there are four types of religion in Turkey, Dynamie, Seque, Calender, Torlaqui. Menavino, who lived in Turkey during the reigns of Beyazid II, Selim I and Suleyman I, speaks of four religious sects Geomailer, Calender, Deruisi and Torlachi, (Tirkische Historian, Von der Turchen, translated by Heinrich Miller from Italian to German, Frankfurt 1563. pp. xxxb-xxxiii). The description of the Dervuis, or Dervishes suggests that this group are the Bektashis. They wear a long white hat, beg alms in the name of the ‘mighty hero Ali,’ have in Anatolia a cloister named after Scidibatial-Seyid Gazi Battal (cf. Wulzinger’s Drei Bek- taschi-Kléstevs Phrygien, and Theodore Menzel, Das Bektasi-Kloster Sejjid-i- Ghazi in Mitteilungen des Ovientalischen Seminars XXVIII, 1925, Pp. 92-125), wear earrings from pierced ears, and have a ritual meal with dance and song following. Nicholas Nicholai, Der Schiffahrt Tato, avdicty & Tos Menavino, naming, p. LXVff, the four religious sects, (ie 1.-ers, C: ‘andars, Deruis and Torlaquis. Nicholay also speaks of their holy man Scidibattal, and he mentions a Herzim, perhaps the Nerzimi or Nercimi of Menavino, evidently a reference to the poet Nesimi. *Feliva Celebi, VITT, 732. *Kamus ul Aldm, IT, 1078, 70 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER saries who would not have failed to leave their influence both on those who settled there and on the local inhabitants who now found it wise to come into the Moslem faith. So far as the writer has been able to discover there is, however, no direct mention of Bektashis by Evitya Celebt, even in connection with his travels in the seventeenth century. That the doctrines of the Bektashis are clearly there, and probably the Bektashis themselves, is shown, nevertheless, by many a reference. In one place he met people who were doing all they could to spread abroad a hatred of the Umayyad Caliphs,, Muaviye, and Yeztt.4 They refused to wear blue because Muavive wore that colour. They would not drink boza* because Muaviye made and consumed the beverage. This attitude, common to all Shiis, is very characteristic of the Bektashis with their emphasis on Tebverrd,® or hatred of those who do not love the family of the Prophet. At Ergeri he met people who on occasions failed to observe the canonical prohibition against strong drink, and who observed in their religious practices New Year’s Day and the festival of Sart Salitk, the Bektashi saint.4 At Elbasan he found a tekke of dervishes who followed the Way of the Family of the Mantle, evbabt tartki als aba dervisan. This description may not be proof that the dervishes of this tekke were Bektashis, but it is at least just the title that might be used if they were. At Pug- rados, Evliya found what he called ‘‘ several tekkes of Abdal Dervishes, tekket dervisan abdalan,> again using the descriptive word ‘‘ Abdal’’ which is often used as synonymous with the word Bektashi. On my visit to Albania in October, 1933, although I had no time for a thorough search, it became apparent that in the city of Kruje, Bektashiism certainly went back to the early seventeen hundreds. In front of the Zaviye of Mtirteza Baba there was a tombstone bearing the Bektashi ‘ac on the top and dated r1r4r (x728). In the yard about the Zaviye of Haji Yahya Baba there were many tombstones bearing the Bektashi symbols. One of them, unfortunately with the top broken off, was dated 1130 (1717). 1 Fuliva VIII, 679. * Boza, according to Lane’s Avabian Nights II No. 51, is a kind of beer, made usually from Barley-bread. It is a drink used wid)" © ‘Pe ~™ >=" the Near East even from the time of Herodotus, and is very , , rkey to-day. * See above, p. 45, and below, p. 279. 4 Foliva, VIII, 680. * Foliya Celebi, VITI, 745. yes THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES The Bektashi tradition, as described by a certain unusually intelligent and well-informed dervish named Haydar Baba, is that Bektashi babas came to Albania with the army of Murat IT, and many of them settled there. A Bektashi named Kasim Baba tis believed to have come and settled in the time of Muham- mad IT (1451-1481). Beyazit II (1481-1512), whose conquests in Albania are so often mentioned by Evliya Celebi, is said to have endowed many tekkes, and Hayday Baba assured me that the vakfiye’s deeding these properties should be on file at the Top Kapu Saray or the Hazinet Evrak. Although the writer’s en- deavours to find such have been unavailing it is to be earnestly hoped that under the enlightened policy of the present Turkish government the public archives will be more and more thrown open for the use of scholars, foreign as well as Turkish, until many an obscure page of History will have received new light. The only event in the history of the Bektashi Order in Albania that seems quite certain is that Tepedelenli Ali Pasa, the Vizir of Epirus, who ruled Albania with a degree of complete independence from about 1790 to 1822, became himself a Bektashi and gave his Support to the spread of the order. Certain missionaries of the Bektashi Way like Shemimi* were especially influential in winning adherents and in opening tekkes. It was from Shemimi that Ali Pasha is supposed to have received the nasi or initiation, and the great tekke in the plain below Kruje is named Semimi Sultan Lekkesi after the one who built it in 1802 on the site of the tomb of one of the early traditional missionaries, Horasanl Ali Baba. In the anonymous Life of Ali Pasha, published in London in 1823, based largely on the diary of Theophilos Richards, there are two steel engravings of Ali Pasha, one showing him wearing the characteristic tac of the Bektashis, the other showing on his head a smaller cap but with the twelve sections symbolic in Bektashi lore and ritual of the twelve Imams. Although Ali Pasha apparently found it easy to be a “ pantheist with the Bektadgis ” and to drink “repeated bumpers to the health of the Blessed Virgin,” * with the Christians, these pictures set at rest * Zylio Baba of the Turan tekke near Korche also told me that Kasim Baba was one of the early Bektashi missionaries particularly in the district of Kastoria Turabi Baba in his Historija E. Pergjitheshme E Bektashinjvet, page 54, speaks of Kasim Baba who in 1378 came to Kosturit. In the same year Jemin Baba is said to have come to Vutrine of Naselich, Piri Baba to Djunia of Kayler and Hiisseyn Baba to Konitsa. * Not Sheikh Mimi as spelt in Hasluck’s Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans 548 ff. More than once Bektashi friends in Albania sought to correct me on this point. * The Life of Ali Pasha, page 60. 72 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER any doubt as to the fact of Ali Pasha’s having been a publicly recognized member of the Bektashi Order. 6. The Literary Activity of the Bektashts in the Second Period Since the significance of Bektashi writings lies in their con- tents rather than in their quantity or their outer effect, and since Bektashi doctrines and beliefs will be studied in a separate chapter, it is important only to note in this study of Bektashi history that in the Second Period as well as in the first the Bektashi Order produced a large number of poets*who attained to wide fame. They wrote in the language of the common people, using the syllable meter characteristic of Turkish literature rather than in forms copied from Persian literature as did the classic writers of the so-called Palace literature. Sadettin Niizhet Bey in his Bektas, Sairleri gives a brief biographical sketch and selections from the poems of each of seven writers in the sixteenth century, nine writers in the seventeenth century and four in the eighteenth century. At least two of the Bektashi poets of this period have had their verse collected and printed in book form. Pir Sultan Abdal was a poet of the seventeenth century and a monograph on him containing one hundred and five of his poems has been printed in a series of Texts and Researches Concerning the Musician-poets (Saz Sairleri) of the seventeenth century. * Karaca Oglan, a Janissary musician-poet, and therefore also a Bektashi, is the subject of a three-hundred-and-twelve-page book by Sadettin Niizhet Bey.* In the section on Doctrines and Beliefs an attempt will be made to analyze Bektashi Literature at least to the extent of seeking to understand the signs by which a Bek- tashi poem can be distinguished. The fact must be acknow- ledged here, however, that all that passes to-day by the name of Bektashi Literature is not the property of Bektashis alone. Bektashi Literature, so-called, rather is a mixture of Bektasz, Ahi, Abdal, Huruft, Kizlbas, Kalendert and Hayders doctrines, the distinguishing features being emphasis upon yearning for God ask; the trinity of God, Muhammad and Ali; the Family of the Mantle, Alzada; the divinity of Fazlullah; the hidden significance of letters ; the indistinguishableness of Haji Bektash Veli from Muhammad and Ali; the difficulties of the Way; and traditional anecdotes concerning those who have been trained among the Bektashis. ° 1 Tivk Sazsairlerine ait metinler ve tetkikler III, Istanbul, 1929. : Karaca Ofglan, Hayats ye Eserleri, Ikbal Kutuiphanesi, Istanbul, 1933. ’ Tih Edebiyatt Tarihi, Sadettin Nuzhet, Istanbul, 1931, page 248. 13 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES 7, The Jantssaries It remains in this effort to narrate some of the outstanding events in the history of the Bektashi Order to develop in some- what greater detail the relation of the military order of the Janis- saries to the mystic religious order of Bektashis. The early relationship between the Janissaries at the time of their beginning and some leader or leaders of the already widespread Bektashi dervishes has already been described on page 46 ff. Down through history Bektashi Babas accompanied the Janissary troops, acting in the capacity of chaplains. An official representa- tive, vekil, of Haji Bektash lived in the barracks of the ninety- fourth Orta.! The head of the Bektashi Order, on being appointed to his place, is saidto have come by custom to Istanbul where after a formal procession, his tac was placed on his head by the Aga or Commander-in-Chief of the Janissaries.2 Count Marsigli, who as a prisoner was with the Turkish army at the siege of Vienna in 1682, said that the Aga of the Janissaries used to rise up in the Divan at the mention of Haji Bektashi’s name. ? The Janissaries were sometimes called Sons of Haji Bektash, Hact Bektas Ogullar. Selim III, in appealing to the Janissaries to be loyal and brave, in the second year of his reign, 1789, addressed them as the Lads or Servants of Haji Bektash, Hac Bekias Kégeklert.4 In becoming enrolled as members of the Janissary corps a vow of faithfulness to the Way of Haji Bektash was extracted from each soldier. To show in further detail how not only the formal attachment to the Bektashi Way, but the theology and mysticism of Bektashiism, even the figures of speech used by Bektashi poets as well, entered into the forms and ceremonies of the Janissary Order it will perhaps be of in- terest to give here a translation of a discharge paper of a Janissary soldier. The paper is dated 1238 (1822) and is as follows’ : * Encycl. of Islam, article Janissaries ; Tarihi Ceudet XII, page 180. * Tarihi Cevdet XII, p. 180. * Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Oct., 1934, 631. 4 Tarihi Cevdet IV, 363. ’ Djevat’s Etat Militaire Ottoman, chapter VII, Art. IV. * The certificate from which I have made this translation I found in the home ‘of Cemal Efendi, a professional Caligrapher (hattat) and assistant Sexton (Kayyvum) at the Eytip Sultan mosque. At the bottom in small letters were statements, attesting that this copy both in wording and decoration was an exact copy of the original. The statements, one of them by the famous pointer Alt Riza Bey, were as follows: It conforms to the original. “Teacher of Painting, al. Riza. The original being in my possession I drew an exact copy of this document for Cemal, the Virtuous, Dr. 4. Sitheyl, 74 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER I Have Trusted in God. Company (Bulitk) 45. We are believers from of old. We have confessed the unity of Reality. We have offered our head on this Way. We have a prophet, Ahmedi Muhtar Cenap. Since the time of the Heroes (Evler)1 we have been the intoxicated ones. We are the moths in the divine fire. We are a company of wandering dervishes (sersert divaneler) in this world. We cannot be counted on the fingers; we cannot be finished by defeat. No one outside of us knows our state. The Twelve Imams, the Twelve Ways, we have affirmed them all, the Three, the Seven, the Forty, the Light of the Prophet, the Beneficence (Kerem) of Ali, our Pir, the head sultan, Haji Bektash Veli. In one thousand two hundred and thirty-eight, in conformity with the benevolent arrangement established by the Law-Giver, the Conqueror, Sultan Suleyman Han whose place is in Paradise and whose abode is Heaven, and by permission of the Aga of the Soup- Makers (Corbact) and with the knowledge of all the elders this Discharge Certificate (Suffa) has been given to Mahmut who has sought and desired it, and whose name is written in the Record-book of the Way. When required let it be shown. (Seal) (Seal of) I have trusted in God Mehmet Commander (Usta) Chief of the Barrack Hiiseyin. (Oda Bast) 12 38 45 It will be, perhaps, only after our study of Beliefs and Doctrines in a later chapter that we will be able to see how completely identified with the Bektashis this document shows the Janissaries to have been. The recognition, however, of Bektash’s authority as Patron Saint and the formal acceptance of various doctrines does not seem to have accomplished much in the way of spiritualizing the Janissary way of life. Although their numbers were never very great, 12,000 in the time of Suleyman (1520-1566), 27,000 during the reign of Murat III (1574-1595), increasing to 45,000 under Muhammad III (1595-1603); and to 47,000 under Ahmet I (1603-16172)—their power became quickly apparent and was 1A term used of the Mystic Saints. . * Barbier de Maynard in Nouveau Melange Ovientaux, page 62, No.1: Paris 1886. Count Marsigli reports that old Registers show 12,000 in the time of Suleyman. In his own time, reign of Muh. IV, 1680, they had increased to 54,000 J.R.C.A.S., Oct., 1934, 632. 75 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES used by them to terrorize Sultans and to make and unmake grand- vizirs. From the time of Selim I in 1512 they demanded gifts from each Sultan on his accession. When they upset their cauldrons it was a sign of revolt, and peace for the Sultan could only be purchased by granting their demands. They made trouble for Muhammad II on his second accession to the throne in 1451; they mutinied under Suleyman I, but were later won to his loyal support ; they revolted against Osman ITI and suc- ceeded in deposing him; their mutinies broke out several times during the reign of Murat IV until he finally restored them to complete discipline; Selim ITI’s attempt (1789-1807) to form a regular army so enraged them that they not only struggled against him but even succeeded in getting their Sovereign im- prisoned and finally assassinated. 2 Not only a terror for the Sultans, they were equally so for the civilian population. William Goodell, writing in 1853, said that when he first went to Turkey human life was of less value than a sea-gull or a porpoise. “Two Janissaries swaggering along in the streets of Constantinople, in these dark times, would see a Greek walking at a little distance before them, and would lay a wager that they could shoot him down, and one of them would immediately fire upon him, and whether the man was killed or only wounded, it mattered nothing to them ; they would walk on, as though nothing had happened ; and no notice would be taken of it by the police.” ® This state of affairs could hardly be expected to last for ever. In 1808 a determined monarch, Mahmut II, came to-the throne. Trained under his older cousin, Selim III, he realized both the need for reform and the danger of the Janissary Corps. A new body of regular soldiers he named Eskinct, reviving an old name once given to the Janissaries when on active service. The announcement of this corps led to a revolt of the Janissaries. Acting with the greatest decision, Mahmut brought out the stand- ard of the prophet, called on the people for support, then after a night of preparation, using the Mosque of Ahmet as the base of manoeuvres, he sent in the morning the gunners and marines of the navy in one column and the bombardiers and sappers in another against the revolting Janissaries in their quarters on the Ei Meydan. The great gate of the barracks was barricaded but » Creasy’s History of the Ottoman Turks, p. 128, 164, 243, 250, 481. *Encycl. of Islam, article Janissaries. *The Old and the New, William Goodell, M. W. Dodd, 1853, Pp. 43. 76 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER fell under cannon fire. Fire was set to the barracks and before night the great Janissary Corps had been wiped out.! This was on the fifteenth of June, 1826. The most accurate estimate seems to be that four thousand Janissaries were killed in the battle. Many thousands additional were executed in various cities of the Empire. The end of the corps was complete. Even the name was proscribed. * That the destruction of these military Sons of Haji Bektash should have a great effect on the tekkes of the Bektashi Order was inevitable. The leaders of other dervish orders, as well as the more orthodox ulema of the capital, proceeded immediately to bring in their reports of the heretical teachings of the Bek- tashis. On being faced with this evidence the Sultan ordered his representatives all over the country to search the Bektashi tekkes, and to suppress the order. In Constantinople the Bek- tashi tekkes in the following places were razed to the ground: Rumeli Hisar, Oktiz Limam, Kara Agac, Yedi Kule, Siitlice, Eytip, Uskiidar, Merdebanlt Kéy, (Merdivenkéy) and Camlica. All the books found in the tekkes were confiscated and the der- vishes were placed under arrest. It was reported that in the tekkes pages of the Kuran were found in unseemly places, used for covers of pitchers, and otherwise treated with disrespect. A great meeting was called not only of the learned orthodox ulema, but of the heads of other dervish orders as well. Repre- sentatives of the Mevlevi’s, Nakstbend1’s, Halvete’s, Sad1’s and and Kadirz’s are said to have been present. It was decided that the leaders among the Bektashis should be put to death, and others sent into exile. Those executed were Kayncs Baba, Istanbul Agast Zade Baba and Salih Baba.* According to Esat Efendi, the official chronicler of the time, the following Babas in Con- stantinople were exiled: Mahmut Baba of Sehithk tekke at Rumeli Hisar with seven of his dervishes to Kayseri, Ahmet Baba of Oktiz Liman and Huseyin Baba of Kazls Cesme to Hadim, Ibrahim Baba who was called the Vekz or representative of Haji Bektash, and Mustafa Baba of Bademli tekke in Siiliice together with several others to Bergt, Yusuf Baba to Gizel Hisar, and Mehmet Baba of the Tahir Baba tekke in Camlica, and Ahir Mehmet Baba of Merdivenkéy, and Mustafa Baba of the Murtivet Baba tekke in Uskiidar to Tire.4 1Encycl. of Islam, article Janissaries. 2 Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, page 505. 2 Tarihi Cevdet, XII, 182. 4 Ussii Zafer, Esat Efendi, pages 210-213. 77 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES These apparently saved their lives by giving answers when they were examined, indicating that they were orthodox followers of Sunni Islam. That is, they employed the device of zakiye, or dissimulation, which we shall see in the chapter on Beliefs is accepted as a legitimate form of defence. So despised for a time were all Bektashis that one man having a grudge against another could in no more effective way do him an injustice than by accus- ing him of Bektashi affiliations. Cevdet Pasa in his History gives. a list of men sent into exile who, he says, were innocent of the charge of being Bektashis. + For a time the Bektashi properties were turned over to Naksibendi dervishes, and from this time apparently dates the presence in the head tekke at Haji Bektash Village of a Naksi- bendt representative. With the annihilation of the thoroughly corrupt Janissary corps and the accompanying attempt to completely wipe out the Bektashi Order comes to an end what we have called the Second Period of Bektashi history. It has been a period in which new beliefs have been added from outside to the relatively simple teachings of Haji Bektash. Under Balim Sultan also, at the beginning of this period, rites and ceremonies appear to have taken on their fixed forms. Proceeding very carefully, with every effort to appear outwardly orthodox, the Bektashi Order spread and became powerful, only to meet in 1826 a disaster which appeared to have permanently wiped out the order. As the official chronicler of the time wrote, no one in Bektashi garb was any more to be seen.” How final the end really was we shall see in our story of the Third Period. C.—THE THIRD PERIOD OF BEKTASHI HISTORY 1. Growth of the Order from 1826 to 1925 At the end of the previous section we left the leaders of the Bektashi Order in exile or in hiding. The attempt to exterminate the Bektashis as well as the Janissaries was apparently as thorough-going as Mahmut IIT dared to make it. Bektashis to- day report that he vowed to execute seventy-thousand Bektashis, and that when he could not find that many to behead he ordered headpieces to be cut off Bektashi tombstones until the count should be complete! When later the Bektashi Order began 1 Tarihi Cevdet, XII, 183. *Ussi Zafer, 213; Tarhi Cevdet, XII, 183, 78 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER again to thrive, the memory of Mahmut IT was naturally some- thing at which Bektashis shuddered. It is said that it became their custom to spit and utter a curse whenever they passed the tomb of Mahmut on Divan Yolu in Istanbul. . How soon the Bektashis in hiding came out into the open and began the rebuilding of their tekkes and the gathering in of new dervishes is not clear. It is certain that by 1849, only twenty- three years after the attempt to destroy them, the order was again established in considerable strength. In the possession of the writer is a manuscript book containing a description of both doctrines and practices of the order and certified correct in the year 1266 (1849) by Seyit Mahmut of the Sehitltk tekke in Rumeli Hisar. In the following year, 1850, an Englishman named Charles MacFarlane, 1 published an account of his travels through Turkey in 1847. He lived during those travels on in- timate terms with one or two Bektashi leaders and became con- vinced that at that time the order was rapidly on the increase. Particularly in Brusa and throughout the Brusa plain he found them numerous. The religious indifferentism of the Turkish people, he felt sure, would tend to swell the ranks of the Bek- tashis. All the other travellers he met bore the same testimony, that Bektashis at that time not only existed but in so great numbers as to be a menace to the orthodox faith of Muham- madanism. In spite of all his efforts, however, he found it im- possible to get accurate information about the real nature of the order. Yakup Kadri Bey in his Explanatory Preface to the Second Edition of his highly critical study in novel form of the Bektashi Way, ? says that the element of secrecy, in recent years so characteristic of the order, had its beginning at the time of the extermination of the Janissary corps. Altogether too ex- tensive to be wiped out, fear for their lives drove them under cover. As the early Christians worshipped in secret in the catacombs, so the Bektashis after 1826 were enabled to main- tain their worship only by preserving the strictest secrecy. Since there is so much in the Bektashi faith that would shock the leaders of orthodox Sunni Islam it seems altogether probable, however, that in a land avowedly Sunni, secrecy had always been neces- sary. But the need was most certainly accentuated by the dangers of 1826. By the middle of the nineteenth century Bektashiism was 1 Turkey and Its Destiny, London, 1850 I, 496-507. *Nuy Baba, 2nd Edition, Istanbul, 1923, p. 7. 79 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES not only widespread, but finding influence in high places as well. According to Lucy Garnett, + Besmi Sultan, a legal wife of Sulian Abdul Mecit (1839-1861), attributed her elevation to that high and unusual position to the fact that she had once stood on a “‘ wishing stone’ in the grounds of the famous Bektashi tekke at Merdivenkéy near Istanbul. This stone standing near the grave of Azbi Caus, a famous saint in Bektashi lore, possessed the power, dervishes asserted, to grant the wish of anyone standing on it. Whether through the influence of this Besmi Sultan or of someone else, it is certain that by the year 1869 Bektashis felt assured that in the government there existed influences that were being exerted powerfully in their defence. The list of Bektashi books published in the nineteenth century is of great interest. The writer has been able to find no printed book expounding Bektashi ideas until about 1869 unless it is the Tahmis by Azht Baba, published in 1284 (1867). From 1284 (1867) on, however, there is a considerable series of out and out Bektashi books, books which would never have been allowed unless they were receiving protection from those in authority. In 1286 (1869) there ap- peared in printed form the Divan of Esref Oflu. Supposedly not himself a Bektashi, 2 Esvef Oglu was nevertheless one of the most popular poets among the Bektashis. In the same year the Divan of Nesimi was published. Nesimi also was not a Bektashi, but he was a Hurufi, and in the printing of his poems, doctrines current among the Bektashis found public expression. In 1288 (1871) appeared the Askname? of Firiste Oflu giving the Bektashi interpretation of the Hurufi great book, the Cavidan. In the same year the Makaldt of Cafer Sadtk,4 and the Makaldt of Haji Bektash, the latter under the name Vilayetname,.both were printed. Two years later the Sunni leaders of Constantinople replied with the violent attack on the Bektashis contained in Ishak Efendi's book, Kdsif ul Esvar.’ The same year Virani Baba’'s Risale, or treatise, appeared, another Hurufi book from the Bektashi point of view. In 1293 (1876) the Mivatiil Mekasit was printed, a careful defence of the Bektashis, essentially a reply to the Kdsif ul Esrar. Many Bektashis believe that this legalized publication of Bektashi ideas was made possible by the mother 1 Mysticism and Magic in Turkey, 73. *See Bektass Sairlen, 2 No. 2; Tahiy Bey’s Osmanlt Muelifleri, I, 17, * More correctly Iskname, but called almost invariably Askname in Turkey. ‘ Usually called in manuscript copies Makamdt: Evliya. ‘Translated in Jacob’s Betirage zur Kenntnis des “Derwisch-Ordens der Bektaschis, Berlin, 1908, 80 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER of Sultan Aziz who was said herself to be a Bektashi.1 The claim is made that both the Vilayetname and the Askname were published in 1288 under her secret protection, and that the Miratul Mekasit, which came out in 1293 in answer to the Kédsif ul Esyay, was printed at her expense. However this particular fact may be, it remains true that during the years 1869 to 1876 there was this unprecedented burst of open publicity. Following the accession to the throne of Abdul Hamit there appears to have been no more Bektashi publications until Rzfko Baba’s Bekiase Swvyt appeared in 1909 (1325) after the ‘overthrow of Hamiut. This was followed in rorzr (1327) by the publication of the Mudafaa, an answer to Bektas: Sivrr, containing a detailed argument with documents to prove that Haji Bektash was married and that the author, Celeb: Ahmed Cemaleddin, was a descendant. In the same year there was printed the Divan of Mehmet Alt Hilmi Dede Baba of the Merdivenkdy tekke. Although Bektashi publications appear to have been limited until the recent years of the Republic to the books mentioned, 2 there was, nevertheless, a very great literary activity during both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Sadettin Nuiizhet Bey lists sixty-one poets in this period in his Bekias: Satrleri, and in- dicates that at the time of publication of that book, 1930, there were at least six living Bektashi poets. Of these poets of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the most famous are probably Turabt who died in 1868, Edip Harabt, 1852-1915, and Hilmi Dede Baba, 1842-1907. Another poet of quite a different type is the philosopher, Riza Teuftk Bey, a man deeply learned in wes- tern as well as eastern philosophy, and at the same time beloved by Bektashis as the author of many a uefes or Bektashi hymn. 3 2. The Organization of the Order * To maintain the wide organization distributed through the 1 One Bektashi who had been both a Baba and a Halife told me his under- standing was that Abdul Aziz's mother was initiated by Emin Baba at the Edirne Kapist Dergéht. * Three other books of importance should also be mentioned, all printed without dates, but probably in the period from 1871-1875. One is the Risale of Kaygusuz Sultan; another the Husniye, a very interesting book purporting to be a theological debate before the court of Harun Resit between a slave girl trained under Cafer Sadik and orthodox religious leaders of the day; the third, the Divan of Turabi Baba. In 1878 (1295), a reply to the Hiisniye entitled Tezkiyvet Ehli Beyt ‘™ - “~~ of the People of the House,”’ written by Ishak Efendi, was sae mae wo other exceptions are Behtasilik ve Bek- tastler by Stiveyya , : *_ 0-32) and Bekias: Hikdyeleri in 1922 (1338). * Riza Teufik Bey is also the author of the Etude sur la Religion des Houroufis in Huart’s Textes Houroufis. 81 F THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Balkans as well as Asia Minor a definite plan appears to have been followed. The rival heads of the order were located in Haji Bektash Village near Kar Sehir. A Celebi, claiming descent from Haji Bektash himself, was recognized as the rightful head of the order by some Bektashis, and was especially the recognized leader of the Kizilbash tribes throughout the country. A repre- sentative of the Celebi was at regular periods sent to visit the Kizilbash villages, to give instruction and to receive contri- butions. On visiting the central tekke at Haji Bektash Village, Kizilbash villagers always called on the Celebi who is said to have required payment of a mectdiye (formerly 80 cents) in order to see him. The majority of Bektashis, holding to the belief that Haji Bektash had no descendants in the flesh, accepted as their head a Dede who also resided at Haji Bektash Village. He was surrounded by eight Babas who formed with him an Exec- utive Council. These Babas were called Kiler Evi Babast, “Baba of the Storeroom”; As Evi Babass, ‘‘ Baba of the Kitchen”; Ekmek Evi Babast, ‘“‘ Baba of the Bakery”; Mzh- man Evt Babass, “ Baba of the Guest House’”’; A# Evi Babasn, “Baba of the Stables”; Han Bags Babast, “‘ Baba of the Han Vineyards”; Dede Bagi Babast, ‘“‘ Baba of the Dede Vine- yards”’; and Balim Evi Babast, ‘‘ Baba of the Tomb of Balwm Sultan,” each Baba being responsible for one of the buildings on the premises or for one of the sets of vineyards round about. 2 It is said that at one time there were three hundred and sixty- two villages belonging to the tekke, the revenue running as high as 60,000 pounds sterling a year. This income was divided be- tween the two rival heads, the Dede and the Celebi. Each year just preceding the month of Muharrem representatives of the Executive Council went into every section of the Bektashi world, in order to gather from each tekke a financial report and a record of new dervishes. These reports, together with the money left over as surplus above expenses in each tekke, were brought back to the central tekke in Haji Bektash Village. Ihe money went into the general treasury from which funds were drawn for the needs of the tekkes where there had been * For a description of the tekke at Haji Bektash Village see Tiirkiyat Mec- muast, 2nd vol. pages 365-382. Hasluck’s Christianity and Islam contains a picture of the tekke as frontispiece in Vol. I and has a description of the tekke on pages 502-504. White’s article in The Contemporary Review Nov., 1913, gives an excellent account of a visit to the Tekke, He points ont that it is located on the probable site of a sacred shrine in the days of Hittite civilization. * Hasluck, p. 503. 82 THE HISTORY OF ‘THE ORDER deficits.1 It is the rather proud boast of Bektashis that tekkes were so located that not over six hours’ journey (about 15 miles) lay between any two. In this way they claim that it was possible _to travel all over the Empire and always stay for the night in Bektashi tekkes. In addition to the Executive Council of eight Babas and the Dede in Haji Bektash Village there were also appointed Halifes, or special representatives of the Dede, with authority to make Babas and to supervise definite areas under their control. 3. The Abolition of All Dervish Orders Having given in this brief form a sketch of some of the significant events in the history of the Bektashi Order it remains to give the reasons for the act of the Turkish Republic in 1925 abolishing all tekkes and the dervish organizations which sup- ported them. From the beginning, the dervish orders have taught veneration for their spiritual leaders. In the traditional story of Haji Bektash we have seen how miracles were attributed to him. In all of the dervish orders the same credulous faith in the power of the holy man to accomplish miracles of healing and miracles intended merely to bring amazement and wonder has been encouraged. In 1837, Mahmut II, the Sultan who had exterminated the Janissaries and had'attempted to do away with the Bektashi faith and practice, was one day attacked by a fanatical dervish as he was crossing the Galata Bridge. The dervish called him an unbeliever and said he was destroying Islam. The Sultan, fearing the effect of the dervish’s words on the crowds gathering around, commanded his officers to remove the madman. ‘“ Mad,” replied the dervish, ‘““I mad! It is thou and thy base counsellors who have lost your reason ! Crowd hither, O Musulmans! the Spirit of God which animates me, and which I am forced to obey, hath ordered me to speak the truth, and hath promised me the reward of the saints!” Of course the man was arrested and put to death, but friends claimed his body, and the next day the report was spread that a brilliant light had appeared throughout the night over the tomb of the martyr. Ubicini, whose famous Leféers on Turkey ap- peared in 1853, speaking of this incident said?: “ It is by means 1 This statement of their procedure was given me by a Bektashi Baba in Albania. * Letters on Turkey, M. A. Ubicini, translated by Lady Easthope, John Murray, 1886, I, p. 108. 83 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES of such pretended miracles, which are repeated every day, even under the eyes of the authorities, that the dervishes keep up the old superstitions in men’s minds, together with a belief in their supernatural power. An Osmanli, who holds a high post in the state, said to me one day, ‘Depend upon it our ministers are labouring in vain, and civilization will never pene- trate into Turkey so long as the tekiehs and the turbehs (tombs) remain standing.’’’ If that appeared true in 1850, it seemed many times more true in the early years of the Turkish Republic, for the Republic had definitely set its hand to the task of bringing Turkey into the front rank of modern, civilized nations. In 1925 the same belief in the supernatural powers of the holy men, whether living or dead, was being taught to the people by the dervish leaders. In addition there was the possibility of breeding in the secrecy of mystic orders such fanatical reaction as was shown by the man who faced Mahmut II on the Galata Bridge in 1837. For a time there was the hope on the part of some that the Bektashis would be exempted from any general prohibition of dervish orders. There were many who felt that the Bektashi © Order in its literary tradition, in its secret ritual, and in its more liberal attitude toward social and religious problems had preserved down through history such traces of the original Turkish culture as still persisted. The point was argued therefore that, far from abolishing the order, Bektashiism should be made the religion of the whole Turkish people. On the 2oth of November, 1925, however, Law No. 6771 was passed by the Grand National Assembly of the Republic of Turkey, closing all tekkes and zaviyes. It was forbidden for such functions to be performed as had formerly gone with such titles as seyh, baba, seyit, mitrsit, dede, celebt and halife. Such practices, which had formerly catered to the credulous, as fortune telling, magic, breathing, * giving news of the unseen world were also forbidden. All tombs of the Sultans and all tombs in con- 1 Resma Gazete, No, 243. Kanunlaramez, vol. 2, p. 1012. * Until the most recent times in Turkey it has been the custom for certain holy men to practise a process of ‘‘ breathing” or ‘‘ blowing.’”’ The patient who is being treated either for a physical, mental or nervous disorder is placed in front of the practitioner who goes into a kind of trance, at intervals blowing in the direction of the one being treated. The breath, thought of as the essence of one’s self, was believed to carry healing virtue to the patient. Many, even in high places, were convinced by this experience that cases for which doctors could do nothing could be cured by this “‘ wfiiritkgtiliik "717 tw tee for Nov. 19, 1934 reports an arrest of a man for - “breathing.” Cf. p. 53, No. 2. 84 THE HISTORY OF THE ORDER nection with tekkes were also declared closed. Penalties of not less than three months in prison and not less than fifty liras fine were specified for any who ventured to violate this law. A later law was passed requiring that all articles within the tekkes, candles, swords, wall pictures, begging bowls, musical instru- ments, etc., should be held for the use of the Ethnographical Museum.? To-day in Ankara many of the more interesting of the costumes and relics especially from the central tekke at Haji Bektash Village are to be found in the Ethnographical Museum. By the same law all books were to be tusned over to the library authorities to be preserved for the use of future historians and students. 4. Bektashiism To-day Within the borders of Turkey itself the energetic measures of the government have ensured the complete cessation of any visible sign of activity on the part of dervishes of all sorts. Many Bektashis, as has been already point out, claim? that they are content with the situation as it is, feeling that government action has now ensured for all the social life which formerly was to be found only in the secret ritual of the Bektashi Order. Ziya Bey, writing in Yeu Gin in 1931, ends his series of studies about the Bektashi Way with the statement that the Bektashi ritual with the presence of men and women mingling on a social equality was really a continuation of the old Turkish national rites, made possible, through the period when orthodox Sunni religious leaders controlled affairs, only by secret gatherings in tekkes built apart from other habitations. Now under the Republic this freer social life is made possible for all. ‘‘ What difference,”’ says Ziya Bey, “‘is there between the Aynicem of the Bektashis and the family gatherings which constitute society in all the world, and which are accepted as the right and necessity for every civilized man? ’’§ Suppressed in Turkey the order is still strong in Albania. Recognized by the government as one of the accepted religions of the country, numbering some 150,000 or 200,000 souls, the Bektashi Order is continuing its activities in conformity to a printed set of regulations approved by the government.4 The 1 Resmi Gazete, No. 248. *See above, page 20. 3 Yeni Gin, 8 Mart, 1931. ‘ Rregullore e Bektashijvet Shqiptare, Tirane, 1930. 85 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES whole country is divided into six dioceses, Prishte, Kruja, EI- basan, Korcha, Frasheri and Gjinokaster. Government is through Local Councils and a mixed Council of twelve members elected by secret ballot, two from each diocese, one being a Father or Grandfather, the other an Initiated or Confirmed Member. Another assembly called the Holy Council of Grand- fathers is made up of the diocesan heads with the Arch-grand- father, whose seat is at Tirana, the capital of the country, acting as chairman. The Regulations provide for the possibility of a theological seminary for the training both of clergy and of candidates for confirmation. Many of the leaders in Albania to-day are Albanian Bektashis who had their training in Turkey under the old régime, and who have now returned to their fatherland in positions of influence. Not as numerous as the Sunni Moslems, the Bektashi com- munity nevertheless constitutes some fifteen to twenty per cent. of the total population of the country, and is recognized by all as one of the worthiest elements in the population. Outside of both Turkey and Albania Bektashi tekkes exist in scattered parts of the Near East, the most famous one being the beautiful Kaygusuz Tekke on the Mokattam at Cairo. 86 CHAPTER III DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS In any attempt to give as complete and accurate a picture as an outsider can reasonably expect to acquire of the Beliefs of the Bektashi Order, one confronts at the outset the difficulty of fitting the beliefs into a consistent system. No ecumenical council has ever been held of the Bektashi world in order to sift out truth from error and to arrange a statement of belief authoritative over all. Rather has there been through time a gradual accretion, new beliefs added to old, until as one to-day approaches a study of Bektashi beliefs through their own literature one finds a con- fused mass of beliefs which had their origins in diverse times and places. No attempt has been made to bring them together into a unified system. Not only is there a vast body of beliefs of many kinds, but also Bektashis themselves do not agree with one another either in regard to order of importance, or even in common confession of identical beliefs.1 The range of belief is wide, varying from the crudest superstition on the part of ignorant Bektashis up to a virtual solipsism? or belief that no one exists but oneself, and even to a definitely materialistic atheism. The belief about immortality varies from a conviction that the soul on death passes into the body of an animal whose characteristics resemble the quality of one’s life to a complete disbelief in any- thing at allafter death. Nevertheless, there is a certain consistency in literary expression. Conventional forms have arisen around conceptions so commonly held that the thought of all takes those forms whether definitely believed by the individual or not. This is true, for example, of the so-called devriye, or poem des- cribing the cycle of creation.? The belief that God has appeared in many manifestations has simply taken among Bektashis this classic form. 2 This fact is illustrated by a statement made to me by Prof. Hiiseyin Pektas who says that he has seen Bektashis anathematize each other over their beliefs, one Beitashi differing in belief from another as much as any Sunni from a Shii. 2 According to the Turkish philosopher, Riza Tevfik Bey, himself an initiated ae this is really the philosophical position reached in the Risalei Kaygusuz Sultan. *See below, page 120 ff. 87 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES In dividing the beliefs of the Order as we have attempted to do here it should be kept in mind that the division is not a natural one. There is undoubtedly overlapping from one category to another. The Characteristic Pecularities are not to be found in Bektashiism alone. The points of view described, nevertheless, have such a characteristic emphasis and expression that they serve often as aids in identifying the Bektashi source of a poem or a story. In the section entitled Beliefs Held in Common With Other Orders there are described many doctrines that have their Bektashi peculiarities ; and in discussing Doctrines Peculiar to the Bektashis there is no intention of claiming exclusive proprietorship over those beliefs by the Bektashis alone. The classification is only roughly descriptive of the actual facts. It is intended to serve chiefly as a convenience in arrangement. A.—-CERTAIN CHARACTERISTIC PECULIARITIES xr. Wi Before taking up in detail the beliefs commonly held among Bektashis it will perhaps be of value to point out that Bek- tashi writers have in common rather characteristic attitudes toward life and toward their own system of practice and belief. Toward life their attitude is one of witty criticism of the fixed beliefs of the orthodox teachers. It is an attitude in which an atmosphere of Epicurean enjoyment of the world as it is, is mingled with a good-humoured contempt for the intellectual and moral inconsistencies of those who teach the Sunni or orthodox Muham- madan faith, We have already mentioned the prayer of Yunus Emre when he compares God to a grocer attempting to weigh out our deeds of merit.1 The poem seems an irreverent protest against God and His injustice in first making us as we are, then condemning us if we do wrong. In reality the poem is an ab- solutely characteristic Bektashi criticism of the Sunni con- ception of the judgment. Among the first to use this form of expression was Kayeusuz Sultan, who lived in the fourteenth century and belonged to the so-called Abdal Tarik. Whether or 1 See above, p. 55. : *In the Risalat al Ghufran of Abu-l-’Ala al Ma'arri J-R.A.S. 1900 pp. 684- 686 there is a somewhat similar parody on Muhammadan ideas concerning the after life. Among the Persian poets also the same element of mockery of the pious is common. But this use of mockery among the Bektashis is different. It is not a secret mocking; it is open, at least among themselves, and is the basis of much good humoured bantering. Its prominence among the Bektashis has made it a distinguishing characteristic of their literature. 88 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS not he was an actual Bektashi is not certain, but in any case he has been taken up by Bektashis as one of them and both his Risale and his nefes’es are among the most popular pieces of Bektashi literature. He has even been called the Patron Saint (Pir) of Bektashi poets.1. In one of the nefes’es he expresses himself as follows: High above the high ones, I have seen, Thou art the skilful Creator,? Great God. The world reads with words, Thou readest the syllable, God. > Yuicelerden yiice girdiim Erbapsin sen Koca Tanrt Alem okur kelam tle Sen okursun hece Tanri. Thou hast created rebellious slaves, Saying, Let it ever be thus; Thou hast placed them there. Thou hast gone out to the border, God. Asi kullar yavatmassen Varsin ,séyle dursun deyu Anlart koymus orada Sen gikmissin uca Tanrt. Thou hast created a bridge of hair Saying, let the slaves come and pass over. Rather, let us stand here. If thou art a hero, pass thou over, O God. Kildan képri vavatimssin Gelsin kullar gecsin deyu Hele biz séyle duralim Yigit tsen gee a Tanrt. Those who are heroes are known As so and so, the son of so and so. Thou hast no mother and no father Thou resemblest a bastard child, God. Yigit olanlar antler Filan oglu filan diye Ne anan var, ne baban var Benzersin sen pice Tamnrt. 1 Halk Siivlerinin Sekil ve Nevi. Ahmet Talat, 1928, p. 158. * Erbab, literally meaning ‘‘ proprietors, owners.” It is used in common speech to describe a skilful workman. 89 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES I am Kaygusuz; from the door of the Friend From the three hundred thousand cups in a day. Lift up the curtain from between, Let us look within, God. Kaygusuzum deri yardan Gtinde tic yiiz bin curadan Kaldw perdeyn avadan Bakalim ice Tanrt. Paraphrased the,poem would seem to say: I have given plenty of consideration to the God of the Sunnis; He is like an owner of property or a workman who accounts for every detail. He made men so that they are by nature rebellious ; then he has gone off and left them. He, so the Sunnis say, has made a bridge no wider than a hair and in the judgment all men are to pass over it, those incompetent because of sin and ignorance to fall off into hell. Such a God ought himself, like a man, to try to walk across. But this God so like a man is yet different from men, for he has no father or mother. He has no legitimate cause. I, Kaygusuz, turning from that God, the external manlike God of the Sunnis, look to the God I know within my own life. Recog- nizing reality there I long for the veil of seeming separation to be lifted so that I may experience directly the real. It is significant that although the first three stanzas of this poem are among the best known of Bektashi poems,‘ the last two are to be found only in manuscript copies in private col- lections, It is obvious that they are too extreme in their apparent irreverence to bear publication in a country where Sunni con- ceptions outwardly prevail. To any but the initiated they would seem blasphemous. Passing over the centuries from Kaygusuz Sultan we find in Edip Havabi, a modern poet whom many now living remember seeing around Bebek in the early years of this century, the same spirit of light-hearted criticism of the Sunni ideas, coupled with quiet confidence in a better way of thinking?: O devout one, thee to Paradise brings not The fasting, worship, and ablution which thou takest. Come, trouble not thyself without reason ; Throw away the coat, the rosary and prayer rug. ‘See Halk Stirlerinin Sekil ve Nevi, 158; Bektast Sairvleri 199, and Divan Antolojist KIT ve XIV Asi, 30. * Bektas. Satvleri, 100, go DOCTRINES AND BELIEES Ey zahit gottirmez sent cennete Aldigin aptesle bu savmu salat Gel bihude vere girme zahmete Cibbeyt, tesbiht, seccadeyt at. Forsaking the water of Zemzem drink wine ; To drink wine in the real sense is very meritorious ; Attach thyself to a perfect guide (lit. Patron Saint of fire worshippers) ? Let him give you the inward water of life, Zemzemt terkeyle nuseyle sarap Haktkatte sarap igmek pek sevap Bi pirimugana eyle intisap Ihsan etsin sana t¢ abthayat. Let go Paradise, the houri,? the gilman, ? ’ With faithfulness attach thy heart to God. Go not to the mosque, go to the house of idols. Having found union with God, with God rise, lie down. Cenneti, huriyt, gilmant terket Sitk ile génlini Allaha berket Camtlere gitme puthaneye git Allaha vasil ol Allahla kalk yat. What you sow upon marble grows not ; The road of asceticism and hypocrisy leads not to Reality. Among us it isn’t worth five para ; Sell thy preaching wares to another. Mermerin tistiine ne eksen bitmez Luhad riya tle yol Hakka gitmez Bizim indimizde bes para etmez Metat vdzint baskasina sat. In the case of both of these poems the significance for the Bektashi is lost unless one sees the good-humoured spirit of banter with which the poem is spoken or sung. It is for the initiated a matter of amusement to use language which is out- ‘ wardly shocking, language to stir the wrath of the orthodox, but which has its definite spiritual meaning for one who knows. Wine is forbidden by the orthodox; for the Bektashi it has ritual- 1See Pirimugan in glossary of Technical Terms. * The fair maidens of Paradise. *The beautiful youths of Paradise. gr THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES istic and mystical meaning.1 One of the most oft-quoted pas- sages of the Kuran is the twenty-first verse of Sura seventy-six, “And drink of a pure beverage shall their Lord give them.” For the orthodox few things can be more shocking than to be told to forsake the mosque and turn to a house of idols. To the Bektashi the idol is rather a term that shows his faith in the presence of God everywhere, a symbol expressing his pantheism. What the Jew and the Scotsman are to the humour of the Anglo-Saxon world the Bektashi in a somewhat lesser way is to the humour of Turkey; and, as in the case of the Scotsman, no one delights more in the telling of Bektashi stories than the Bektashi himself. Not only circulating by word of mouth, manuscript copies of these stories are to be found, and in 1921 (1337) a collection of them was printed under the name Bektasha Stories.® In those stories, as witty as those of Nasreddin Hoja, the customs and beliefs of the Bektashis are reflected. With complete good humour the faults and human frailties of the Bek- tashis are recognized; but each time in wit the Bektashi is superior to his companion; and if his comrade in travel or con- versation is a hoja of the orthodox school, the point of the story is likely to turn on the hypocrisy of this straight-laced individual. In one story ® there is an account of a trip at sea in which a terrible storm arises frightening the passengers who in great anxiety say their prayers, repent from their sins and pray God for deliverance. The Bektashi, however, sits in his corner calmly smoking his pipe, showing no sense of fear or worry. When the storm subsides and the ship lands, one of the passengers who has marvelled at the calmness of the Bektashi asks him, “ When we were all in such terror, you continued smoking your pipe as if nothing was happening. Were you not afraid?’ ‘‘ Why should I be, my child,” answered the Bektashi. “ Didn’t you see that there was nothing but a board between us and death?” “ Yes, I saw that,” replied the Bektashi, “‘ but on land there isn’t even that much.” In another anecdote* a hoja and a Bektashi are travelling together, the hoja on a horse, the Bektashi on a donkey. The season being summer they stop for the night in a meadow. _ 1 Prof, Hiiseyin Pekias assures me that actual wine was not used even ritualistically by all Bektashis. He knows of places where a non-intoxicating sherbet was used. * Bektagst Hikdyeleri, Nagsiri, Suleyman ve Hakki, 1337. 3 [bid., p. 7. *Tbid., p. 7. g2 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Taking from their saddle bags their food they eat supper, then talk together for a time, but before going to bed the hoja offers this prayer: “ O Lord, I entrust my horse to thee. Do thou keepit.”” The Bektashialso prays, “‘ My Seyh, do thou also watch my donkey.” The hoja is amazed and exclaims, “ Entrust it to God. You are sinning.” But the dervish pays no attention tohim. They lie down to sleep, and on waking the next morning, they find that the horse is gone while the donkey is still there eatingawayatthegrass. The hoja exclaims, ‘‘ What sort of a thing is this? The horse which I entrusted to God is gone. But the Bektashi’s donkey is still here.’’ And to that the Bektashi replies, “There is no occasion for surprise in this. You are not the only slave of God. He has simply given your horse to another one of his slaves. Whereas I am the only dervish of my Seyh. Naturally, therefore, he watched over my donkey until morning.” And the story ends by saying that even the hoja laughed at this explanation. 2. Mvystertousness Along with this tendency to find fun and pleasure in a ridicule of the orthodox religion of Islam, and closely associated with it, is a second quality quite characteristic of the Bektashi point of view. Toward his own system of belief and practice he delights in maintaining an attitude of complete mysteriousness. Since the very words “ Bektashi Secret ’’ have entered into the common language of the people he spares no pains to so clothe his expression as to add to the sense of this secret teaching. Delighting in poetry, he especially loves to sing hymns expressing his religious faith. Nefes’es® as these hymns are called are especially popular if they are so worded as to have no meaning at all for the un- initiated. One nefes, for example,? which begins by saying, 1 Or bond-servant. 2 Literally the word mnefes means ‘‘ breath.’’ In the Bektashi use of the word it means a poem breathing the atmosphere of Bektashi doctrines and ractice. * This “ nefes,’’ one of the most popular of all, was written by Aszk Hasan called among Bektashis Karpuzu Btytik Hasan Baba, ‘‘ Hasan Baba whose water-melons are large,’’ from the tradition that his water-melons were each large enough to weigh about 40 pounds. The wefes quoted from is found in Bektasi Saivleri, pp. 17, 18, and is printed with the musical notes to which it is sung, in Istanbul Konservatuvart Nesriyatt, Bektagy Nefeslers I, 157. In both of these versions there is a mistake in the second line. Bahge bizim gill bizdediy should be Bahge biziz giil bizdediy, not the ‘‘ garden is ours,” but ‘ we are the garden.” In the actual singing of this wefes, as Bektashis sing it in the dance following the aynicem there is a refrain sung rapidly on high notes at the end of each stanza. The refrain is :— 93 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES “We are the garden, the rose is in us,” ends by saying, “The Letter Elif is the straight way to God If you seek the (letter) cim, the (letter) dal is in us.” - The first line quoted is a clear reference both to their pantheistic doctrine and also to their confidence in the idea that both truth and the fruits thereof are to be found in them. The last two lines may be easily explained, but it is still possible that the deepest meaning will elude any but the really initiated. To friendly inquirers Bektashis explain the letter ‘‘ elzf’”’ because of its shape, straight, pointing upward, as a symbol of the reaching upward of the soul toward God. The cim and dal are variously explained. Czm is said to mean cemal ullah, the beauty of God, and dal to mean dalmak, “to plunge,” that is to plunge into the ocean of God’s being and of his love. Cim is also said to mean cevap or “‘answer,” and dal, delalet or delil, ‘‘ guidance or the guide.” He who seeks, in other words, an answer to his questions about God and life will find a true guide in us. It is not im- possible that to the Bektashi the verses mean all this and more. They may have Hurufi meanings to the Bektashi who believes in Hurufiism. The el¢fmay stand for the haiti istiva or line dividing the two sides of the head. In the printed Risale of Virani Baba on page 74 there is the statement that the letter elif is God, for it is a substitute for the twenty-eight letters. The numerical values of cvm and dal combined equal seven which is the number of lines of the face, all, as we shall see later, having meaning, to the devotee of the doctrine that in the face of man the image of Godis to be found. Another nefes1 illustrating the same principle is one which reads : That which made man man is three letters and five points. That which made the world the world is three letters and five points. The son of Ethem, while he was ruler left his throne and crown. That which made Ethem Ethem is three letters and five points. Ashi Alim, Alim hu, Sahim Alim, hu Kergek evenler demine hu. ‘“ The love of my Ali, my Ali. He my prince, my Ali He. Hu (literally ‘ he’) to the reign (literally time or period) of those who have truly attained (to the mystic knowledge of God.).” No small part of the charm of this nefes lies in the stirring music of the refrain. * Found with musical notes accompanying in Istanbul Konservatuvart Nesriyats Bektag. Nefesler: Il, 224. 94 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS O Turabi that which made in one breath the ten thousand worlds, That which made the world the world is three letters and five points. Ademi Adem eden tig harfile bes noktadir. Alemi Alem eden tig harfile bes noktadr. Ibm Ethem Padisahken tahti tacin terkedip Ethemi Ethem eden wg harfile bes noktadsr. Ey Turabi yek nefeste on sekiz bin Alémi Alemi Alem eden tig harfile bes noktadar. Here the reference is clearly to ask ‘‘ love’’ which in Arabic letters is written with the three letters ayen, sin, and kaf which require five points. Perhaps under the influence of the Hurufi tendency to put everything in terms of numbers, but also because of the Bektashi’s innate love of adding a touch of mysteriousness, that which is for the Bektashi as well as for the other mystics of Islam the creative principle of the universe, the cause for God’s projecting out from Himself that in which He can be manifested, is thus described in enigmatic terms. Often, of céurse, there is a reason for cloaking their thought in a form not to be under- stood. The principle of self-protection makes it necessary. In addition to that, however, there is a love of mysteriousness for its own sake, a satisfaction and pride in having a secret which the outsider cannot understand. B.—-BELIEFS HELD IN COMMON WITH OTHER TURKISH DERVISH ORDERS An attempt to classify Bektashi beliefs on any basis is difficult, as has been suggested. The attempt to select out those elements of faith that are peculiar to the Bektashis and those that are held in common with other orders is also difficult and is made so by the fact that there is no clear dividing line. The writings of authorities in one order are often appreciated and much loved in another order. A dervish is often a member of more than one order. Nearly all of the Bektashi ideas can perhaps be found in the writings of one or another of the dervishes of other orders. In this section, therefore, there is no attempt to select out all the ideas held in common by Turkish dervishes. We will attempt only to describe three doctrines which are among the 95 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES more notable of those beliefs in which the Bektashis find them- selves on common ground with the followers of other ways. Our study will seek not to give a comprehensive picture of the beliefs as the great Moslem mystics have described them. That would be possibly to obscure rather than clarify our understanding of the Bektashi mentality. We will seek rather (even with respect to these doctrines quite evidently held by all Moslem mystics as well as the Turkish mystics) to describe them only from the Bektashi point of view. 1. The Doctrine of the Mirsit The muirsit is the one who gives right guidance, zrsat eden. In the ultimate sense he is the patron saint of the order, Haji Bektash, but practically that leadership is exercised by the Baba of the tekke where the novitiate is to take his initiation. In the chapter on Rites and Ceremonies we shall see the part taken by the Baba acting as miirgit in the initiation service. To the Bektashi, the mysteries of the order are such that no one can begin to understand them until he has learned of them, slowly or quickly according to his spiritual abilities, from a living interpreter acting as his mirsit. The Nokiattil Beyan* states the doctrine in most definite form. There is no book which can adequately teach Bektashiism. There is no creed which can be understood without the miyrsi#’s help. There is no form which can be gone. through apart from his leadership, and apart from his inter- pretation of its meaning. Truths have to be imparted bit by bit. Revealing new truth before the novitiate is prepared to receive it is to the Bektashi a sin. Therefore to become a Bektashi the first step is to find a miirsii.? “He who says ‘I am a seeker after Muhammet Ali’ Must first—it is essential—find his miirgszt.”’ Muhammet Aliye talibim deyen Evel farzdw miursidini bulmal for ‘There are many mysteries, mysteries within mysteries.” Nice stwlar vardi strlardan ich. A man must be born twice, Vivant Baba in his Risale asserts. He must be born from his mother, and he must be born from his 1In the Ali Emiri Ef. Library in “Istanbul there is a MS. copy. * Bekiast Sairleri, 25. 96 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS miurstt.+ That which is born of the mother is flesh. It isa mere copy of something real. One is only born into the world of reality through the influence of the m#irsit. That which is born of the mother is the “light of darkness,” zulmat nuru. That which is born from the spiritual leaders is the “ Light of Right Guidance,” nuru hidayet,* ‘““He who has attained to the Spiritual Leaders has become that light.” Her kim erdt pivlere ol nurdur.§ ~ “He who has not attained to the miirsit cannot know God.” Miursidt ermiyen Hakkt bilmez. 4 “Tf you have a miirsit you may become a human being. If you have no miirsi¢ you will remain an animal.” Mirsidin var ise olursun insan Miirsidin yok ise kahiyrsin hayvan.® for “The breath, or self, of the miirsit is the breath, or self of Reality.” Miursidiin nefest Hak nefesidur.® Since the miirsit is so absolutely essential, taking the place of God for the neophyte, it is natural that complete obedience be rendered to him. One surrenders oneself to him and finds in him and in his will the truth one seeks. The following quotations are characteristic of the point of view in this respect: “Give thy soul in surrender to the méirsit.”’ Canimt miirside edegdr teslim.” In the printed Risale p. 19 the word Piy is used. Frequently meaning “Patron Saint,” the word here clearly is used as synonymous with mtirsit in the sense of spiritual leader. The same doctrine of a second birth is found on p. 30 in the writer’s MS. copy of the Uyun ul Hidaye, where Jesus is definitely quoted as saying that ‘‘except a man is born twice he cannot ascend to the Kingdom of Heaven.’’ The reference there as here is to birth from the mother and from the mursit. * As is frequently true of such cases, the printed Risale is defective, some- times unintelligible, because of mistakes and omissions. The above passages supplementing the printed Risale are taken from my MS. copy, p. 24. * Printed Risale, p. 19. 1 Bektast Sairleri, 343 Sirvt. ’ Bektast Saivleri, 373 Teslim Sultan Abdal, 6 Thid., 149 Hatayt. 7 Ibid., 34, Bosnavt. 97 G THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES “ Surrender thine own self to the mdirsit.”’ Miirsidiine teshim eyle dztini.+ “ Recognize thy miirsit as Reality itself, do not depart from his way.” Mirsidim hak bil grkma yolundan.* What the miirsit teaches to his disciples is perhaps known only to those who receive the teaching. We may assume that in the singing of nefes’es allusions are gradually explained until more and more the neophyte finds his way into an understanding of both the symbols and practices of the order. Those beliefs especially which seem most out of accord with the teachings of the orthodox law will doubtless be taught with the greatest care, so that the inquirer will not be too shocked. He might turn away at the start if he knew all he was to learn, for the form of it would repel him, since he does not yet understand and appreciate its deeper meaning. In a nefes by Balls Baba there are these lines: “A building make upon four walls, A greeting give to the friend of the four doors. What is the basis of the three stinnet’s, the seven farz ?3 One must very secretly attain to these mysteries,” “Find thy mirsit then, solve thy difficulty From thy miirsit the solution is to be found, The muirsit will cause thee to meet that city 4.” Bir bina yap dort duvarin iustine Bir seldm ver dort kapunun dostuna Ug stinnetin, yedt farzin asli ne ? Gizh, gizli, bu sorlara ermelt, Miirsidint bul da miiskiiliin ara Gene miirvsidinden bulunur care Kavusturur mitrsit sent ob Sara.® In the section immediately following there will be an ex- planation of the “four doors.’ Here perhaps it will be well to explain the “three simnet’s’’ and the “seven farz’es,”’ for they throw light both on the doctrine of the miéirsit and on what the miirsit teaches his disciple. Since references to these duties 1 Tbid., 147, Hatays. *Tbid., 70, Dervis Ruhullah, * A duty in Islamic law is sidnnet if it must be done in imitation of the Pro- phet’s example. It is farz when it is absolutely commanded. * “ The city of existence,’ vucut sehvi, which in turn is perhaps really a pun on the two meanings of vucut for ‘‘ existence” and for ‘‘ body.’’ We shall see later that the totality of “ existence”’ is reflected in the “‘ body.” 5 Bektast Sairleri, 25, Balle Baba. 98 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS are not common in Bektashi literature itis perhaps safe to assume that some, not all, mzivstt’s would give the teaching in this form. In a MS. book called the Siv Name, ‘‘ The Mystery Book,” contained in a volume of similar material bearing the date 1266 (1849) and attested by El Vekil Seyit Mahmut Baba of the Sehitlik Tekke in Rumeli Hisar, there is the following explanation : “ Our lord Imam Cafer Sadik of the pure sect commands thus: In the Way of Salvation, taviki nacvye,+ there are three duties that are siéimnet and seven that are farz. It is necessary for every disciple, miivit, and every lover, astk, and every faith- ful one, and every gnostic, avif, to know them.? The first siinnez is this: never to lose out of heart and mind the thought of the Divine Reality, Yezdant Hak, and always to recollect Him. The second stimnet is this: to do away with any feeling of hatred there may be toward a brother. The third stimmet is for the miurit or seeker, to surrender himself and be agreeable to every experience of mystical state, kahvina ve her halina tesm ve yazr ola.” “The seven farz’es are these: First, the person who is a muyis and a seeker must recognize all existing things as God, or Reality, and must not reveal to anyone the secret of those who have attained. Just as he guards his faith from Satan, so he must also guard from the outsider the secret of the Way of Salvation, tariki naciye. Second, he must be a shield bearer, siperdar, that is, he must be a keeper of secrets; he must not see what he sees and what he does not see he must not tell; he must not by any means divulge it. Third, he must meditate on Divine Reality, Yezdani hak, for every evil thing comes into being as a result of forgetting the Divine Reality. The slave, bende, who does not forget the Divine Reality has become one of those who have attained. Such a person has become a Sultan. Fourth, by degrees to come to really live, ogrun divitk etmek. He must be sure to recognize as the Real the truth which his mivsit, teacher, gives him, miirsit murebbi hakint hak bilmis ola, and he must do his will. At the very beginning, having found the miirsit, teacher, he will show and reveal to him the unveiled face of God, hicapsiz cemal ullah.’ “ The fifth farz is: He must bring to the assembly the right of his companion in initiation, (ie., what is due to the mtivsit whom An expression used by the Bektashis in description of their own order. Bektashis claim they are of the sect, mezhep, of Cafey Sadik. It will be seen, as we go on that again and again they refer their authority back to him. 2 Since the word miivit is a technical word, the counter-part of the word miirsit, it will hereafter be used without translation. The word asvk, literally meaning ‘‘lover’’ will hereafter also be used without translation. Technically it means an interested friend, not yet an initiated member of the Bektashi order. The word arif ‘‘ one who knows,’’ will be translated gnostic, meaning “one who has a mystic knowledge of God.” 99 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES he has accompanied thus far). Without regret he must bring it to the meydan, ‘place’ of those who have attained. He must not come (to) the miirsit with his empty hand. This is the aptes ‘ablution,’ of the inquirer.” Besinct fare budur kt musahip hakint ceme gitiive bidirig erenler meydanina gottire mitvsit bos elile gelmive talibin aptesti oldur. “The sixth farz is this: taking the hand of the mirsit halife, who is acting in the place of the Patron Saint, he must, in the meydan of those who have attained, by the hand of God, make confession and repent. Seventh, making himself attain to the mdirsit master, ustat, he must give yp what he knows and be humbled before the people of the way.” In this statement of obligatory duties the miirsit is described in three capacities, as teacher and trainer, mzvebbi ; as successor and representative of the Patron Saint, halife; and as master in the sense of a master in the art of spiritual living, a master. whose example and precept are to be followed, ustat. Although formal treatises on mysticism in Islam may not have treated the position of the miirsit as a doctrine+ the reason appears to be that he is so fundamental he is taken for granted. In Bektashiism, as apparently in other Turkish orders at least, he plays a part quite different from anything we know of in our western life. By means of him truth is, theoretically at least, made a living thing. It can be passed on only by the living individual to others, and then only in proportion to the capacity of the disciple to understand. If the living miirsit is of this much importance, 1t may well be asked how an outsider, and especially a non-Moslem, can under- stand the order, its beliefs and the meanings of its practices without himself having a miirsi¢ to teach him. In answer, the friendly student of Bektashiism can only reply in terms of frank recognition of the difficulties. His hope of approximating some understanding is based on two things. In the first place he has faith that the mystical experience of all men has something in common. One to whom God has a measure of reality in one system of belief can hope to understand the experience of those of another system who have also had an experience of the Divine Reality. Even when rationalized in entirely different terms there is something common to the experience everywhere. And in the second place, diligent study and inquiry through a period of years can perhaps make a multitude of contacts roughly approxi- * In Arabic works he is more often called Seyh (Shaikh). The A warif-ul-Ma’arif of Shaikh Muhammad-i-Sahrwardi as translated by H. W. Clarke, 1891, gives an excellent study of the mutual duties of Seyh and Miuirit, 14-23. nsere) DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS mate what might be received from a single miirsit. There will always remain a humble realization of probable error in a complete understanding at many points. If that is coupled with earnest desire to correct every misconception and to find new light, it will perhaps serve for building an ever-increasing appreciation of what doctrines, symbols and formal practices mean to those of another system. There is perhaps no better way to under- stand another system than to study its poetry, for in verse all of the personality—its feelings and its beliefs, its aspirations as well—finds expression. The student of Bektashiism has the great advantage of having at his hand an almost unlimited amount of Bektashi verse. Both the words and the tunes to which the words are sung are available. The discerning student will find in this treasury of poetry more than anywhere else both the ideas and the attitudes which miirsit’s in the past have imparted to their disciples. The attempt we have made to understand the Bektashi con- ception of the miirsit’s function makes clear to us another diffi- culty, namely the fact that Bektashiism means to Bektashis different things. According to their capacity to understand, the truths are given. The apprehension of truth in the individual Bektashi will, therefore, depend both on his own ability to see spiritual truth and on the quality of life and thinking of the one who has been his miirstt.} 1 The Bektashi attitude toward the miirsit will perhaps be still further clari- fied if we go back to the teachings of Ahmet Yesevr, the great mystic of Turkistan who lived about 1200, and who exercised a strong influence over the mystics of Turkey, over the Nakshibendis and Bektashis especially. He taught as fundamental principles of his Way the following duties: (I/k Mutesavvvflar, LO, £11). in The mirit must completely surrender himself to his seyh. (Shaikh). No one can be considered above him. and. The mtvit must be intelligent so that he will be able to under- stand the symbols and signs of his seyh. 3rd. He must accept and obey all the words and approve all the acts of his seyh. 4th. He must be quick and clever in the service of his seyh. 5th. He must be faithful in word and steadfast in keeping his vow lest when the mood of his sey change he be repelled. He must never fall into doubt or uncertainty (as to his seyh.) 6th. He must be loyal and firm in his covenant of allegiance. 7th. The mtivit must be prepared to give up all his possessions to his eyh. 8th. He must keep the secrets of his sey and guard himself from divulging them. oth. He must show respect for the seyh’s counsel and advice and never be neglectful (in following the same). 1oth. In his pursuit of his sevh’s way he must be ready to sacrifice his life and his head. He must be the friend of his seyh’s friend, and the enemy of his enemy. In order to satisfy any need of his seyh he must be ready to sell himself as a slave. ror THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES 12, The Doctrine of the Four Gateways As an ideal fundamental in the religious symbolism? of the order, as a part of the ritual, ? and as a matter of practical belief the most important conception after that of the m#irs:t is the doctrine of the Four Gateways, dért kapt—1) the seriat (sheriat) or “ orthodox, Sunni religious law,’’ (2) the zavzkat or “ teachings and practice of the secret religious order,”’ (3) the martfet or “‘mys- tic knowledge of God,”’ (4) the hakikat or “ immediate experience of the essence of reality.”’ A mystic teacher of Islam, one who sought as my miirsit to teach me, explained to me the meanings of these four terms by taking the idea of “ sugar ”’ as an example. One can go to the dictionary to find out what sugar is and how it is used. That is the serfat Gateway to knowledge. One feels the inadequacy of that when one is introduced directly to the practical seeing and handling of sugar. That represents the davikat Gateway to knowledge. To actually taste sugar and to have it enter into oneself is to go one step deeper into an appreciation of its nature, and that is what is meant by marzfet. If one could go still further and become one with sugar so that he could say, “I am sugar,” that and that alone would be to know what sugar is, and that is what is involved in the hakikat Gate- way. According to Bektashi teaching these four gateways to religious knowledge and experience were first revealed to Adam by the Angel Gabriel. Muhammad also taught about them saying: “The law, sertat, is my words. The way, tarikat, is my actions. Knowledge, marifet, is my chief of all things. Truth or reality, haktkat, is my spiritual state.”* In the printed Vilayetname’ which as we have seen contains the same general material as the rhymed Makaldi dated 1409 (812), and which, therefore, repre- sents as authoritatively as anything we have, the actual teachings of Haji Bektash himself, we find that God is said to have created four groups of human beings: adziler, ‘‘ worshippers,’ who are the people of the seriat law; zahitler, “ ascetics’’ who are the people of the fartkat ; arifler, “ gnostics,” the people of the marifet * See below, Illustration No. 6., p. 232. * See below, page 189. * Ahitname, p. 99 in my collection of MS. material which I have called Bektashi Texts, 1266 (1849). * Fevatiname, Faide I. Also given in Rose 104, Brown g1, in connection with the Kadiris. * There are two editions of the printed Vilayetname, one dated 1288 (1871) and the other undated. The account as given in this book is considerably expanded over that in the rhymed 812 Makaldi, L102 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS or ‘‘ mystic knowledge’; and muhipler, “ lovers,’’ who are those of the hakikat. God is represented as having laid down forty obligations, makam,+ which are the conditions of knowing him as Friend. Ten have to do with the seriat?: H Faith, «man (Kur 2:282 “O ye who believe.”’) Learning the science of religion, lim dgrenmek. (Kur. 3:73 “Be ye perfect in things pertaining to God.’’) Formal duties of worship, fasting, alms and pilgrimage (Kur. 2:40, etc.). Lawful business, but without usury. (Kur. 2:276). Marriage (Kur. 4:24 “and if ye desire to exchange one wife for another.’’) To know the forbidden relationships in the sex life (Kur. 4:27 ‘‘ Forbidden to you are your mothers.) 7. Practice of example of Muhammad and (his) community stinnet ve cemaat (Kur. 48:23 ‘“‘ God’s method carried into effect of old; no change can’st thou find in God’s mode of dealing.’’) 8. Compassion, sefkat (Kur. 2:25 ‘“‘ Who after its establish- ment violate the covenant of God,” and the saying of the prophet of God, ‘‘ Compassion along with faith.’’) To be clean in food and clothes (Kur. 2:54 Eat of the good things which we have given you for sustenance ; 74:4. Thy raiment, purify it.) to, The approved commandment, and prohibition of that which is disapproved. s St eae ee Ten obligations also are connected with the tartkat® : i. Taking the hand of the Pry, to make repentance (Kur. 3:98 And hold ye fast by the cord of God ; 66:8 O believers! turn to God with the turning of true penitence.) 2. To become a mitinit, or “disciple studying under a miirsit,”? 3. To cut the hair and to turn the clothes, sag gidermek ve libas déndtirmek (Kur. 48:27 Having your heads shaved and your hair cut, ye shall not fear ; and the tradition from Muhammet, ‘‘ The man along with the clothes.” 4. To be burned in the struggle (Kur. 2:22 (fire) whose fuel is men and stones). 5. Service. 6. Fear. | 7. Hope (Kur. 39:54 Despair not of God’s mercy). 1 Makam usually in mystic literature means “‘station’’ or ‘degree of development.” Here the meaning is clearly ‘‘duty’’ or ‘‘ obligation accom- panying each successive stage.” 2 Printed Vilayetname, undated edition, 12. ‘ Printed Vilayetname pp. 13-15. 103 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES 8. The mantle, jivka ; the basket, zembil; the prayer rug,} segeade; warning, right guidance. (Kur. 65:3 God truly will attain his purpose, For everything hath God assigned a purpose). 9. To be at a stage in the spiritual life and to have love, sabi makam ve sahibi cemiyet ve sahibt muhabet olmaktiy, (Kur. 2:160, They love them with the love of God. But stronger in the faithful is the love of God. ro. Love, - ; joy, sevku safa; and poverty fakirlik (Kur. 12:102 Cause thou me to die a Muslim and join me with the just; and also in the tradition, hadisi serif : Poverty is my glory, and I will be proud of it until the day of judgment.) Similarly in the case of the marifet gateway there are ten obligations? : Discipline, edep. Fear, kovku Fasting or self-control, perhizkdrlik Patience, sabi. To be ashamed, ztanmak. Generosity, cémertltk. Poverty, mtskinlth. Science, zim. Knowledge, marifet. ro. To know oneself, kendi éztinit bilmek. © DY AWULRWD H The hakikat gateway also has ten obligations? : i. To become dust, tuvap olmak. 2. Not to find fault with the seventy-two religious com- munities, yelmis ikt millett ayrplamamak. 3. Not to prevent anything, against its destiny, elden gelen her seyt ala kadrihu men eimemek. 4. To be safe from the created world, diimya icinde yara- tilmis andan emin olmak. 5. To bow before the ultimate ruler, (i.e., God) to seek his glory, milk tsina yiiz siiviip yilzit swyun bulmak, for in him is unity. 6. To speak of the mysteries (only) in the fellowship of mystics, hakikat sohbetinde esvar séylemek. * The reason for the mention of these articles is obscure. The objects possessing ritualistic value given at the command of God by Gabriel to Muham- mad, passed on by him to Ali, finally reaching Ahmet Yesevr and miraculously transferred to Haji Bektash were the Elifi Tac; the juvka or mantle; the candle civag; the table, sofya; the banner, alem: and prayer rug, seggade. MS. Vilayetname (Menaktp) 1. 16a, 27b. * Printed Vilayetname 15, 16. * Thid. 16. 104 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS 7, Spiritual progress in God. Seyr fillah. 8. Spiritual progress, and continued existence in God. Seyr ve baka billah. g. Supplication, Munacat. ro. Contemplation, or vision, mtisahede,i.e., to attain to God, most high, Tanvi tealaya ulasmak. It has been a favourite occupation of Bektashi Babas to teach the meaning of these Four Gateways by means of taking the individual letters of each word and finding a word of spiritual significance beginning with that letter. “Thus Selman Cemals Baba, of Elbasan, Albania, in his Tarikatname, a manuscript copy of which he kindly sent me, finds meanings for the four words, Seriat, tartkat, marifet and hakikat as follows : Seriat: Sin Re Ye Ayin Te Tartkat: T2 Marifei: Mim Haktkat: Ha means ‘‘ To be free from evil, sey.”’ means ‘‘ Having recourse by trust to the pleasure of God, vizat haka tevessiil.”’ means “‘ Calling on God asin Ya, Allah, O God.” means “‘ To act with science or knowledge, ¢lim.”’ means “‘ Freeing oneself from what is prohibited, tenziht nevah.”’ means “‘ Seeking of Reality and truth, taledi hak ve hakikat.”’ means “ Ascetic discipline, riyazat.” means “‘ To be true in every respect toward a brother of the way, yol ve din kardesi.”’ . means ‘“‘contentment, kanaat.”’ means “‘ Complete submission, feslimiyett tam.” means “ Mystic knowledge of God, marifetullah,”’ means ‘‘ To possess the Great First Intelligence akli kul.” means ‘‘ Putting a stop to things which are not lawful, reva olmayan nesnede tltizamt tevekuf.”’ means “Annihilation of self-consciousness in God, fena fillah.”’ means “ Repentance, tdvbe.”’ means “‘ To distinguish between what is allowed and what is forbidden, halal ve havam.’’ means “‘ To return to the original power, kud- vett kadime rticu.”’ means ‘‘ God does what He wills; He rules as He desires, yafal Allah ma yasa ve yahkum ma yurid.”’ means “ Existing by means of God, katm billah.”’ “Absolute humility, tuwvadiyet, (lit. being dust).”’ 105 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES In the poetry of Bektashiism there are frequent references to the Four Gateways. Haéays says, “It is necessary to pass through the Four Gateways,” gecmek gerek dort kapudan.+ Kul Himmet writes, * My Piv made a city He made its gateway four. Pirim bir sehiy yapte Kapusun dort eyleds. In this brief quotatien there is the corrective suggestion made that we should think of these not as four gateways through any one of which one may enter, but as four gateways, one in front of the other, each having to be entered in turn. Virani Baba quotes Cafer Sadtk in saying that the Seriat is like the Black Sea, the Tartkat like the Mediterranean and the Marifet like the limitless ocean. ® Often the first two are mentioned alone, for it is in the differ- ence between those two that the greatest distinction lies. Thus Kul Hiiseyin says : The seria is in the tongue, the tarikai in the soul. 4 Seriat dildedir tartkat canda. and Mahzunt Muharrem Baba identifies Muhammad with the first and Ali with the second’: Muhammet, Ali; seriat, tarikat. One of the most common quotations from Muhammad current among Bektashis is that frequently found over the door- way entering into the lodge-room or meydan : “Iam the City of knowledge and Ali is its Gateway.” Ene medinetul ilim, ve Ali babuhu. This is understood to mean that Muhammad taught the external facts about what Moslems should believe and what they should do, but it is only through Ali that one can enter into an under- standing of their deeper meaning. Thus the Kuran has four meanings: the external text, ibare, is for the common people, avam ; its subtleties, letaif, are for the gnostics, arifin ; its 1 Bektast Sairleri, 167, No. 1. 2 Thid. 212. * Printed Risale, 12. * BS., 235. ’ Bektasgt Sairleni, 249. r06 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS secrets are for the saints, evlzya; its inner truth or real essence (haktkat) is for the prophets, peygamberler. As an illustration, one can take the law of fasting which was revealed by Muham- mad. The external or seviaf meaning is to abstain from food in certain seasons. The inner or éarvtkat meaning is not stealing, not seeing or hearing evil, not doing harm to others. ! It is natural then in the light of this point of view which regards the serzat law as teaching external practices and beliefs intended in their literal meanings only for the uninitiated that all mystics should from the nature of the case become lax in their observation of the law. With Bektashis this is more true than with the other zartkat’s. The general opinion is that they entirely neglect the religious performances required by the serzat. They do, nevertheless, keep up a certain appearance of respect for the law. Several evenings as I sat in the guest-room of Salih Niyazit Dede, the head of the Bektashi Order in Albania, I saw a dervish step on to the veranda outside our window and give the evening call to prayer. When, in surprise, I asked the reason for this I was told: “‘ That is the seviat part.” The poet already referred to, ‘Whose water melons were large,’”’ As1k Hasan, is said to have gone every other year on the pilgrimage to Mecca and to have been faithful in his xamaz or formal worship, because he wanted to show that Bektashis do not always neglect the Serzat.? There is a famous poem by Yunus Emre which illustrates the attitude of dervishes in general, and Bektashis no less than others, toward both the importance of a miirsit and the significance of the Four Gateways. Like the odes of Muhyiddint Arabi? the lines have no meaning without a commentary. The trans- lation is therefore given of some of the verses, accompanied by the interpretation offered by Nivazt Mzsv1, a poet and mystic of the Halvett Order, but much loved by the Bektashis.* I climbed up into the branches of a plum tree. It was grapes I ate there. 1T am indebted to my honoured friend Selman Cemal. Baba of Elbasan, Albania, for the foregoing interpretation. In the new tekke which Cemal: Baba is building (Oct., 1933), there is a certain large square pillar on each of the four sides of which is a doorway, symbolizing the Four Gateways. The sym- bolism will be true to the doctrine only if one encircles the pillar returning through the four doors to the Reality from which one came. * Bektast Sairleri, 17. * See translation by Nicholson, Tarjuman Al-Ashwaq, Or. Trans. Fund, XX. ‘In the lithographed edition of Yunus Emre’s poems dated 1340 (1922), p. 162, the commentary being found on the margin beginning on p. 132. 107 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES The owner of the garden objected saying, Why do you eat my walnut ? Cikitm ertk dalina anda yedim uztimu Bostan 181 kakit der ne yersin kazumu Interpretation : The seeker after truth finds the sertat like a plum, attractive without but with a hard inedible stone, so he tries the tarikat which is like a grape, good all through and withmany uses, but nevertheless with stones in its centre. So he is led by his méirvsit to hakikat which is like the walnut with a hard for- bidding exterior but full of rich meat within. I put unbaked brick into the boiler. I boiled it with the north wind. To him who asked saying, What is this? I dipped and gave the grape. Kerpig koydum kazana poyraz tle kaynatium Ne bu deytihb sorana bendim verdim tiztimit Interpretation ; The man who seeks the fruit of the vine, which symbolizes the ¢arikat, and who tries to get it by using the north wind to boil clay is no more foolish than the man who tries to follow the mystic life without a muirsit. I gave the thread to the weaver ; he did not wind it into ‘a ball. Earnestly he commends it; let someone come and take his cloth. plik verdim culhaya sarip yumak elmemis Becid becid ismarlar gelsin alsin bezint. Interpretation: The defective miirsit cannot take a seeker and turn him into a dervish, no matter how much he seeks to boast of his work I loaded the wing of a sparrow on forty ox-carts. Forty span could not draw it. It remained where it was. Bir serginin kanadin hurk hanliya yuklettim Kirk ¢ift daht cekmedi kaldi sdyle yaztla. Interpretation : Travelling with the ox-cart is the external know- ledge of religion taught by the seriat, Flying with wings is the esoteric knowledge and experience of the tavikat. All the power of the sertat is not able to effect progress in the tartkat. 108 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS A fly raised up an eagle and dashed it to the ground. No lie, it’s the truth. I myself have seen the dust of it. Bir sinek bir kartalt kaldirdt vurdu yere Yalan degil gercektiy ben de girdiim tozun . Interpretation: The humble dervish outwardly poor and un- prepossessing has often been known to overcome in argument and influence the worldly person of fame. 3. Mysticism: Tasavouf (2) In Experience ; In the foregoing description of the Four Gateways it has already been suggested that the great fundamental difference lies between the first two. Once having entered the tartkat, the goal toward which one is travelling is marked out and after that it is mainly a matter of attaining to one’s, at least partially known, ideal. But between the seriat and the tartkat there is a gulf fixed. The difference between them has to do with all of our ideas of the universe in which we live. To the one who accepts the seviat in its teachings as they seem to be, the world is something created out of nothing. A type of dualism neces- sarily results. There is God above and outside his created uni- verse on the one hand, and on the other hand is that material universe possessing, for the time being at least, a certain reality. To the one, however, who has entered through the gateway of tavikat this conception becomes discarded, and in its place is a new idea of the universe as of something made out of that which has already existed. God to the dweller in ¢arikat is thought of not so much as an all powerful creator, but as Truth itself, the only Real Existence that has or can be. All other existence is only apparent. Before the beginning of time God existed as undifferentiated unity, ahadiyet. He is thought of especially as being Beauty in the absolute sense. Creation of the universe as we know it took place when this Reality, accord- ing to a hadis, or reputed saying of the prophet Muhammad, handed down by tradition, decided, as he later told the prophet David in answer to his question, ‘‘I was a Hidden treasure, therefore was I fain to be known, and so I created creation in order that I should be known.” + The Arabic words with which 1See Gibbs’ History of Ottoman Poetry, Vol. I, 15-23 for one of the best descriptions of tlmi tasavuuf or “ science of mysticism” as it is known among the Persian and Turkish writers. His account is based especially on_a canto in the Persian poet, Jami’s Introduction to Joseph and Zulikha. See Browne’s A Year Amongst the Persians, 125-128. It is said that these words were first put into the mouth of God by the Neo-Platonists, Encycl. of Islam, Art Khalk, 10g THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES this tradition begins Kiiniwkenz, “I was a treasure,” are fre- quently mentioned in Bektashi poetry. “The Bektashis are the proof and evidence of Ktintukenz.” Kiintukenzin huccetis burhanidir bektasiler.+ The most famous reference is in a well-known nefes by Edip Harabt. “We became aware of the mystery of Kdintukenz.”’ Kiintukenz swriamn olduk agéhs,* The secret to which the poet refers is the understanding that anything can be known only by its opposite. We would not know what light is were it not for darkness. Therefore the only way by which Absolute Being, Real Existence or Absolute Beauty can be made known is through a world of Non-Existence. Such a world is one only of appearance. It is the world also of evil, for it is the opposite of Absolute Goodness. Neither the physical world around us nor the evil in it have real existence. The universe is a reflection of Real Existence in the mirror of Non-Existence. Evil has no meaning for God who is ultimate truth or Real Existence. It does have meaning for those who, attracted by the appearance of things around them, are misled into seeing that which is God and that which is not God. To the Bektashi, as to the pantheistic mystic in Islam generally, the physical world is a reflection of Reality in Adem, non-exist- ence; and the sense of duality, zkilik, is the veil which hides the reality of God’s existence from men. Men feel themselves separate from God and look upon the world about them as also being separate from God. Since in this seeming separateness the only touch of reality lies in the fact that man and the universe are emanations of Divinity there is, therefore, in man a spark of Real Existence which is ever seeking to be reunited with the source from which it came. This tendency to find birlk, or oneness with the only real being, expresses itself in a struggle with self. As self is conquered the sense of “‘ oneness ’”’ is made possible. Sin and sorrow come from the failure to realize that all about us is nothingness, merely the opposite of God’s Absolute Existence and Absolute Beauty. When we see in ourselves and 1 Bektast Sairleri, 41, Bosnavi. 1B.S., 102, See also pages 152, 153, in Bekias, Nefesleri a publication of the Istanbul Conservatory of Music, 1933. This nefes is given with the notes of two tunes to which it is sung, Ito DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS in the universe not something “ other than God,” ma-siva, but the reflection of God Himself we find the satisfying sense of “oneness ”” which is only an experience of realising Reality as it is. This experience is the mystery of Kiéintukenz to which Havabt refers. This struggle to overcome self and the sense of duality is made possible by the power of “love,” ask.+_ In mystic liter- ature the love of Mecnun for Leyla is often taken as a type of the passionate love of the human being for the divine beloved one. In the opening verses of Celaleddin (Jelal ud Din)’s great Mesnevi this “love” is pictured as the homesick longing of the reed flute on which the music of the dervishes is being played, for the bed from which the reed was torn.? It is ‘‘love”’ in this nostalgic, longing sense that to the Bektashi is the power by which we can overcome the world and attain to a sense of oneness with God. This “love’’ exists in us because it is a part also of God’s own nature. As we have already seen, it was, in the Bektashi poet’s mind, God’s love, ask, which caused the world to be, and made Adam, Adam.% The individual in the world also feels it, and is drawn with a desire that burns the soul by its fire back toward the source in which alone it can rest. “T have opened the book of love, I read and write (in it) My view is opened toward Reality.” Ask kitabini actum okur yazarrm Hakka dogru aclimisiir nazarim.* “TI awoke with love, I sought the cure. Night and day I have burned that I might find the cure.” Ask tle uyandim avadim derman Leyli nehar yandim ta bulam derman.? When one has thus attained, all sense of duality has gone. “Wherever he turns his gaze he sees the Face of God; God shines down on him from every star in the sky; God looks up at him from every flower in the field, God smiles on him in * More properly ash but ale <-> *07 fret" ---nounced in Turkish agh. *See Whinfield’s abridged Pact . + i Manavi, Trubner 1887. This translation being abridged, gives in ‘eaecsdable form the main ideas of what is ‘the greatest pantheistic poem in the world’s literature.’’ The ony complete translation of the 26,000 couplets is that by Nicholson in the E. J. W Gibb Memorial Series, The M athnawt of Jalaluddin Runiu ‘See above, page 95. 4 Bektast Sairilert, 206, Kul Budala. . 'Tbid., 249, Mahzum Muharvem Baba. II THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES every fair face, God speaks to him in every sweet sound; all around him there is God, nothing but God. If he turn his eyes inward and look into his own heart, there he can read letter by letter the very heart of God.”? The Bektashi, in common with many others of the mystics in Islam, joins the famous Mansur al Hallaj? in saying Enelhak, “I am Reality.” The poet Nesimt writes : “All the earth and the sky have absolutely become Reality The cymbals and the harp and the flute say, ‘I am Reality.’” Kiilh yer gok Hak oldu mutlak Séyler defi cengi ney Enethak.® Because he first expressed this daring thought Mansur al Hallaj is revered among all Bektashis, and, as we shall see, in the chapter on Practices the initiation rite is in part a symbol of his death, the penalty he paid for following truth. Closely associated with this mystic longing of the heart seeking to return to its source is the thought involved in the Kuranic passage VII:171 which says: “And when thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reigns of the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, ‘Am I not Your Lord?’ They said, ‘ Yea, we witness it.’” In the Bektashi conception, this gathering of souls before they become embodied has become an allegory to explain a spiritual experi- ence. It is with the Bezmi elest, ‘‘ the feast of Am I not” that the consciousness of and love for the Creator began, and the wine drunk there is allegorically remembered in the intoxication of ecstasy which comes with any unusual glimpse of Absolute Beauty. Dervish Rtthullah therefore, speaking of his fellow Bektashis and himself says, *Gibb I, 21. With all the differences that may be involved, spiritually this experience of finding God reflected in the transitory appearance of things is not essentially different from the experience of the Christian mystic :— Thou life within my life, than self more near, Thou veiled Presence infinitely clear, From all my nameless weariness I flee To find my centre and rest in Thee. Take part with me against these doubts that rise And seek to-throne Thee far in distant skies, Take part with me against this self, that dares Assume the burden of these sins and cares. ELIzA SCUDDER * For the fullest account of Mansur al Hallaj see Massignon’s two volume Al-Hallaj Martyr Mystique de L'Islam, Paris, 1922. * Bektast Saivleri, 467. II2 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS “From eternity we are intoxicated with the wine of Unity. We are of those who have tasted the cup of Elest.”’ Vahdet badestle mestiz ezelden Elest kadehinden tatanlardaniz.} Again giving an allegorical interpretation, the twenty-first verse in the seventy-sixth chapter of the Kuran, ‘And drink of a pure beverage shall their Lord give them,” has become a conception fundamental in both the doctrine and practice of the Bektashis. In the meaning suggested by the ‘“‘ wine of Elest ”’ is to be found the secret of Sekahum, “he gave them drink,’ the great poet Nesimz wrote: “From eternity I have drunk the cup of Sekahum Therefore I say with every draught,? Enelhak.”’ Ezelden icmisim cam sekahum Anincun séylerim her dem enethak.® ‘ This experience of drinking the “‘ wine of elest”’ is one of the mysteries of the Bektashi order. It is ideally an inner experience of the spiritual life, but it is also an experience guarded as a secret from those who are not prepared to understand its mean- ing. Thus Geng Abdal exclaims, “ Beware, tell not the mystery of Sekahum”’ Sekahum strrint séyleme sakin.4 With this experience the main outline of mysticism, or tasavuuf, is completed. Beginning with the conception of God as the one Reality, thinking of him then as perfect Beauty which ‘“‘ cannot brook concealment,” the interpretation goes on to assume the emanation of a world of unreality, of essential Non-Existence which only appears real, sin and suffering have reality only for those who misunderstand their nature. The real purpose of this world of not-being is to serve as a mirror to reflect the divine Reality. Since man has no real existence save in that of him which is God it follows that there is thus a spark in man which came forth from God and longs with passionate 1 Bektast Sairleri, 69. 2 The Turkish word dem having several meanings probably is used here in a double sense. It means breath; it also means a period of time; and it is used among Bektashis for the actual or allegoric drink of liquor. Here it can mean both “every moment” and ‘‘ every draught’’ of wine. * Divan of Nesimi, 1286, page 102. ‘ Bektast Sairleri, 127. II3 H THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES yearning to return to Him. This “love,” therefore, seeks union, and in the joy of that occasionally experienced attain- ment, the feeling of intoxication is allegorically thought of as quaffing the wine of God’s love. As Haji Bektash himself is reported to have said: “We have drunk of the wine of Union with Thee.’ ! (b) In Theory, But the complete picture of Mystical doctrine as the Bek- tashis understand it is not complete with this outline of their religious experience and the ideas that lie behind it. Nearly all of the ideas of the orthodox Muhammadan concerning what happened before creation are occasionally subject to reference in Bektashi verse. The idea that God first called into being a Radiance from his own Light, a Radiance called the Light of Muhammad, nuru Muhammet, is well-known, and the Bektashi understands that it is because of this light that God went on to create the world. The Bektashi only varies the usual idea by identifying Ali also with Muhammad as revealed in this light, and in finding the letters of their initials written in it.? “ Before God created the universe he created out of his own light the light of our lord who is the glorious Friend. Then out of the Light of Muhammad he created the spirits of the prophets and all creatures.”’4 It is in fact because of this “ Light of Muhammet’’ that the world is created, as a tradition has said: ‘‘ But for thee, verily I had not created the heavens.”’ The throne of God, ars, the preserved tablet, levhi mahfuz and the pen, kalem, with which God wrote on the tablet everything that was to happen until the last day, are a part of the Bektashi’s ideology even though a special interpretation is given in con- formity with the other ideas of the order. Thus Miads writes: ““ Haji Bektash Veli is the director of the tablet and the pen ” Nazirt Levhit kalemdiy Haci Bektas Veli.® *From an Arabic poem attributed to Haji Bektash, found on the flyleaf of a MS. collection of poems. *See Gibb J, 34ff for an excellent account in more detail. * See in Bektagt Sairleri, pp. 221 and 223. _ ' Tefsirit Suvetil Kevser, pages 89-94 in a MS. book of Bektashi documents in my private collection. This collection of documents will hereafter be called Erkdnname No. 4. 5 Bektast Sairleri, 260. II4 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS And again Mthrabt says: “Thy face is the Preserved Tablet Thy word explains its meaning The gnostic knows its inner sense The ignorant (Sunni) falls into error.” Levhimahfuzdur yizin Ant serheyler séztin Arif bilir igyiztin Cahil duser zevale.+ The Frequented House, beytt Mamur,? which was originally in heaven, later removed to earth for the comfort of Adam and finally raised again to where Muhammad on the night of the Journey, Mivag, saw it in the seventh heaven is also a part of allegoric material used by the Bektashis. Using the foregoing terms and ideas which have their origin in the Kuran,* the emanation of the visible universe is then pictured by the Bektashi largely in terms of the Ptolemaic system of cosmography. Starting with undifferentiated unity there is projected out a series of emanations in which the pro- portion of Real Being diminishes as the descent goes farther from the source. In order of creation the scheme is pictured thus :— Absence of state, gaybt huviyet, in which there is neither emptiness nor fullness nor differentiation, Ja hala ve la mela ve la taayun. The stage of unity, ahadtyet, in which differentiation consists of Real Existence, hak. First Intelligence, aki: evel (often called aklz kul or Universal Intelligence). The Nine Intelligences, ukulu tesa, The Nine Souls, nufusu tsa. The Nine Spheres, eflakt tisa. The Four Primal Conditions, keyfiyatt erbaa, The Four Elements, anastyt erbaa. The Three Kingdoms, mevalidi selasa. The Perfect Man, Insant kami. This development is pictured in terms of two Great Arcs, one downward, the Arc of Descent, kavsz nuzul, descending 1 Tbid., 263. > Muhammadiye 30; Gibb I, 37; Hughes’ Dictionary of Islam, art. Bait ul Mamur. ’The ars is mentioned in many places 7:52; 9:130, etc. The “pen” halem is mentioned in 68:1 and the “tablet” in 85:22. II5 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES from the Divine Source in emanations containing ever diminish- ing elements of Reality and an ever-increasing proportion of appearance or Non-Being until the elements of the world of physical matter at the bottom of the arc come into apparent being; then follows the other arc upward, the Arc of Ascent, kavst urug, as matter takes on more and more aspects of Real Being until in the Perfect Man there is a complete return into the God-head. Graphically represented in detail the succession is as follows?!: The Perfect Man The First Intelligence, aki: evel. Insam Kamal Stage of Man The Nine Intelligences, ukulu ttsa. Mertebei Insan The Nine Souls, nufusu tesa, Ape, Monkey The Great Sphere, felekt dzam. Nesnas maymum Sphere of the Constellations, Kinds of Animals buruc. Envat Hayvanat arc Sphere of Saturn, zuhal. Palm ofthe Date oF Sphere of Jupiter, mustert. Nahalt hurma ASCENT Fruit Trees Sphere of Mars, merth. Ascart Musmire ARC Sphere of the Sun, sems. Plants with seed OF Sphere of Venus, ziihre. Nebatatcatohum DESCENT Sphere of Mercury, utartt. Plants without seed Sphere of the Moon, kamer. Nebatat bi tohum Substance of Coral Condition of Heat, keyfiyett Cevhert mercan hararet, Minerals, stones Condition of Cold, burudet. Maaden ahcar Condition of Moisture, rutubet. Minerals completed Condition of Dryness, yubuset. Maaden mukantara Fire, kiivei nar. Air, kiivet hava. Volatile toughness Water, hiived ma. Tayri lezeg Earth, kiivet hak. It must not be supposed that the cycle of existence is thought of in these exact terms by all Bektashis. There are different terms and ways of picturing the process. Sometimes, for example, in explaining how all this came about, the seven planets are thought of as the “seven fathers,” abatseba, and the four * Data taken from a chart following the Devriyer Argiye by Masri El Niyazt, Pp. 449 in a MS, collection of Texts copied by Seyit Ali Riza Baba of Adrianople 1340 (1885). This collection will hereafter be referred to as “ Bektashi and Tasavvuf Texts.” The Arc of Descent is also called the Tariki Mebde, ‘‘ Outward Track” and the Arc of Ascent, sometimes is called the “Homeward Track,” Tariki Maat. II6. DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS elements, fire, air, water and earth, as the “four mothers,” ummuhat. erbaa, the two together bringing forth the “ three children,” mevalidi selasa, the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms. Sometimes the second stage of Abadiyet is called Vahidwyet and consists of the “ first differentiation,’ and the “truth of Muhammad,” taayunt evel ve hakikats muhammedtye. 4 A quite different terminology for the Arcs of Descent and Ascent uses words said first to have been employed by Mansur al Hallaj. ? Thus it is said that the World of Might, alemi ceberit, is the seria’ stage of development and is represented by the Angel Gabriel; the World of Angels, alemi Melekiit, is the Tartkat stage and is in the domain of Michael; the World of Godhead, alemt lahut, is the stage of marifet, where Israfil holds away ; and the World of Man, alemi nastit, is the stage of hakikat depending on the Archangel Azrail.2 The idea of the return of the Perfect Man into the Godhead is justified by the traditional saying of the Prophet. “ Everything shall return to its origin.’ (c) The Four Elements and the Perfect Man In the Bektashi picture of this cycle the stages of develop- ment which are most frequently mentioned are the stages of the ‘‘ four elements ’” and the “ perfect man.” In the Makalét of Haji Bektash the four kinds of men, each identified with one of the Four Gateways, are also identified with the four elements. The “worshippers,” aditley who represent the seviat are said to be in their origin air; the “ascetics,” zahitler, representing the tartkat, are originally from fire; the “ gnostics,’”’ arifler, representing the marifet, are of water; and the “lovers,” muhpler, the people of haktkat, are of earth.4 “The Perfect Man,’’® as Prof. Nicholson tells us, is a phrase first used by Ibnul Avabi. This mystic writer, together with Celaleddin Rumi, has been the chief source for theories as to mystical experience for practically all of the Turkish dervish orders. “In his Fususal Hikam, Ibnul Avabt says that when God willed that His attributes should be displayed he created a microcosmic being, The Perfect Man, through whom God’s consciousness, savy, is manifested to 1It is so named in Abdul Baki’s Meldmilik ve Meldmiler, 96. * Studies in Tasawwuf, Khaja Kahn, p. 188. See the arcs based on those terms in Browne’s Year Amongst the Persians, p. 138. The terms appear in many and varied combinations. ® Fevattname, Faide 54. ‘Printed Vilayetname, undated edition, 3-8. 5’ See Nicholson’s Studies in Islamic Mysticism for a full account of The © Perfect Man as a doctrine in Islamic Mysticism. eo 117 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Himself.”! From this conception comes the idea common among Turkish mystics that just as a seed is thought to contain within itself a tiny tree, so a man, at least in his ideal state, contains within himself the macrocosm. The Melam poet, Gaybi Baba expresses the thought as Bektashis understand it in his verses: This universe is a tree; Man became its fruit. That which was intended is the fruit; Do not think it is the tree. ? Biy agacdiy bu alem Meyvast olmus adam Meyvadw maksut olan Sanmakt agag ola. “The Perfect Man unites the One and the Many, so that the Universe depends on him for its continued existence.’ A poem attributed to Kaygusuz Sultan conveys the same thought on behalf of the Bektashis? : Do not look awry at the Saint; the universe is in his hand. He is the one who governs the world ; the authority of sovereign is in his hand. Evliyaya egri bakma kevnu mekdn elindediir Miike hitkiim stiven oldur ; hiikmii sultan elindediir. The Divine Reality sent him to give right guidance to his ser- vants here ; He guides aright whom he will; the curse and the blessing are in his hand. Hak ant génderdi bunda kullarina ivsat igin Istedigi ivsat eder kahvrile thsan elindediir. You think he is a man like yourself: The Saint has a mystery (hidden experience or consciousness) ; the mystery of God is in his hand. Sen ant saniwsin sdyle senceleyin bir adamdiiy Evliyanin sure vardiw sort suphan elindediir. ee Sultan says, I have read, I have known, I have under- stood, Now the rule of this world is in the hand of the Perfect Man. ? Nicholson’s Studies, 76, No. 2, *From a MS. in my collection. * Nicholson’s Studies, 78. _ ‘Taken from an old Bektashi cénk or collection of nefes’es in the writer’s private collection. The poem is also found in the 1340 Bektast Nefesleri, 69. 1x8 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Kaygusuz Sultan eder okudum bildim anladim Simdi bu milkiin hikmi kadmil insan elindedur. Closely associated with this thought of the Saint acting as a mediator between God in his ultimate nature and man and his affairs in this world is the dervish concept of a spiritual hierarchy which rules over the concerns of men. In all there are said to be at least three hundred Believers who have the power of changing from the clothes of this material world into the Garments of spiritual angelic beings. > One of these can be talking with a person and suddenly change his own garments, take by the hand his friend and lead him on a journey through the spheres into the presence of God. One of these three hun- dred is known as the kutup, the ‘‘ Pole.” When he is taken out of the world one is chosen to take his place from the three next in authority, and the three are filled up from the seven, whose ranks in turn are completed from the total of three hundred, all of whom are called Abdal from the word bedel meaning, “change,” having reference to their power of changing their state or condition. The ranks of the three hundred are then recruited from the general body of Believers, miiminler.1 The spiritual rule over the affairs of men is then in the hands of these saints whose identity ordinarily is not known either to themselves or others. We have seen already that the Three, the Seven and the Forty figure as important articles in the Bektashi creed, even the Janissary soldiers being required to acknowledge their faith in these powers. The references are evidently to these spiritual powers represented in this hierarchy of saints, although the numbers three and forty, as we shall see, have other meanings for the Bektashi as well. 2 1 Vilayetname, (Menakip) 16 in writer’s MS. copy. See Gross p. 32, No. 1. The total number of abdal’s is here once stated to be 366 and in another place 300, Sometimes special names are given to the various ranks. The Forty are Abdal ; the Seven, Budela; the Four, Evtat; the Three, Nukabd; and the First, Kutup or Gavs. B.S. 443. Cf. Abdal in Glossary. * Related to this conception of a hierarchy of living saints is the idea of the ever present help of the prophet Hzzir who acts as a guardian spirit coming to dervishes in their time of need. Dr. Macdonald’s description of the Spiritual hierarchy, of Al-Khadiry and of the importance of dead saints in his Aspects of Islam 204-209, is exactly true of the beliefs and practice of Bektashis in common with other Turkish dervishes. Thus in the Vilayetname (Menaktp) of Haji Bektash a ship in danger on the Black Sea appeals for help and Hizr arrives with his timely help (MS. text 60b). When Sav Salitk is fighting the seven headed dragon at Kilgra in the Dobruja, Hzztry arrives in time_to remind him of his sword, seizing which Sar1 Saltzk cuts off all the heads. For import- ance of tombs of dead saints see Chapter on Rites and Practices. See descrip- tion of Secde Tast, Illus. No. ro. IIQ THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES (4) The Cycle of Existence Turning back from this digression on the Bektashi concep- tion of the Perfect Man we must return again to the larger question of the Cycle of Existence. We have attempted to form a picture of the Cycle as it is conceived in its downward course away from essential Reality and its upward progress back to absorption in that Reality. It remains to give with this picture as a background the particular form and emphasis which the cycle receives in Bektashi literary expression. This understanding can best be given by translations from two quite characteristic nefes’es, both of them, because they concern this cycle, being classed as devriye or cyclical poems. One of them ‘is a famous nefes of Edip Havabi. It is found both in Bektass sairlert and with the musical notes of two tunes to which it is sung, in the publication of the Istanbul Conservatory of Music, Bektast Nefesleri.+ ‘Before the ““B” and “E”* ever appeared We are the beginning of the universe Before any became joined to the face (of God) We are “the distance of two bows or closer.’’3 “ Kaftiniin”’ hitabs izhar olmadan Biz bu kdinatin iptidasiyiz Kimseler vasili diday olmadan OL “ Kabe Kavseynin Ev Ednasiyiz.” When there was no Adam and Eve in the world. We were really existent with the Divine Reality in the im- ‘penetrable mystery. For a night-we were the guest of Mary ; We are the real father of Jesus the exalted. VYokiken Ademle Havva dlemde Hak tle Hak idik sort muphemde . + B.S. 102. Bektasy Nefesleri, Istanbul, 1923 I, No. 153. The poem is also ‘found in a printed book called Bektags Nefesleri, Istanbul, 1340, p. 35. * A reference to the word by which both in Genesis, ‘‘Let there be,’’ and in the Kuran, creation was brought about. Kuran 2:111 “and when He decreeth a thing, He only saith to it ‘Be’ and it is.” * A quotation from Kuran 53:9 where to explain the nearness of Muhammad to the Divine Reality it says ‘He was at the distance of two bows, or even closer.’’ These two “bows” are understood by the Bektashis to mean the arches of the two eyebrows, The meaning of the last two lines then appears to be that “ before creation had advanced far enough for Muhammad or anyone to have attained union in God we were in the very beginning as much one with Him as the distance between the arches of the eyebrows is a part of the face.” . The two “ bows ”’ kavseyn are also identified with the two “arcs” of descent and ascent, and the secret of this reference is said to be in the ---2--+4-- =~ -* the cycle of emanation away from but also back into the Divir a Devriyei Arsiye ends with this asscrtion. I20 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Bir gececitk mihman kaldtk Meryemde Hazreta Isanin 62 babasty1z The child Messiah called us ‘‘ Father ”’ Moses called to us saying, “‘O Lord, show thyself to me.’’ We are the one who said to him ‘‘ Thou shalt not see me.’’ We are the revelation made on Mt. Sinai.} Bize peder dedi tiflt Mesiha “ Rabbt Evint’’ deye cagirdt Musa “ Lenterdéni’’ deyen biz 1dtk ana Biz Turu Sinanin tecellastyiz. : We became aware of the mystery of “I was a treasure,” ? We saw the very face of God Himself O hoja,* the divine secret is in us. We are the humble followers of Haji Bektash. “ Kiinttikenz’”’ sivrinin olduk agdhi Aynelyakin gorduk Cemalillaht Ey hoca bizdedty sirra Llahi Biz Haci Bekiasin fukarasvyiz. Our glory (appeared to) the ascetic as “‘ Verily we have won.’’4 Do not think Havab: a humble vagabond We are the Perfect who split a hair into forty We are the dbudala® of the saint Balim Sultan. Zamda sanimiz “ Inna fetahna” Havabt kemtert sersert sanma Biy kilt kirk yarar kémliz amma Piy Balum Sultanin budalasvyiz. There is perhaps no uefes more universally known among Bektashis than this poem. Its significance, however, for the Bektashi lies not merely in its familiar ideas but in its emotional 1 This revelation and the two quotations of this stanza are from Kuran 7:139 ‘‘ And when Moses came out at our set time and his Lord spake with him, he said, ‘O Lord, show thyself to me that I may look upon thee.’ He said, ‘Thou shalt not see me, but look towards the mount, and if it abide firm in its place, then shalt thou see me.’ And when God manifested Himself to the mountain He turned it to dust.’’ This stanza and the next are in reverse order in B.5., and in the Conservatory of Music publication. In all the MS. versions I have seen they are in the order given above. In other verses also we are following the rendering as given in the MS. versions. * See above page 110 for explanation of this tradition. * A hoja is a religious teacher of the orthodox or Sunni school, an interpreter of the Serzat. 4 A quotation from Kuran 48:1 ‘‘ Verily, we have won for thee an undoubted Victory.”’ s Vers the word budala may have either or both of two meanings, “mad or carried away out of ourselves,’’ and also ‘‘ one of the abdals,’’ saints with authority in the spiritual hierarchy. 21 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES value as it is sung in the hour of fellowship following the aynicem or ritualistic meeting. The other devriye is by Sivt, a poet whose exact identity is not known. The wxefes translated below more perfectly than that of Harabs gives the full cycle of existence and is one of the best examples of what has become for the Bektashis a conven- tional form for expressing both their philosophy of creation and their mystical experience of union with the Divine Reality. ! Before the world came into being in the hidden secret of Non- existence : I was alone with Reality in his oneness. He created the world because then I formed the picture of Him, I was the designer. ? Cthan varolmadan ketym ademde Hak ile birlikte yekdas idim ben Yaratit bu miilkii ctinkii 0 demde Yapiun tasvirint nakkas tdim ben I became folded in garments made of the elements I made my appearance out of fire, air, earth and water I came into the world with the best of men (Adam) I was of the same age even as Adam. ® Anaswdan bir libasa biirtindiim Nari: badi héiki dptan gériindim Hayriilbeser ile diinyaya geldim Adem ile bile biy yas idim ben I came as Seth from the loins of Adam# As the prophet Noah I entered the flood Once I became Abraham in this world I built the House of God, I carried stone. * My friend Sulo Bey Celo of Tirana says this nefes should be called a seyviye rather than a devviye because it is, he says, the world that deur eder’s, “ cycles ”’ while man seyy edey's, ‘‘travels in spiritual experience.’ The xefes can be found in B.5. 357 and in the 1340 Bekiast Nefeslevi, 10. It is also used in Baha Sait Bey’s Article on Bektasiley in Tiivk Yurdu, cilt, 5 No. 28, Pp. 340. * This reference to man as the wakkas or designer of God I take to be a refer- ence to the idea described under the Perfect Man that man is a microcosm in which the macrocosm is revealed. In connection with this whole stanza note the similarity in thought with personification of Divine Wisdom as given in Proverbs 8:27 and 29, 30. ‘ When he established the heaven I was there. When he marked out the foundations of the earth, then was I by him as a master a ae and I was daily his delight.” Cf. Macdonald’s, Philosophy of the ebrews. * One interpretation of this given me by a Bektashi is that it simply means “I came as a baby into the world and grew up as did Adam.” ‘The interpretation of this verse given me by the one referred to in the note above is this, ‘‘ I came from a father and mother as Seth came.” ‘ Enter- ing the flood” means taking on myself as a child born into the world the “‘ abso- lute ignorance ” in which the world is flooded. The last two lines mean: ‘I have done good, taking loads on my shoulders as Abraham did.” The individual, in other words, is being described as recapitulating the history of the race. I22 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Ademin sulbiinden Sit olup geldim Nuhu nebt olupb Tufana girdim Biv zaman bu miilke Ibrahim oldum Yapiim Beytiullahi tas tasidim ben. I appeared as Ishmael once, O soul. I became once Isaak, Jacob, Yusuf I came as Job, I cried out for mercy. Worms ate my body, I was in bitter mourning. Ismail goritindiim bir zaman ey can Ishak Yakup Yusuf oldum bir zaman : Eyyup geldim cok cagivdim el ’aman Kurt yedi vicudiim kanyas tdim They cut me in two along with Zacharias.? With John they scattered my blood on the ground. I came as David, There were many who followed me. Often I carried the seal of Solomon. Zekeriya tle bent bigirler Yahya tle kanim yere sagtilar Davut geldim cok pesime distiiler Miuhri Siileymant cok tasidim ben. The blessed rod I gave to Moses - I became the Holy Spirit and came to Mary I was guide to all the Saints To Gabriel the Faithful I was the right hand companion. Mubarek asayt Musaya verdim Ruhulkudis olup Meryeme erdim Cimle evliyaya ben rehber oldum Cibrilt Emine sagdas 1dim ben From the loins of my father? came Ahmed the chosen The two-edged sword made its arrival from among those who guide on the way? Before the world was, friend to the People of the House I was, while a slave, a fellow sharer of the mystery with God. Sulbit pederimden Ahmedt Muhtar Rehniimalarindan erdt Ziilfikar 1A reference to the Islamic tradition that Zacharias in his attempt to save John was persecuted. Concealing himself in a tree he was cut asunder as men sawed the tree., 2 The version in B.S. reads ‘‘his’’ father. The whole point is lost unless it is “‘my” father as in the B. Nefesleri version. * Perhaps a reference to the timely arrival of Ali with his Zilfikdr, or two- edged sword, at the Battle of Uhud when Muhammad, being wounded, called for Ali’s help. See below, page 138. 123 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Cihan varolmadan Ehlibeyte yar Kul iken zat ile stydas idim ben* I meditated much within myself Without beholding a miracle I came to believe. With the Prince of Heroes I rode on Diildiil I bound on the Zélfikdy, I carried the sword. Tefekkir eyledim ben kendi kendim Mucize gormeden imana geldim Sahimerdan ile Diildiile bindim Lubfikdy bagladun tg tasidom ben. Sherbet was drunk from the wine of Sekahiim The ‘ceremony of the Assembly’ was held. We had fellow- ship together The secret of Truth was opened up I have borne many mysteries which I have received. Sekahtim hamrinden icildi serbet Kuruldu aynicem ettik mehabbet Meydana acilds sirrt hakikat Aldigun esvart cok tastdum ben Right guidance came to us from God We all made homage to the Apostle of God He gave us news of the Journey in God» I was a sharer of the secret with the Prince of Heroes. Hidayet iristi bize Allahtan Biat etttk ciimle Resultllahtan Haber verdi bize seyrifillahtan sahimerdan ile strdas idim ben. I came in the course of making the cycle of this world I entered the rites in the place of the Forty I was girded by the Prince of Saintship I was the comrade of Selmam Pdk. Bu cthan milkiinii devredip geldim Kirklay meydaninda erkdna givdim pahivilayetten kemerbest oldum Selmant Pak tle yoldas idim ben. Thankful I gained what I sought I became the rose; I cried out to the nightingale We gathered together in one place with the People of the House? I became the carpet-layer in the place of the Forty. * Bektast Nefeslert and Baba Sait’s article both give for this line Kul iken destinde bir tas idim ben. _" Eh Bey, the family of the House of Muhammad, especially Ali and his children. 124 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Sukiiy matlabims getirdim ele Gil oldum feryadt verdim bilbiile Cem olduk bir yere Ehlibeyt ile Kuwklarv meydaninda ferras idim ben. We made our confession, we were all placed in the Way We did not reveal the secret to any creature Together with Imam Hiiseyin in Kerbela I cleaned the skirt of the garment, I was soiled. Ikvarv verdik citmle diziilduk yola Suvi fasetmedth asla bir kula . Kerbeladda Imam Hiseynie bile Pékettim dament gil tasidim ben.+ To this world of “‘ being annihilated in God ”’ I have often come and gone I have rained with the rain and I have grown as grass I have guided aright the country of Rum I was Bektash who came from Horasan. Su fena miilkiine cok geldim gittim Yagmur olup yagdum otolup bitiim Urim diyarina ben irsat ettim Horasandan gelen Bektas tdim ben, Sometimes I was Prophet, sometimes Saint Sometimes sane, sometimes fool I appeared Sometimes as Ahmet, sometimes as Ali I appeared No one knows my mystery, I was cunning. Gahi nebt gaéhi velt goriindiim Géhi uslu gaht deli goriindiim Gai Ahmet gahi Ali gortindim Kimse bilmez sirrim kallas tdim ben. Now praise is to God, Si, they said. I came, I went. They never knew my real self My mystery none ever comprehended To all creatures I was brother. Simdt hamdilillah Sir. dediler Geldim gittim zatim hic bilmedtler Sirrumt kimseler fehmetmedtler Hep mahlth kuluna Kardas idim ben. *In other versions it is Gildas idim ben. Prof. Htiseyin Pektas suggests that the reading should be gildas idim ben, as translated above, the meaning of the line being “I washed off my sin.” * By some Sivz has, on account of this line, been identified with Haji Bektash, showing that even among dervishes there are minds that insist on seeing literal meanings. 125 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES (ec) Sin and Death As corollaries of the mystical doctrine of idealistic pantheism which we have been discussing, are the ideas of the Bektashis having to do with Sin, its causes and its significance ; and with Death, its meaning and its after results. SIN In Bektashi literature, so far as the writer’s knowledge goes, the most extensive and by far the most interesting treatment of sin is in a fascinating little book of theology called Hiisniye. It is a book read by both the Bektashis and Kizilbash. Accord- ing to the Introduction in a manuscript copy in the writer’s possession it is a book which was translated from Arabic into Persian in the year 958 (1551), and in 1274 (1857) was trans- lated into Turkish by one who describes himself as “‘ This Lowly One, a servant of Mehmet Rana,” bu hakiy yani Mehmet Rana bendelerinden. It was later printed but without date or name of publisher. It begins by saying that the following account is in accordance with a tradition coming from the Gnostic in God, Seyh Abul Feth Mekkt. The scene is laid in Bagdad in the time of the Abbaside Caliph Harun Resit.1 A rich merchant was a “‘ lover of the Family ’”’ and of the “ People of the House ” and was constantly in the service of Cafer Sadek. In his own household was a slave girl named Hiismiye whom he had pur- chased at the age of five years. After giving her a preliminary education he had sent her to Cafer Sadsk by whom she was educated in the religious sciences until by the time she was twenty years old she was perfect in her knowledge of these branches, Being unparalleled also in personal beauty she was given the name Hiisniye, ‘‘ The Beautiful.” After the death of Cafer Sadtk, her master fell on hard times and lost all his fortune. Htisntye recommended as a solution of his difficulties that he offer her for sale at the price of three thousand gold liras. In answer to any question about her being worth this much the explanation was to be given that she knew more than all the Ulema, “ the learned men of the Seriat law.’ Offered for sale in the market place she was found by Yahya Barmekt, the Grand Vizir, who brought her before Harun Resit. Angered by the high price put on the girl the Caliph proposed to make a public * The setting of this story is strikingly similar to that in the story of Abu- al-Husn and his slave girl Tawdddud as in Burton’s Book of a Thousand Nights and a Night, 436th to 462nd nights, 126 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS testing of the girl’s boasted knowledge. If she failed in the contest the owner’s life was to be forfeited and the girl was to be taken without cost as the property of the Caliph. On the other hand, if she succeeded, the Caliph promised to pay the three thousand gold liras and leave her as the property of the present owner. The Ulema were summoned and a certain Ibrahim Halit was appointed to speak for them in the contest of knowledge. In answer to a question Hiismtye frankly pro- fessed to be of the ‘“‘ Sect of the People of the House,” Ehli Beyt mezhebt. She tactfully handled the question as to who was the real Caliph in such a way as to both defend the rights of Ali and his descendants and at the same time not offend the Caliph, Harun Resit. Then after an exchange of questions between the two contestants, Harun Resit, through his Vizir, frankly confessed that he himself was troubled by the question of the origin of evil. Are we to attribute both good and evil, the useful and the harmful to God? Do such things as oppression and rebellion and disbelief come from God? Jbrahim Halit offered the first answer and gave it in accord with the orthodox teaching of the Seriaé law, that both good and evil happened by the decree and fate of God, but not with his approval. To this Huisniye made spirited reply that in that case God was compelled to decree what he did not want. In a long argument extending over many pages Hiisniye pointed out how cruel and unjust God is if he condemns those who have done wrong when God Himself has created the evil. If God made a man black and then says, “ You should have been white” and punishes him for the offence God is obviously a tyrant. If a man binds the hands of a boy, and then throws him in the water only to draw him out and punish him for having wet his clothes he is guilty of cruelty and oppression. And such would God be if he were what the Ulema claimed. Skilfully Hiismiye handled the Kuranic passages offered in support of Ibvahim’s claim, and ably she reinterpreted them offering quotations in support of her own theory that sin comes not from God but from the indi- viduals who commit it. The prophets were sent to invite people to turn from the evil and to follow the good. If they thus urge men to not do what God has decreed they shall do, the prophets are opposing the will of God. The prophets even, she showed, repented of their own sin which they shouldn’t have done if God created the evil they committed. She herself quoted Kuran 14:4 ** God misleadeth whom he will, and whom he will he guideth,” 127 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES and so interpreted the word “‘ to guide ” as to make it necessarily apply universally in the sense of giving the right information to both believers and unbelievers. Kuran 4:163, she asserted, by its statement that apostles have been sent to announce and to warn ‘‘ that men might have no plea against God,” proved the claim that God must be ethically judged, and that if He is so judged sin must be attributed to the sole responsibility of the sinner. + We have already noted the same tendency in all Bektashi literature to ridicule the orthodox teaching of the Ulema that God weighs men’s deeds in the balance and meets out punish- ment to the sinner, or that he causes men after death to cross over a narrow bridge from which the morally incompetent fall into hell. This idea, the Bektashi feels, is morally inconsistent with any doctrine that God made the world with its good and its evil. Instead, the Bektashi, by his theory of creation through a cycle of emanations from the Godhead, feels that sin along with all the world of apparent phenomena about us is essentially unreal, To the superficial person who attributes reality to this physical world apparent reality is thereby for that person put into temptation and sin, but to the one with hidden knowledge it is merely a case of not understanding the real facts. To such a person there is a moral struggle within in order to overcome self. The real sin is not so much what the world calls sin, as the indi- vidual’s own sense of duality, seeing the world and seeing himself as something other than God. Negatively there is with the Bek- tashi no conception of the ‘‘ exceeding sinfulness of sin,” nor is there felt any moral obligation to struggle against the sin of the world, for the social order as well as the physical world is unreal. . Spiritual attainment rather comes by way of seeing all things, the saloon and the church, the idol and the altar as merely manifestations, unreal in themselves, having meaning only as they point to unity lying behind everything, unity into which the individual can hope to lose himself until he becomes one with the Divine Reality. It is with this attitude of mind that Agdm Dede in one of his nefes’es says?: O orthodox teacher, to me the mosque and the saloon are one. The voice of the pious and the cry of the drunken are one. + Of course at the end of the long argument Harun Resit and all the listeners found themselves carried away with Hiisniye’s eloquence as well as her logic, and she was allowed to stay with her master who was now enriched by the promised gift of the Caliph. * B.S. 8. 128 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS If the secrets of right guidance have not reached thee from Divine Reality, This remembrance of God in worship is identical with the goblet of wine. | Come, give up hypocrisy. Behold the throne and the world. In this transient existence they are the same as any corner of ruins. First of all then, give not (thy) heart to the world. To the one who really knows, the wise and the simple are one. Like Agdhi become light and see, O blind man (For him) who burns with this love, the candle and the moth are one. Ey soft, bana mescidti meyhane de birdir Savit zithidi narer mestane de birdir Hakian sana ermez tse esrart hidayet Bu zkri tbadet tle peymane de birdir Gel gec bu viyadan, hele gor tahtr cihanla Bu famde bir giset virane de birdiy Illé bast Diinyaya géniil verme diriga Arif olana Gkilu divane de birdir Agaht gibt nurolagéy ey gézi ama Bu aska yanan sew'ile pervane de berdir. DEATH In general, for Turkish mystics who believe in such a cycle of emanation out of and back into the Divine Reality, death can mean one of two things. If an individual in his spiritual journey, while a man, completes the cycle as a “ Perfect man,” insant Rdimil, he becomes Real with the Real One, hak tle hak. If he has not completed the cycle, he passes into an unseen spiritual state at the stage of development to which he has attained. He does not return again to the cycle on the physical plane. Only the one who has attained to final Reality comes back into the physical world again, of course only in the form of the Perfect Man.? +See Abdul Baki Bey’s Meldmilik ve Meldmiler, 95-97, 274, and Kaygusuz 130, The Devrivel Argive to which Baki Bey refers gives an explanation which is necessary for the proper understanding of how a person on death, if he has not attained to the degree of a Perfect Man, can continue his existence in a spiritual state. The world as we know it, that is, all of the cycle included in the Arc of Ascent, is brought into being by the combination of two worlds, the World of Spirits, Alemi Ervah or as it is sometimes called the Alemi Melekut, Angel World, and the World of Bodies, Alemi Ecsam, or Alemi Mulk. In the World of Spirits there were brought into existence the following succession, tst, Universa’ "7! "*-- >> ahkli Riil; and, Universal Soul, wefst kil; 3rd, Spirits of the ' nelaike ; 4th, Spirits of the Prophets, ervahs enbtiya ; 5th, Spirits of 1 _ evvah, evliyvu; 6th, Spirits of the Gnostics, ervahe avifin ; 7th, Spirits of the Worshippers, ervahi abidin, 8th, Spirits of the Be- lievers, ervaht mitminin ; 9th, Spirits of the Unbelievers; erval kdfivin ; 0th, I29Q I THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES The Bektashi views the process somewhat differently. AI- though the more learned among them deny any belief in metem- psychosis, fenasuh, the undoubted fact is that many of them do, and that appears to be the general teaching of the Order with regard to what happens after death. One of the most learned of the Bektashis I have met told me that none of the intellectual members of the order accept the doctrine. Salsh Niyazi Dede, the head of the Bektashi Order in Albania, on the other hand, said that the general belief of Bektashis is that on death a person’s soul, passes into an animal of the type which the person’s life resembles. If a man has lived on the bestial level his soul passes into the body ofa beast. It may be a pig or a dog or a tiger or any other animal or type of person depending on the interests and habits of the person during life. Brailsford in his ‘‘ Macedonia”? makes the assertion that the soul of the murderer of Htiseyin entered into a hare and that that is the reason Bektashis will ordinarily not hunt or eat or even touch a hare. One traveller through the Balkans reports seeing Bektashis wear bells on their shoes in order to frighten away insects in their path lest they step on a former Bektashi who has taken that form. Most Bektashis would probably laugh at this idea. In a treatise entitled Verification of Azrail and the Manner of Taking Spirits there is an account resembling in large measure the conventional conception? among Moslems, of the part which the angel Azrail plays in taking from the body the soul of one who is to die. In the treatise Azrail is represented as having been created out of the Light of Muhammad, Nuru Muhammet. Ue was sent to the earth to bring a handful of earth out of which Adam was to be created. Then Spirit was added to this earth and out of the combination the body of Adam was formed. To Azrail was given the power and duty to take from created beings their souls at the time of death. Some souls easily leave their bodies. Some have become so attached to the body that they have to be torn away after a Spirits of the jini, ervaht cinni; 11th, Spirits of the Satans, ervahe sevatin; 12th, Spirits of the Animals, ervaht hayvandt; 13th, Spirits of the Plants, evrvaht nebatat; 14th, Spirits of the Natural elements, evvahs tabayi. When the spirit is taken, therefore, from that with which when it is in combination an object in the physical world has its existence, the spirit can pass into its proper place in the World of Spirits. Even minerals, plants and animals on their lowest Planes, are composed io poth worlds. 1 Page 175 in Bektashi and Tasavvuf Texts Fi Tahhihi Agrai fey frpelt Raber touch, kiki Azrail ve Keyfiyeti * See Encyclopedia of Islam, article Izrail. 130 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS struggle, but in every case Azrail possesses the power to remove the soul. On whatever type of life the soul’s attention is fixed at the moment of being removed there takes place an incarna- tion, Aulul, into one of that type. Thus those who have lived in a character, possessing divine qualities ascend to be with God. Those who have lived evil lives, whose interests are in and whose attention is upon bestial things are unable to ascend, but instead remain in the physical world imprisoned by their evil character. Azrail himself, moreover, when he comes to take a soul appears in the form suitable to the individual’s life, as an angel to pro- phets and saints, as a devil or dragon to sinners. He also comes with the choicest odour to real believers or with an obnoxious smell to the wicked. Thus the souls of men last on until in the final “‘ objective resurrection,” kiyameti afakt, a fire will consume all “except His Face.” } How familiar this conception is to Bektashis generally it is impossible to say. An explanation of death and its significance in terms that would be acceptable to the more philosophical is to be found in Browne’s Year Among the Persians, pp. 140-142. The idea expressed there is that evil or imperfect souls on dying pass not into the physical bodies of animals in the likeness of which they have lived, but rather into a World of Similitudes, alemt mithal, where, unseen by the physical world, souls live on in the spiritual state their imaginations and desires have created. In general there is astonishingly little said about the next life in the poems and other literature of the Bektashis. Their poems criticise freely enough the ideas of the Sunni teaching, but they say little of their own ideas. The return back into the Godhead, the actual attaining to the goal of their journey is the only idea upon which they place emphasis. As a matter of practical belief, however, it will be seen again and again in the section on Practices that Bektashis call for help on the great Saints of their order. The return into the Godhead is not in actual practice conceived as any loss of indi- viduality. The departed Saint is still a living presence upon whom the believer can call for assistance in time of need. C.—DOCTRINES PECULIAR TO THE BEKTASHIS As it has already been pointed out, the division of beliefs into those held in common with other Turkish mystics and This last statement is taken from a MS. immediately following in my collection the ‘“ Fi Tahkiki Azrail.’’ It is entitled Kiyameti Afakt. 131 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES those peculiar to the Bektashis is at best, as any classification must be, a purely artificial one. In the doctrines to be dis- cussed in this section the Bektashis differ from most of the Turkish dervish orders in being frankly Shii in their tendency. It is said that the Shiis of Persia do not recognize the Bektashis as fellow Shiis, for they carry to an absolute extreme their deification of Ali, but in one Bektashi poem at least the claim is made that the Bektashis are the original Shiis?: Even from the gathering of Eternity we are the confessed Shiis Here, making that confession again, we are the Shiis. Ta ezel bezminden tkrar eyliyen stleriz Bunda ol thrart tekvar eyliyen sialeriz. i. Lhe Trimby Although agreeing at many points with the ordinary Shii point of view, even at these points, however, the Bektashis have their own characteristic emphases. We may begin our discussion, therefore, of this section by noting that following the above described belief in God as the one Reality there are in the mind of the Bektashis special manifestations of this Reality in Muhammad and Ali. The identification of these three, in fact, is so close that it amounts to a doctrine of Trinity : Hak or Reality and Muhammad and Ali, Sefil Abdal writes? : God, Muhammad, Ali, all are one secret Allah Muhammet Ali hep bir sirdor. and Perisan Baba says? : The Divine Reality, Muhammad, Ali are true Hak Muhammet Ali haktar. Pir Mehmet in a nefes expresses the same thought‘: If you ask about all I have in this world—- God is one, Muhammad Ali whom I love. Bu cthanda kiilli varem sorarsan Allah bir Muhammet Ali sevdigim., 1 Kemtert, B.S. 245. * B.S. 302. 132 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS He is the skirt upon which I lean, Both my religion and, by God, my faith. In the secret house of the heart my guest. God is one, Muhammad Ali whom [I love. Odur dayandigim damdnum benim Hem din ile bsllah imanim benim Gizlt kalp evinde mihmamm benim Allah bir Muhammet Ala sevdigim. Oh, without thee whom I love I cannot exist for one moment : Without thee also I cannot be happy and laugh at all Other than thee I cannot know any Friend God is one, Muhammad Ali whom I love. A sevdigim sensiz bir an olamam Sadolup ta sensiz bir dem giilemem Senden ézge bir ydr dahi bilemem Allah bir Muhammet Ali sevdigim. Kul Himmet also says in one of his poems? : “ There is no God but God”’ is love ‘‘ Muhammad the Prophet of God ”’ is love ‘“ Ali, Prince, Saint of God ”’ is love Three names, in meaning one, love. Love is the light which Gabriel saw In the midst of God Muhammad Ah. Muhabbettiy Laétlaheillallah Muhabbettiyv Muhammet Resulbillah Muhabbettir Alt Sah veliyullah Ug tsim, manada birdiry muhabbet Allah Muhammet Alt ortasinda Cibrilin gérdigu nurdur muhabbet. Muhammad and Ali are not thought of as two persons. They are to the Bektashi one, pronounced and written as if two names of one person. Thus when the Baba of the Merdivenkéy tekke reports to visitors that the founder of his tekke is Muhammad Ali® he means not a single person in recent historic time but the 1A reference to the act in the Initiation Ceremony of holding the skirt of the muirsit. * B.S, 22%. *See Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, 517. In Sept., 1933, when I visited this tekke, the resident, Teuvfik Baba, attributed the founding of the tekke to ‘‘ Sah Kuli, a dervish who was a follower of the way of Muhammad Ali’ Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba, who died in 1325 (1907), did much to bring the tekke back to influence and power, but the Muhammad Ali referred to is evidently the theological figure in which the Prophet and his son-in-law are united. 133 a, THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES theological figure of the two from whom the mysteries of religion came. “Ali is Muhammad, Muhammad Ali,” Kul Adil says in a nefes,’ and Yesari has a “Twelve Imam” nefes in which. each stanza ends with the same thought: ‘“ Muhammad is Ali, Ali Muhammad,” and the opening lines say?: God forbid that anyone should see them as separate from one another Muhammad is Ali, Ali Muhammad. Hasa birbirinden kim ayri gordi Muhammet Alidiy, Ala Muhammed. United thus in a Trinity, God, Muhammad and Ali are nevertheless, for practical purposes, often distinguished from one another. The tradition is a favourite one among Bektashis that Muhammad once said: “I am the City of learning, and Ali is its Doorway.” This tradition would seem to make Mu- hammad, if anything, the more important of the two, but it is not so understood by Bektashis. Muhammad’s place is theoretically always an honoured one among Bektashis. The first radiance emanating from the undifferentiated Godhead is called the ‘“‘ Light of Muhammad.” In Muhammad and in the Kuran sent down to him is to be found the sufficient material for the science of religion, but the entrance into an understanding of that material is to be found in Ali. Hence it is that Ali assumes among Bektashis the predominant place. To under- stand the Bektashi Mystery we must understand somewhat in detail the Ali whom they revere. We shall, therefore, attempt to describe, first the Ali of tradition, the human Ali as he walked on earth and participated in the affairs of man as that figure is commonly pictured among Bektashis; and then finally the doctrinal Ali as he is represented in his cosmic significance. 2. The Alt of Tradition As a background for appreciating the figure of Ali as he is pictured by Bektashis a few sentences will be sufficient to outline the actual Ali of History. He was born about the year 600, the son of Abu Talip, who was an uncle of the Prophet. Asa boy he was adopted by Muhammad and was educated under his care. One of the first to declare his belief in Muhammad when he was only ten or fifteen years of age, he was later given 1 B.S. 430. 7 B.S. 409. 134 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS in marriage, to Fatma, the daughter of Muhammad and by her had two sons, Hasan and Huseyin. Brave and faithful as a soldier he was considered by some to be the rightful suc- cessor to Muhammad. As a matter of fact, however, he only succeeded to the Caliphate in 656 following Abu Bekiy, Omer and Osman. He became almost immediately embroiled in rebellions. From Kufa, near the Euphrates River in Mesopo- tamia, where he established his capital, he carried on warfare against Muaviya, the able governor of Syria. In 66r he was killed by a poisoned arrow, and buried, according to common belief in Nejef, four miles from Kufa. 1 Famous as a warrior, a scholar, a sage and a saint Ali has become in Bektashi lore a figure of colossal dimensions. Tor their information about him and his sons, Bektashis read the Hadikatisstiada,® Garden of Seyit’s by Fuzuli who wrote in the sixteenth century and who is famous as one of the greatest of Turkish poets. This book is in the main based on the Revza- ivisstiheda of the Persian poet Huseyin V diz. Another favourite account of the life of Ali is in the Revza- tulahbap,* a translation by Benli Zade of Manisa from the Per- sian of Ata Allah ibn Fazlullah Sivazs. But the great source of both inspiration and information is the Faziletname,* a rhymed poem in praise of Ali. It would detain us altogether too long to give a full account of Ali as he is represented in these sources. We must instead, give only those particular traditions which have so entered into the thought life of the Bektashis as to colour their thinking and to be reflected in their literature. Foremost in this traditional picture is Ali’s character as a warrior, and his possession of Diildil, the mule on which he rode, and of a two-edged sword called the Zuljikay In Turkish there is a collection of eight stories which tell of the miraculous feats of daring and strength accomplished by Alt 1 This belief, however, is disputed. See Donaldson’s The Shi'ite Religion, p. 54 for various other claims. Chapt. III, IV, and V, give excellent accounts of Ali as Caliph and Imam, and of his shrine at Nejef. * Printed in Boulac in 1253 (1837) and again later in Constantinople. Numerous manuscript copies are to be found dating from as early as about 1600. An excellent copy in the writer’s private collection is dated 1037 (1627). * Of this there have been at least two printings, a three vol. one in 1268 (1851) and a four vol. edition in 1288 (1871). 4A printed version dated 1325, 27 (1909), is still occasionally to be found. A well preserved copy dated 979 (1571), is in the writer’s collection. This book is said to have been written in 926 (1519) by Yemini Baba. ; ’ For an excellent account of the life of Ali containing details of the tradi- tions as found in the Faziletname and elsewhere see Brown’s Dervishes chapt. XVII. 135 %, THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES as he rides on Duldil1 and wields the Zilfikdy.2 These stories are read not only by Bektashis but by others, and account in some measure at least for giving Ali a reputation of mytho- logical proportions among a large part of the common people. $ The miraculous character of Ali’s personality became appar- ent when he was a mere child. A Tarikatname or Book of the .Way* attributed to Esvefoglu Rum, who though not considered to have been actually a Bektashi, has been, nevertheless, one of the most popular poets among the Bektashis, tells the story of a Giant creature, Div, (vulg. Dev.) who, according to a tradi- tion from Cafer Sadtk, once caught a son of man behind Mt. Kafé and was about to eat him when a boy with the appearance of a lion gave him a blow and bound him with date leaves by the neck and with his hands behind his back. To each prophet beginning with Adam, the Giant appealed for release. Each prophet showed goodwill but was unable to untie the bond that held the giant in such close confinement that blood flowed from his neck. Finally he appealed to Muhammad telling the whole story of his suffering. Muhammad asked if he would recognize the boy who bound him. On receiving an affirmative answer all the companions, ashap, of the Prophet were caused to pass by in the presence of the Giant, Ali among them still a boy walking by the side of Selman Farist. When the Giant saw Ali he began to tremble and cried out to Muhammad that there was the one who had bound him. Muhammad asked Ali if that were true. Ali confessed, but refused to free the Giant until he first became a Moslem and promised not to eat men again. Then with a gesture of Ali’s finger the bond was untied and the +See Encl. of Islam, Duldiil, Although said to be a white she-mule it is always pictured in Turkish stories as a horse. * See Encl. of Islam, Dhu’l Fakar. This famous sword which came into the possession of Muhammad as booty in the Battle of Badr and later passed to Ali, is aways pictured in Ali stories and in Bektashi symbols as a long two-pointed sword. * An undated lithographed edition contains the eight stories called Gazavét, Conquests. Several at least of these have been printed in the new Turkish letters. At the bookstall in the courtyard of the Eyup mosque in 1934 I pur- chased the following: Hayber Kalesi, Kan Kalesi, Hdverzemin and Billaru Azam all by the Emniyet Matbaasi. Ejdey Kalesi is printed by the Yusuf Ziya ._Kitaphanest. There are other similar stories in Turkish telling of the miraculous fighting qualities of Ali. See p. 59, N.4 for a reference to the influence of these on a modern Turkish writer. In the writer’s collection there is a manuscript copy of the Kan Kalesi story. ‘In ths ~---7-¥'=4 collection of Bektashi and Tasavvuf Texts 221. In B.S. 223 0.5 » . . poem by Kul Himmet giving practically the same story in verse form. * Mt. Kaf or Kaf Dag: is the mythological mountain in eight ranges which . was believed to surround the earth. It is often mentioned in Bektashi verse. Cf, Encycl. of Islam, art. Jaf. 136 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Giant was set free. The exact interpretation given this parable by Bektashis Iam unable to describe. It seems to be an allegory of man’s -troubles, dervtley, and their cure, deryman. There is no more constant refrain in Bektashi poems than the reference to some trouble, dert, especially the pain of separation, the dis- harmony that comes from the realization of ihiltk “ duality,” the cure of which is to be found in Ali and his descendants. “My troubles are many,” Pir Sultan Abdal sings, } “Again the wound of my heart is renewed, From this trouble where shall I find the cure Unless I find it from the hand of the Sah. (Shah) ’’? Derdim coktur kangisina yanayim Yine tazelendi yiirek ydrest Ben bu dertten kande derman bulayym Meger Sah elinden ola carest. This “‘ trouble,’’ devt, is sometimes described as a screen let down to conceal the truth of Reality from the unbelieving. Thus Aszk Hasan in one of his poems® says that Ali is ‘‘ The one who causes to descend the screen before the eyes of the unbeliever.”’ Mtinkivin géztine perde indiven, Alidiy. As in the case of the Giant, he is the one who both lets down the screen and yet is the only one who can lift it. Even more famous than this story of Ali’s power as a child is the account of the part he played in Muhammad’s famous ascent, mivac, to heaven. Called by Gabriel to make the ascent, Muhammad took a guide, vehbery, as he was commanded, then met on the way a lion who greatly frightened him until a voice from God calmed him by saying that the lion simply wanted from him a token. Muhammad gave him his ring, then passed on into the presence of God with whom he discussed the ninety- thousand mysteries. Since the conversation took place through a screen Muhammad finally ventured to ask if this screen could not be raised. The screen was raised and behind it he saw Ali. Before leaving, God gave him a bunch of grapes to give to his grandchildren, Hasan and Hiiseyin. Selman who was also present asked for a grape and Muhammad gave him one. On the way back he came upon a group who said they were the “Forty.” Counting them Muhammad found only thirty-nine. But at that moment Selman arrived and completed the Forty. As they conversed together an invisible hand squeezed the * B.S, 308. * Ali is frequently called the Sah or King. 3 B.S. 19 and No. 4. 137 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES grape in Selman’s hand. One of the Forty drinking from the juice thus produced, all became intoxicated. They began to dance, playing the while on instruments, calpane,+ and reciting the word that stands for God, Hu, hu, literally, ‘He, he.” Ali then, more overflowing with ecstasy than the others, put him- self in the middle and took from his mouth the seal ring Muh- ammad had given the lion. Muhammad then recognized Ali, and understood his true nature, thus attaining himself by this act of understanding to the Divine Reality. This traditional meeting is said to be the prototype of the Aynicem observed by both the Bektashis and the Kizilbash as their principal ceremony of worship. 3 Another tradition which is formative in determining the attitude of Bektashis toward Ali is the story of the part Ali played in the Battle of Uhut. On that occasion it is said Muham- mad became sorely wounded. As the blood flowed, the angel Gabriel came to him and spread out his wings over him telling him to recite the prayer of “calling on Ali,” nadi Aliyen. As soon as Muhammad recited this prayer Ali immediately came to his rescue, drew his Ziilfikdy sword and hewed down the enemy, saving both Muhammad and all the Moslems. This prayer, always in Arabic, is well known among both the Bek- tashis and Kizilbash. It runs as follows : ‘Tn the name of the King?: Call upon Ali, the manifestor of marvels; thou shalt find _him a help unto thee in adversities. I have need for Allah, Most High. I call upon Thee. All care and anxiety will clear away through the light of Thy Greatness, O Allah, O Allah, O Allah’; Through the light of thy Prophetship, O Muhammad, * Perhaps meaning the ¢alpare, a kind of cymbal. See Kamusu Tiirht. *For this account see I/éhiyat Fakultesi Mecmuast, No. 8, page 11r4ff. An Alevi Baba tells the story thus to Prof. Yusuf Ziya Bey. On pages 117- 119 there is a poem by Hatay? relating the same story. For references to the Be story see Kul Himmet, B.3., 216-218; Kul Budala, B.S., 205; Bosnavt, >. 41, etc. _ ° For a slightly different account of this first gathering see the word Kirklar in the Glossary. * Bismi Sah. This invocation is frequently used by Bektashis instead of the conventional one, “In the name of God.’ The version of the prayer used here is that in the writer’s manuscript copy of various Bektashi rites, cere- monies and symbols. This collection will be referred to hereafter as Erkdn- name No. 4. A version very similar is to be found in J. léhiyat Fak. Mec. No. 15, p. 80, and a shortened form in Bek. ve. Edebiyats p. 25. _ The prayer as far as this point but with slight changes, especially sub- stituting the word Ali for God in the final invocation, was used as an inscription on the coins of Shah Ismail I, founder of the Safevt Dynasty, famous in Bek- tashi literature as Hatayt, See Codrington’s Manual of Musalman Numis- matics, 95. 138 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS O Muhammad, O Muhammad; through the secret of thy Saintship O Ali, O Ali, O Ali; come to me, come to me, come to me, O Ali, O possessor of Beauty and Perfection, O owner of Divinity (uluhiyet) and Majesty ; For the sake of El Huseyin, and his grandfather, and his father, and his mother, and his brother and his sons, save us from all care and anxiety by the mercy of the Most Merciful of the merciful; and O best of those who help, O overturner of hearts and minds, change our hearts and our minds for the sake of thy pleasure and the vision of those who long for Thee and the elect. ‘There is no one like Ali, and there is no sword like the Ziljikdy. He is the Friend of our Lord. Hear us for the sake of the honourable Muhammad and Haydar.” The final tradition to which we wish to refer is the story of Ali’s burial. It is said that just before he died he called his sons Hasan and Huseyin and told them that after he had died a person with veiled face would call to take his body away for burial. The sons were to allow this to be done. In illustra- tion number 13 there is a picture of this being accomplished, the coffin on a camel, a veiled figure leading the unattended funeral. Burning with curiosity Hasan and Huseyin are said to have run after the departing camel and to have demanded the identity of the man leading it! As:k Hasan in one of his nefes'es refers to this story as well as a preceding tradition, characteristically identifying Haji Bektash with Alit: He who sat upon the road as a lion He who squeezed the grape juice for the Forty He who carried away his own funeral The Sovereign Haji Bektash is Ali himself. Aslan olup yol tisttinde oturan Engty serbetint Karklara ezen Kendt cenazesin Kendt gotiiven Hunkédr Hact Bektas Al Kendidir. 3. The Doctrinal Significance of Alu The foregoing traditions are sufficient to show how com- pletely Ali is identified in Bektashi thought with God Himself. It is natural, therefore, that there should be a tradition accord- ing to which Muhammad appoints Ali as his rightful successor. The tradition is said to have come from Cafer Sadtk, and reports that when the Prophet was sixty-three years old he began to IBS. 19; cf Dl. no. 13. 139 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES meditate on the fact that he was soon to return to the Divine Reality. As he considered who was to take his place and offer guidance for his people the angel Gabriel told him that Azrail had by command of God ordered him to appoint as his successor the Saint of God, Veliyullah. The following Friday Muhammad ordered Belal to gather all the Companions into the place of worship. When they were all present he took Ali by the hand and led him on to the Minber and addressed his hearers as follows: “I have made Ali the Great Imam over you and I have inspired him.- You must see that the people obey him. Since it is by the order of God and the judgment of the Kuran you also must be obedient and subject to him. Since the apostle of God is kept sinless it is necessary that the one taking his place must be pure also.” The imamate and the leadership he gave to Ali, then descended from the minber, took off the belt from his own waist and put it around Ali, saying: “ Who- ever stretches forth a hand against Ali is a wrongdoer. May the curse of God be upon him. Ali the son of Abu Tal is the true Imam. Whoever recognizes me as the true Apostle let him recognize Ali also as the revelation and successor. From his generation, that is, from my children, there will come Twelve Imams. The Imamate is theirs. They are true and they are kept sinless. May mercy be to all Believers and Moslems who love them; and those who do not love them be cursed and rejected. The curse of God be upon the people who are oppressors and the mercy of God be upon the people who are Believers.” ? In this tradition is embedded the basis for two of the funda- mental principles of Bektashiism as well as of all Shiism,— Tevellé or love for all those who render allegiance to Ali and the Family of the House, and Teberré or hatred toward all those who do not love and render allegiance to them. THE WITNESS OF THE HUTBETUL BEYAN. The development of a theory as to the significance of Ali and his relation to the cosmic order is most fully described in a book called the Hutbetiil Beyan,? or Sermon of Explanation. *In the writer’s Bektashi and Tasavuwf Texts, this tradition from Cafer Sadk is given twice in identical language, beginning on pages 191 and 217. * The discussion following is based on a beautifully written copy containing the Seventy Words in Arabic with a commentary in Turkish in the writer's private collection. The book is dated 999 (1590) and is signed by Dervis Gaybi. The book is followed by several pages of Tervcuman or ritual prayers, of the Door, the Threshold, Namaz, Meydan Tast, Dar, Tig, Teslim, and a Silsile of the Pir and the Tarik. 140 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS According to this book the dispute between Muaviye and Ali as to who should be Caliph came about in this way: During the life of the Prophet, Ali once said to Muaviye that there was a question he wished to ask the Prophet. Feeling ashamed to do so himself he asked Muaviye to ask Muhammad who would be his successor after his death. He insisted that not only the first but the first four successors should be inquired about. Muaviye agreed and, because the Prophet at the time was in retirement, he put the questions through his sister Ummu Habibe Hatun who was a wife of Muhammad. The Prophet replied that Abu Bekiy would succeed him, that Omer would follow him, and Osman follow next. Then the Prophet, pressed to answer who would be the next Successor or Caliph, said that the one asking the question would be. For it was known to © the Prophet that the one really asking the question was Ali. But the Prophet’s answer was made an excuse by Muaviye for claiming the Caliphate since he claimed he was the questioner. Ali refused to render allegiance to Muaviye but instead claimed the right to demand Muavzye’s, because God had granted to him an “excellence,” fazilet, over all others. From him would come eleven descendants who would possess a similar ‘“‘ excel- lence,” but he would be the most excellent of them all. Muaviye naturally asked for proof, and Ali replied by uttering “‘ Seventy Words,” yeimis kelime, which defined his own identity and which became known as the Hutbetiil Beyan or “ Sermon of Explanation.”” The companions of the Prophet finding these words in accordance with both the Kuran and Tradition, hadtis, wrote them down and preserved them calling them The Book of Ali’s Identity, Kitabul enaniyett Al. Many commentaries having been written in Arabic and Persian on these Words, the author, a certain Seh Seyit Hiiseyin tbn Seyit Gaybt wishing to make them available also to the many who did not know Arabic and Persian ventured to put them into Turkish. The first twenty-five of the Seventy Words are as follows: t. “IT am he who has the keys of the unknown. No one after Muhammad knows them except me. And I know all things.” And ‘ladhi ‘indi mafaihu’l-ghatbi la ya'lamuha ba’du Muhammadin ghatrt wa ana bi-kullt shay’ in alimun. Accord- ing to a tradition from Ibn Abbas the Prophet while living said that God gave knowledge in six portions. One portion was given to the people of the world. Five portions were placed in Ali. The Prophet besides having said, ““I am the City of I4I THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES knowledge and Ali is its Gateway,” also said, “ The Kuran has its external meaning, za/ir, and its hidden meaning, bation, and in its hidden meaning are other hidden meanings even to the seventh and the seventieth hidden meaning.” Ali knows and can make known to all the external meaning, but the hidden meanings are known only to him. 2. “Tam the owner of the two ages, Zilkarneyn, * mentioned in the early books.” And Dhii’l-Qarnaint ’*l-madhkuru fv l-suhuft ‘-ald. The first age was from when God first granted the light of saintship and the pole of prophecy down to the time of the Seal of the Prophets. The second age is from Muhammad’s time onward when God “would make appear the saintship of Ali’s descendants. The first age was that of the Prophets; the second, that of the saints and the imams, 3. “Iam the proof, who has the seal of Solomon.” And Hujjatu ‘iadhi ’indt khédtimu Sulaimana ’bni Dadwida ’alathima ‘L-salému. That is, if my name were not on the seal nothing in the world would be obedient to it. 4. “I am the proof of all the prophets.” And Huyjatu LAnbiyad jami’an. It is by virtue of my light of Prophecy that all the prophets have been able to do their deeds. Mu- hammad himself bore this testimony. ‘‘I and Ali are of one Light.” . ‘T am the judge of all creatures.” And ‘Uadht ata- walla hisdba ‘l-khala’ikt ajma’ina. The proof of this is in the statement of Muhammad that; “Ali, the son of Abu Talc, is the one who will apportion the Fire and Paradise.” 6. ‘I am the Preserved Tablet,” And ’l-lawha ’l-Mahfizu. The angel of death, Azrail, can do nothing without my per- mission. 7. “JT am the heart of God.” And Qalbu ‘Udhi. As the Prophet has said; “‘ The heart of the believer is the House of God,” and, ‘“O Ali, thy flesh is my flesh; thy blood is my blood. He who knows thee, honours me, and he who despises thee, despises me.” 8. “I am the place of refuge of God,” And jannaiu ‘lah. That is, I am the court, dergéh, of God where the people may take refuge. I will cause to receive the mercy of God whoever leans on me; that is, whoever practises tevelld, who is a friend of those who hold me as a friend, and who practises deberré, who is an enemy of my enemies. g. “Iam the one to whom the Prophet of God said: ‘ The Way is thine and the Station is thine.’” Anda “lladhi qala Rasilu ‘lah salla ‘Udhu ’alathi wa sallama ’l-sivdtu sivdtuka va ‘l-mawgifu mawqifuka. Ali being the one who has not departed from the Straight Way mentioned in the first chapter of the Kuran, the right is his of inquiring at the first Station of the 1Ency. of Islam I, 962, see article Dhu'l-Karnain. 142 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Bridge of Szvat whether or not souls have loved Ali and his eleven sinless, masum, descendants. As God has said in his word: ‘‘Say; For this I ask no wage of you, save the love of my kin.’ zo. ‘‘I am he who possesses the knowledge of the Book, of all that has been and of all that is to be.” And ‘Madhi ’indi 4lmu ‘l-kitabi: makana wa ma yakin. tz. ‘“‘J am the first Noah and I am the Ark of Noah.” Ana niihunt Lawwalu wa and safinatu nahin. As the Prophet of God said: ‘ The Ark of Noah i is a parable, misal, of the love of the People of My House.” As salvation came to Noah by the Ark, so it comes to humanity by Ali. tz. ‘lam the former of the clouds,” And munshi’wl-sahabt. As the Prophet of God said: “The hand of saintship or sovereignty, vilayet elt, is Ali’s. He is appointed to watch over the clouds.” 13. ‘‘I am the one who causes people to hear the thunder and the one who makes the lightning.” <And mustami’u ’l-ra’ dt wa mubriqu’l-barqi. As the Prophet is reported to have said: “The voice of Ali in battle is like the sound of thunder.”’ x4. “‘I am the one who causes the rivers to flow.” And mutivru'l-anhay. As Abdullah ibni Abbas has reported the Prophet as having said: “Ali is the one who causes the foun- tains to pour forth and the rivers to flow.” 15. “I am the upholder of the heavens.” And ’l-Simaku 1-Sama watt. As Ibni Abbas has quoted the Prophet’s saying that in every heaven as he ascended on his midnight journey, miracg, he heard the name of Ali being praised. In answer to the question as to what language he talked with God on this journey the Prophet of God replied: ‘‘ My Lord addressed me in the language of Ibni Abu Talib.” 16. ‘‘I am the friend of Job, the Tested One and the one who cured him, and the friend of Jonah, of the great fish and his deliverer.” And sdhibu Aiyiiba ’l-mubtala wa shdaftht wa ana sahibu Yiinusa dha ’l-wint wa munjtt. The proof of this is that Job and Jonah were not cured of their ills until they interceded in the Name of Ali, and received their rescue from the light of Ali’s saintship. On the night of Mira¢ as the Prophet was returning from the talk with his Lord he was allowed to enter Paradise and there found himself face to face with the Sidre tree in the midst of and round about which were gathered houris and young men bearing on their banners the words: “ There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Prophet of God and Ali is the Saint, Velz, of God.” In answer to Muhammad’s question Gabriel replied that this was the tree of Ali whose leaves were for the healing of all troubles of the prophets. x7. “‘J am the light from which Moses took and by which 1 Kuran 42:22. 143 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES he was granted right guidance.” And niiru ‘lladht qtabasa musa minhu fa-hada, A tradition from the Prophet says that Moses received various kinds of learning from the light of Ali’s Saintship. 18. ‘‘I receive my sinlessness from God.” And ma’simun min *inda ‘lldht. Jf Ali were not innocent, sinless, God would never have sent down this verse: “O apostle, proclaim all that hath been sent down to thee from thy Lord.”+ With the authority of this verse Muhammad would never have pro- claimed Ali his legatee, vast, unless he had been sinless. It follows that Ali’s eleven descendants were also sinless. rg. “I am the’revelation of God most high.” And waht ‘Wih ta’dla. God’s revelation having been made known to the prophets in one hundred and four books, all that is in these books is made known in three books, the Tevvat, the Zebur and the Inctl; all that is in these three books is contained also in the Kuran ; all that is in the Kuran is revealed in the first chapter, the Fatiha; all that is in the Fattha is in the superscription, “Tn the name of God the merciful compassionator ”’; and all that is in that is in the point under the letter be; and Ali has said: “JI am the point under the Be.”? Hence it is proved that Ali is the Revelation of God. 20. ‘‘I am the one who speaks all the languages in the world.” And mutakallimun bi-kulla lughatin ft ’l-dunyd. This is a common saying among all the men of learning, that Ali knows the seventy-two languages. 2x. ““Iam the keeper of the knowledge of God, most high.” And khazinu ‘il ‘lah ta’ ila. This is in accordance with the doctrine accepted by all that ‘‘ Muhammad is the City of know- ledge and Ali is its Gateway.” ' 22. “TI am the evidence, or proof, of God for everything that is in the heavens and above the earth.” And hujjatu ‘lla ‘ala man ft ’l-samadwatt wa fawga ’l-ardina. The proof of this is in a tradition received through fbni Abbas that the Prophet said: “The Imams and the Evidence of God after me shall be twelve from the Kureish; the first of them shall be Ali and the last of them Mehdi.” 23. “Tam the evidence of God for the Jinn and for men,’’ And hujjatu ‘lah ’ald,’l-jinni wa ’l-inst. In proof of this is another tradition of the Prophet: “ Ali the son of Abu Talib, he is the Imam and the Evidence after me, and my child Hiseyin is the evidence of God and his brother, and they are the fathers of the nine evidences, and the ninth of them endures permanently, Kaimdir. 24. “T am the first and second blasts of the trumpet at the resurrection.” And ’l-vrajifatu wa and ’l-vadifatu. 1 Kuran 5:71. * This tradition from Ali is one oft quoted in Bektashi literature. Lf DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS 25. “J am that book in which there is no doubt.” And ahalika ’l-kitabu la vatba fi. That is, Ali is the real Kuran just as the Prophet has said in calling Ali the vocal Kuran, Kurant natik: and as Ali has said: ‘‘I am the vocal Kuran of God.” These twenty-five words of Ali are sufficient to show the general claims made for Ali in the whole book. The remaining forty-five continue in similar vein, asserting that Ali has in his hands the keys of heaven and hell!; that he is the meaning of the letters, Ref,he,ye, ayn and sad with which the nineteenth chapter of the Kuran begins?; that he is the real Kdbe*; that he is both Muhammad el Mustafa and Ali ul Murteza; and that he is described by all the ninety-nine qualities of God with the exception of divinity, diluhiyes*; power of creating, halk ; and of giving commands, emir. The Hutbettil Beyan, at least with its Turkish commentary, indicates both the supreme place occupied by Ali, and also the obvious effort being made to reconcile this attitude with the nominal authority given to the words of Muhammad. It is as though with a touch of ¢akiye, or dissimulation, the doctrine of Ali is being supported both for the benefit of new believers and for the benefit of possible orthodox critics from the outside. 4. The Twelve Imams We have already seen in the Seventy Words of Ali that all the sinlessness and divine authority attributed to him are also attributed to his descendants down to Mehdi. A considera- tion of the Twelve Imams need detain us no further here than to point out that in Bektashi literary expression there is no more common subject for praise than the Twelve Imams. In a nefes which is to be found set to music the following very character- istic attitude is expressed ® : Muhammad Ali established this Way. This is the rite of the Divine Reality for him who knows Reality. Without saying yes Deniers cannot enter it ; The Faithful enter. It is the place of the hero. '1 Forty-eighth word. * Fifty-third word. ® Sixty-fourth word. : ‘Sixty-ninth word. Note that dluhiyet was apparently attributed to Ali in the Nad: Alt prayer. ; . 5’ Nefes by Baba Gtinct, in Istanbul Konservatuvart Nesriyati, Bektast Nefeslert, II, 200. 145 K THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Bu yolu kurmuslar Muhammet Alt Hak bilene Hakkin evkdnidiy bu Minkirler givemez demeden bela Sadtklav giver er meydamidwy bu. This is what Hasan and Hiiseyin loved This is what Zeynel Abidin saw This is what Imam Bakr showed This is the faith of Cafer Sadtk. Hasanla Hiiseyinin sevdigi budur Leynel Abidinin gordigu budur Imami Bakirin gosterdigc budur Cafer Sadtkin tmanidiy bu. A King separated himself off from Musa Kazim His last fruit was my Patron Saint Bektash It is he who guided Rum aright; that rose faced moon, He is the King of the Aynicem. Musa Kdzimdan ayrilds bir sah Son meyvasr pivim Bektas eyvallah Rumu irsadeden ol gil yiizli mah Ayim Cem sahmerdamdiy bu. Imam Ali gave it to Taki and Naki Ali Naki made it known to Askers Muhammad Mehdi also attained to this secret. This is the rotation of Muhammad Ali. Imam Alt, Taki+ Naktye verdi Ali Naki, Askervye bildirds Muhammet Mehds de bu sirra erdt Muhammet Alintn devranidu bu. These names of the Twelve Imams were, according to a _ In the text as given in the Conservatory of Music publication the word Riza is in place of Taki, omitting Imam Taki altogether. The list of Twelve Imams in order is as follows : Imami Ali 5 Hasan i Hiiseyin » feynelabidin » Muhammet Bakiry Pa Cafer Sadik “ Musa Kdzim ys Ali Riza Muhammet Taki 1 Alt Naki 46 Haseni Askert ‘i Mehdi For a full discussion of the history and significance of the Twelve Imams see Donaldson’s The Shi'ite Religion. 146 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Bektashi treatise, revealed by the angel Gabriel to Adam when his body was black with sin. Gabriel told him to fast on the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth of each month and to men- tion the names of these twelve persons. Adam did so and found that each day his body, beginning from his feet, became white until on the fifteenth of the month he was all white, and after that whenever Adam was in difficulty he had but to men- tion these twelve names and immediately find the victory his. + This tradition was handed down to Muhammad, and reflects the theoretic belief of the Bektashi of retent times. 5. The Fourteen Pure Innocents In addition to the Twelve Imams, Bektashis also reverence the Fourteen Pure Innocents, on déri masumu pak. There is a tradition from Cafer Sadik that no one can properly be a Dede, or a Baba, or a dervish, or even a Mu/ip unless he knows the Fourteen Innocents, their names and their genealogies, as well as the Twelve Imams.? These Fourteen Innocents were all children of Imams, were martyred while they were young, and several of them were killed at the Battle of Kerbela in which Hiiseyin was also killed. The Bektashi books give the names of the Fourteen, the names also of their fathers, of the men who struck them down and the place of their burial. Unfortunately, the three manuscript records at hand differ from each other so much that it is not possible to reconstruct any common tradition for all the details. In general the three accounts agree on the following?: First Innocent—Muhammet Ekber, son of Imam Al, killed at the age of forty days. Second—Abdullah, son of Imam Hasan; killed when seven years old. Thivd—Abdullah Ekber, son of Imam Hiiseyin. Fourth—Kasim, son of Imam Hiiseyin, martyred at the age of three.® 1 Risalei Seyit Safeddin, p. 95 in Erkdnname No. 4. a Erkduname, No. 4, p. 203. ; * Donaldson’s Shi'ite Rel., p. 86 reports several sons of Hasan and Huseyin not counted among the Fourteen, 4In the writer’s volume of manuscripts called herein Bektashi Texts, pp. 118-120, and in the Evkdnname No. 4, pp. 200-203. Uyunul Hidaye at the end gives similar details for both the ae and the Fourteen Innocents. There is also a list in Mivatiul Mekasit, p. 225 ° The first two lists invert the order of the Third and Fourth Innocents, Uyunul Hidaye is in agreement with this order. 147 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES Fifth—Hiseyin, son of Imam Zeynelabidin, martyred at the age of six years. Sixth—Kasim Sait, son of Zeynelabidin, martyred at the age of four. Seventh—Ali el Aktay, son of Imam Muhammad Bakir, martyred at four. Exghth—Abdullah Asgar, son of Imam Cafer Sadik mar- tyred at three. Ninth—Yahya el Hadi, son of Imam Cafer Sadik mar- tyred at ten. Tenth—Salih son of Musa Kézim.* Eleventh—Tayyib, son of Musa Kazim. Twelfth—Cafer,* son of Imam Muhammad Taki. Thirteenth—Cafer, son of Hasan Askert.4 Fourteenth—Kasim, son of Imam Ali Nakt, martyred at three years of age by Mansur,son of Ibvahimot Damascus ; buried in Jeztre. We shall see later in our consideration of Hurufiism that these Fourteen Pure Innocents are considered special mani- festations of God along with Faima, Hadice and the Twelve Imams thus making twenty-eight in all, the number of the letters in the Arabic alphabet. 6. Hurufiism Hurufiism as an important element in Bektashiism has already been referred to. The interesting studies of Prof. E. G. Browne into the nature of this doctrine and his unexpected discovery that the doctrine was still living in the faith of thou- sands of Bektashis forms one of the fascinating pages in the story of recent research into the thought life of the East.® We have already seen how in the fifteenth century this sect spread through Asia Minor and for a time exercised a strong influence over the mind of the Conqueror Muhammad II.’ The truth appears to be that many, if not all, of the dervish So in Uyunul Hidaye and in Bek. Texts. In Erkdnname No. 4, the name is given as Abdullah III, who died at the age of four. * The two accounts give different ages, names of murderers and burial places. i Po in Uyunul Hidaye and Erk. No. 4. In Bek. Texts the name is Cafer adtk. ‘Soin Bektashi Texts, Son of Imam Ali Naki in Erk. No. 4; son of Alt Hadi, another name for Ali Naki, in Uyun ul Hidaye. ‘Among the manuscripts in the writer’s collection there are two accounts of the Fourteen Innocents counted in this way, in Erk. No, 4, pp. 1 and 2, and on the wall chart shown in Illus. No. 18. They thus appear also in a Catechism, Erk. No, 4, 21. *See above, p. 17; J.R.A.S., Jan., 1898, and July, 1907. * See above, p. 62. 148 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS orders of Turkey became to a greater or less extent influenced by Hurufiism.+ It was especially among the Bektashis, however, that the doctrine took firm root. The innate love of the followers of this order for the secret hidden truth made them fertile ground for this strange doctrine, and in the secrecy preserved by this order more closely than others this system, so open to attack on the ground of heresy, found the shelter needed to make possible a degree of abiding permanence. The doctrine, as we have seen,? had its beginning in-the year 800 (1398) when a man named Fazlullah of the city of Esterabad in Hovasan proclaimed himself a new Prophet in whom the final truth of God and the universe were revealed. - ‘According to him, God’s primal state was, as Islamic mysticism in general taught, an unknown First Cause who was indeed a “Hidden Treasure,’ Kenzi Mahfi, and whose first emanation or manifestation was in the form of the Word, Rkeldm. This Word in its original form was abstract and undifferentiated, keldm nefsi. As Ultimate Reality further revealed himself, this Abstract Word became separated and externalized into certain elements, the Twenty-eight letters of the Arabic alphabet and the thirty- two letters of the Persian alphabet. These form the elements of the Word Pronounced or Expressed, keldms melfuz. It is in their combination that the world of sense and consciousness came into existence. It is natural that, since God’s revelation of himself through prophets has been progressive, to each prophet should be re- vealed in turn an understanding of an increased number of these letters or elements out of which the universe was created. Thus to Adam was revealed a knowledge of nine letters, to Abraham fourteen, to Moses twenty-two, to Jesus twenty-four, to Muhammad twenty-eight and to the final prophet, Fazlullah, thirty-two. In the case of the last four, the number of elements each knew is the number of letters in the alphabet of the language in which the revealed book of each was written, twenty-two in Hebrew, twenty-four in Greek, twenty-eight in Arabic and thirty- 1See Abdul Baki's Meldmilik ve Meldmtler pages 103, 128, 284. 1See above p. 58. One of the best short statements of the doctrine of Hurufiism is to be found in Gibb i. 337ff. The description there follows in abbreviated form Browne’s Article in J.R.A.S., Jan. 1898. For further details and for a translation of some of the important Persian treatises, see Texts Houroufis by Huart, containing an essay on Hurufiism by Riza Tevfik E. J. W. Gibb Memorial .ix. 1909. *In many Hurufi books the numbers 28 and 32 are written as follows: 28< 32q=<= both being abbreviated forms of the Persian words for twenty-eight and thirty-two. 149 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES two in Persian. As this statement of the relationship of the various prophets to the known number of elements was one evening being explained to me by a well informed and very enthusiastic Hurufi-Bektashi in Albania, I asked how one could be sure that Adam knew only nine letters. With the assurance of complete confidence in the convincingness of his demonstra- tion my friend drew to him a piece of paper and wrote down the number one, to that he added two, then three, four, and so forth up to nine. The total equalled forty-five. He then wrote down the numerical value of the three letters of Adam’s name; elif equals one; dal, four; and mim, forty; again equalling forty-five. Adam was a simple man. One’s a priori judgment of him would be that he could know only the simple numbers ; ten would be a complex number. And one’s expecta- tions are proved to be true by the mathematical coincidence of the numerical value of his name’s equalling one raised in an arithmetical progression to nine. It follows then that by a knowledge of the meaning of the thirty-two elements known to Fazlullah the interpretation of the true and hidden meanings of all that had been revealed to the former prophets might be made known. Passive vehicles for the impartation of God’s revelations, the other prophets brought into the world God’s revelations. Now in Fazlullah’s teachings is to be found the key to unlock the meaning of all that had gone before. Keeping in mind this theory of the number of letters one can approach an understanding of Hurufiism as it is believed by the Hurufi-Bektashi when one adds to that theory a certain interpretation of the passage in Kuran 95:4 “ We have indeed created man in the best of forms.”’ This “‘ best of forms ’’ which man has can only refer to God’s own form and nature. There- fore man is, as we have seen Islamic mysticism in general to assert, the microcosm in which all of reality is manifested. Parallel with this passage from the Kuran is the tradition oft quoted among Bektashis, “ He who has known himself has known his Lord,” ? men avafa nefsehu fakat avafa vabbahu. This combination of ideas once understood, one can appreciate the inevitable urge to bring into this system all that has been said above about Ali and the other twelve Imams, the Fourteen *T was unable to get the proof of Abraham’s knowing only fourteen letters. * See chapt. on Relationships for a reference to the history of this tradition, Pp. 214. I50 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Innocents and the whole family of the Prophet who are in Bek- tashi thought epiphanies of God. As we shall see later, the total universe is revealed only in the whole body of man}; the face of man however, is sufficient to reveal both the elements out of which it was made and the special manifestations of God in the persons of the Holy Family. The following list shows how these appearances of God in persons and in letters are also paralleled in the face of man. ? Letter Person Part of the Face elif Ali Being one light with Mu- hammad indicates the hair. be Salth the Innocent Left side of the nose. te Kasim son of Huseyin The line between the right eye and the eyebrow. sé Abdullah I The line between the left eye and the eyebrow. cum Imam Alt Riza... One side of the left nostril. ha Imam Sehidt Kerbela (Hiiseyin) Right eye. ha Ali, the Innocent .. .. Right cheek. dal Imam Cafer Sadtk sar Je Bar zal Fatma, the mother of the martyrs .. Right eyebrow. ve Hadice, the mother of the Faithful Left eyebrow. ze Imam Mehds Right ear sin Imam Alt Nakt Upper eyelash of left eye. sin Imam Zeynulabidin : Upper eyelash of right.eye. sad Muhammad Ekber, son of Ali, (xst Innocent) . Right side of forehead. dad Abdullah the Innocent, son of Hasan Left side of forehead. tt Cafer son of I mam Taki, Space between right ear and (r3th Innocent) : the face. Z4 Cafer the Innocent, son of Askert .. 59 Left lip. § ayin Abdullah III . (5th Innocent) Right cheek. gayin Imam Hasan Left eye. See Illus. No. 17. * This list is taken oo pages 1 and 2 of the writer’s Evk. No. 4. similar list see Illus. No. 18 * Perhaps the upper lip or space between lip and left side of face. ‘ This is repeated here, for it has already been assigned to the letter fz. Evidently it should be the left cheek. I51 For a THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES fe Imam Bakiy, son of the oppressed i .. Lower eyelash of left eye. haf Imam Musa Kazim .. Lower eyelash of right eye. kef The Innocent Hiiseyin! .. Space between the cheek and the right eye. lam Kasim Satt Space between the cheek (6th Innocent) .. 7 and the left eye. mim Imam Hasan Askerr .. Side of the right nostril. nun Yahya el Hadi, the Inno- cent x a .. Right side of the nose. vav Kasim II, the Innocent .. Other lip (lower) or space between left side of lip and the face. he Tayyib, son of Kdztm .. Line between the two lips and the face. ye Imam Taki Se .. Mouth. pe Father Adam ea .. Right moustache ce Noah the Prophet .. Left beard. 4e Ibrahim Halil ie .. Right beard. nef The Seal of the Prophets (Muhammad) .. .. Left moustache. A slight examination of this attempt literally to find in the face of man both the elements out of which the universe is created and also the personal manifestations of God in the Holy Family is sufficient to show that the difficulties have not been well smoothed out. It is obvious that this is a general application of the idea rather than one on which detailed import- ance is placed. The chart in Illustration No. 18 exemplifies the same idea; its variations from this list, though slight, prove that Bektashis have not regarded the details as sacred. Hurufi literature as used by the Bektashis seems to indicate that the sect in its early days attempted to appeal to both Chris- tians and Muhammadans, for on the basis of the Hurufi theory of numbers and letters an interpretation is given of doctrines familiar to Christians as well as Muhammadans. For example, the Askname,? which is represented to be a translation into Turkish of Fazlullah’s own work in Persian, the Cavidan, made by Firisie O glu, in its second chapter tells of the coming of Jesus, who said that he came in fulfilment of the prophecies of earlier * There is no such Innocent mentioned in either the Bektashi Texts of the Erk. No. 4, lists. * At least two undated lithographed editions of this book have been printed in Turkey, The Wdsif ul Esray says that one of these editions came out in 1288 (1871). A MS. copy of the Askname in the writer's possession dated 1272 (1855) differs considerably, especially in containing more material. There are 272 pages in the MS. copy, 164 pages in one lith. and 127in the other. 152 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS prophets. “I came,’’ Jesus is quoted as saying, ‘‘ not to destroy the religion of God, but to fulfil it.”1 The Askname not only quotes the saying of Jesus that he is now going to the Father, and that the Father will send a Paraclete, but it even states that this is to be found in the fourteenth chapter of John’s Gospel, ‘‘ which is the most authentic Gospel,”’ kt asahh incildir, ® Both Jesus and the ulema and seyhs are in agreement that this Paraclete is the Holy Spirit. The meaning of this, the Askname says, is Muhammad, the Apostle of God. After Jesus died, six hundred years passed by and Muhammad came to the world testifying that he was the Paraclete? promised by Jesus, and that after he died it would be necessary for Jesus to come again into the world. After Muhammad’s death eight hundred years passed by and then came into the world the ‘‘ Possessor of inter- pretation,” sahibt tevil, who was recognized by those who be- longed to the party of believers as the Jesus whom Muhammad had prophesied. The first chapter of the Askname takes up the story of Joseph. The chapter by this name‘in the Kuran (Sure. 12) begins, as the two preceding chapters do, with the separate letters elif, lam, ve. The real meaning of the chapter is in the true under- standing of these letters. With the other letters similarly used in the Kuran at the beginnings of chapters, Ref, he, ye, aytn, sad, tt, sin, ha, mim, kaf, and nun there are fourteen such. If these letters are spelt out in Arabic three additional letters become included, dal in the letter sad, fe in the letter elif, and vav in the letter nun. This number corresponds to the farz vekdt s,or compulsory genuflections, in the salat or formal worship while in residence, called the Salat of Hazay.* There are, on the other hand, eleven vekdi’s a day required as farz for the Salat of travel, salatus sefer, and this number corresponds to the letters which are indicated with dots, hurufu mutesabehat. Be, te, se, cim, ht, zal, ze, sin, dad, z, gayin.® If you add to this eleven the four additional Persian letters, pe, ¢e, je, and nef you get Matt. 5:17. *MS. copy p. 15. * The origin of this idea seems to be in an Arabic gospel attributed to St. Barnabas, where instead of Pareclete, ‘‘comforter,’”” the word Periclyte, “famous” or “ illustrious’’ has been inserted. In that meaning the Greek word might be translated by the word Muhammad. See Sale’s Koran, Preface and Preliminary Discourse, Sec. IV. ‘ For the five prayers, two rekdt’s are farz for the morning prayer, four for noon, four for afternoon, four for evening and three for the sunset prayer. * Compare this list with the list on page 84 in J.R.A.S., Jan., 1898. In the above list the kaf is omitted; in the list as Browne gives it the be is omitted. 153 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES ' fifteen which is the number of farz rekdé’s in the cuma or Friday prayer. It is a knowledge of these letters and their hidden influence in causing worship to be ordained as it is that are the ‘dark sayings ’’ referred to in Kuran 12:6, the interpretation of which God promised to teach Joseph. The wolf which Joseph’s father feared (Kur. 12:13) is the state of not being aware of the divine lines in Joseph’s face. A very interesting illustration of the attempt to interpret the Old Testament from the Hurufi point of view is found in the sixth chapter of ther Askname where Kuran 7:156 is quoted: ‘“Whom they shall find described with them in the law.” The next few pages go on to explain the Tabernacle of Meeting as described in Exodus 26. This tabernacle is the Keble or direc- tion of prayer of Moses, and is a figurative reference to Moses. What are the fifty loops in one curtain, (Ex. 26:5) except the twenty-eight letters plus the twenty-two dots required to write these letters ? The fact that there were eleven curtains (Ex. 26:7) is but a figurative reference to the eleven vekdi’s of the Salatus Sefer, and the length of each curtain being twenty-eight cubits (Ex. 26:2) is again a manifestation of the Divine Word, the same word which was revealed in Muhammad but only fully inter- preted by Fazlullah. One of the best statements of Huruftism from the Bektashi point of view is in a small MS. book in the writer’s possession. 1 It is dated 1287 (1870) and is signed by El Hakir Hafiz Esat Caktr of the Family of the Mantle, the servant of Seyzt Mahmut Baba. ? Although the first pages are missing it is evident that the book begins with an attitude of reverent respect for Muhammad and allhe taught. All things were created out of love for Muhammad. The book continues with the statement that God was especially addressing the Prophet in the isolated letters occurring at the beginning of various chapters of the Kuran. The letters ye, sim, for example, beginning the so-called Yasin chapter are really an address to Muhammad. The letter ye stands for the vocative exclamation Ya or O, and the letter sin stands for Muhammad. “ O Muhammad thou art the wise kuran,” ‘‘ thou art of all the sent ones,’ “‘ thou art upon a right path.” Simil- arly with the letters kef, he, ye, ayn, sad which begin the nine- * The following pages up to p. 158, because of their tiresome details, may well be skipped by any except the reader seriously bent on relating in detail Hurufi-Bektashi teaching to the practices of orthodox Islam. * Probably the elder Mahmut Baba of Sehitlik tekke who died in 1277, 154 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS teenth chapter, each letter has a meaning. The kef, for example, stands for sufficient, k@fi; the Ae for hadi, guide, etc. Having thus begun with the orthodox attitude of granting to Muhammad the supreme place, the book passes on to find in Ali the secret by which what was revealed to Muhammad is to be known. “ Every book,’ Ali is quoted as saying, ‘‘ has its secret, and the secret of the Kuran is in its first: chapter, and the meaning of the first chapter is in the Bismillah, and the meaning of that is in the be, its first letter, and the meaning of that letter is in the dot which makes it be and I am that dot.” The Fatiha, or first chapter of the Kuran is called the Mother of the Book because it has seven verses and twenty-one letters ; when the sounds of these twenty-one letters are spelt out they involve twenty-nine letters and twenty-nine is the number of chapters which begin with independent letters. It was the function of Muhammad to bring down the word of God, and of - Ali to interpret it. Loyal to the idea of Serzat, first the book asserts that one must be faithful to all the five pillars of Islam, then it proceeds to give their true meaning. First there is the confession of God’s unity. Now, God’s name has five Arabic letters, and when each letter is spelt out there are fourteen letters in all. The same is true of the word Muhammad. The two fourteens combined make twenty-eight which together make the Divine Word. The word, “testify,” eshed with which the formal confession of God’s unity begins has four letters, thus making thirty-two which is the real essence of Reality, hakkin zats sertfi. Thus it is seen that the numbers twenty-eight and thirty-two are always indications of the Divine Word. The words la tlaha when each letter is written out produce fourteen letters, as do also the words ila llah, together making twenty-eight. We have seen how Muhammad’s name makes fourteen ; the words vesul ullah have fourteen letters in them, and so again twenty- eight is made. The orthodox ulema say the confession, but are ignorant of how the words really bear testimony to God. In the second place there is the Salat or formal worship which is one of the five pillars of Islam. This is of three special kinds, the Worship of Residence, salatu hazar, which has seventeen required or farz rekdt’s in a day, the Prayer of Travel, salatus sefey, with eleven vekd#’s, and the Friday Prayer, salatu cuma, with fifteen vekd#’s. The seventeen rekdi’s of the Prayer of Resi- dence are a reference to the fourteen different letters which 155 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES occur as letters at the beginning of chapters, kelimei mukatadt, plus the letters fe, dal, and vav which occur when the letters elif, sad and nun are written out. The eleven vekdt’s of the salatus sefey are but the eleven letters that are written with dots, and the fifteen rekdz’s of the Friday Prayer are these same eleven letters be, te, se, cim, ht, zal, ze, sin, dad, 21, gayin, plus the four extra letters of the Persian alphabet. These fifteen vekd?’s plus the seventeen of the Prayer of Residence equal thirty-two which is the Uncreated Word of God. The real meanifig of the Salat can be worked out in still further detail. The three joints, for example, of a finger of the right hand standing for the three parts of the word of testimony plus the fourteen joints of the fingers of the left hand equal the seventeen vekdt’s of the Prayer of Residence and these to- gether with the eleven of the Prayer of Travel make twenty- eight. All the details similarly show the divine revelation in terms of the numbers twenty-eight and thirty-two. The ablu- tion involves thirty-two cleansings, each hand three times, the mouth, the nose, the face, each arm and each foot three times, the head once, each ear once and the neck twice. The seventeen words of the Ezan plus the eleven of the tkamet equal the twenty- eight letters found in the face of the Prophet. The essential thing in the Salat is this understanding of its real meaning and the believing that it represents the word of God. The third pillar of Islam is the Zekdt or alms. The giving of one tenth of one’s income is in meaning the same thing as the extending of one of the ten fingers in sign of witnessing to the unity of God. The argument then follows closely the argu- ment in connection with the salat. The three joints of the finger plus the fourteen of the left hand equal both the seventeen unattached letters, kelimet mukatadt, and the seventeen vekdt’s of the Prayer of Residence. The fourth pillar is fasting, orug, for thirty days during the month of Ramazan. The twenty-eight and thirty-two letters are manifestations of God in accordance with which the thirty days of fasting are established.1 The twelve vekdt salat of Ramazan represents the twelve lines in the face of man, two eyebrows, four eyelashes, hair, two lines of the cheeks, i.e., the 1 The reasoning on this the writer confesses he is unable to follow: ‘“ When the moon makes its journey in twenty-nine days, the new moon appearing on the thirtieth, this is in accordance with the twenty-eight Divine Letters. When- ever the moon completes thirty stages, menzil, the new moon appearing on the thirty-first day, this is in accordance with the Thirty-two Divine Letters.” 156 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS side-whiskers, and the three of the lips, i.ec., the moustache and the goatee. These combined with the total of sixty rekét’s in a day during Ramazan equal seventy-two which is the value of the letters used in creation, kef (20) and nun (40)! plus two for their own number. Seventy-two is also the number of the constituent parts of the twenty-eight letters when they are spelt out in Arabic. The final pillar is the hacc or pilgrimage to Mecca. Although the commandment to make this pilgrimage is accepted as obligatory it needs to be remembered that the real Beytullah, house of God, or kzble, the direction of prayer, is the facé of man. The whole procedure of the pilgrimage indicates, as in the case of the other pillars, that the real meaning is to be found in the numbers twenty-eight and thirty-two. For example, at Mecca one makes the zawaf or circumambulation of the Kdbe, fourteen times?; the sawaf or the Umre® pilgrimage is seven in number, and one must run seven times between Safa and Merve, thus total- ling the sacred number of twenty-eight. The seven tawa/s represent the seven mother lines, haiti umm,* which also stand for the seven verses of the Fattha. The kissing of the Black Stone seven times is also a reference to the seven lines of Eve’s face. The seven tawafs of Umre represent the seven lines of man’s face, the (hair on the) two cheeks, on the lip, the two sides of the beard growing from the chin and the hair on the under lip. The seven stones thrown at Satan at Mina stand for the seven “ Mother lines’? which Satan did not recognize and on account of which fact he was accursed. The seventy angels which every day do the tawaf about the House of God correspond to the seventy-two letters less the hkef and nun. In other words to go on the Hacc means to know the signifi- cance of the Hacc. To physically go on the Pilgrimage a hundred times is of no avail if there is no understanding of the fact that the Hacc depends on the twenty-eight and the thirty-two letters. In ending, the book asserts, as the Askname does at the beginning, that Jesus said there would be one after him who would come from Hovasan and bring to earth a knowledge of the science he had tried to teach. The Prophet of God said that 1 The letters of the word ‘‘ Be,’”’ with which God created the world. * There are, for example, seven tawajs called kudum, performed on arrival, and seven called veda, performed on leaving. ‘A minor pilgrimage to Mecca at any time of year. ‘The Mother lines are the hair, the eyebrows, the four eyelashes, making seven in all. : ; ‘ These seven lines or signs are usually called the ‘‘ Father lines.” 157 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES “the Tree of Knowledge is in Mecca and the Fruit of it in Horasan.”’ When his disciples asked for an explanation he said that the interpretation would come from Horasan, Those, the book says, who do not understand that the twenty-eight and thirty-two Divine Words are in the face and speech of Man, are counted as animals and devils, for it is on that account they did not bow down to Adam. The Face of Reality, didar? hak is covered with the twenty-eight and thirty-two letters and these are manifested in the face of man representing the Beauty of God and the form of the Merciful. The line of argument followed in this book is thoroughly characteristic of the Hurufi-Bektashi point of view, and it serves to indicate the way in which this mystic combination of letters can be worked out in all departments of life. A favourite method of finding twenty-eight is to multiply any seven at which you may have arrived by four which is the number of elements.1 My much esteemed friend in Tirana, Albania, to whom I am much indebted for an insight into the real signifi- cance this system has for the enthusiastic believer, ended his conversation with me one night by asking if I had ever figured out the numerical value of Yahweh’s name. On my replying in the negative he wrote down: ye equals 10 he equals 5 vav equals 6 ye equals 10 eaf equals I making a total of 32 The necessity for adding the elif only showed that that was the true and original spelling. It was truly impressive to witness the enthusiasm of my friend as he thus proved to me the truth of Hurufiism. Even God’s name by which He called Himself is thirty-two. The practical result of the Hurufi-Bektashi teaching is to give so exalted a position to man as the supreme revelation of God that he, man, is to be worshipped. * The four elements are signs indicating the four extra Persian letters, the Uyun ul Hidaye, p. 14, says; so that in the Kuran and always before Fazlullah's day, the thirty-two letters were to be found. 158 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS 4, The Bektasht Secret From the beginning of this study of Bektashiism reference has been made to the Bektashi Secret. Books have been written on the subject ; articles have appeared again and again in magazines, all in an attempt to expose this famous secret. Before bringing to a close this chapter on the Doctrines and Beliefs of the order it will perhaps be well for us also to attempt to give our answer to this century-old mystery. It appears to be at least a three-fold one. Most important of all is its theological phase. God is viewed subjectively as experienced within. This has led in Bektashiism first to a practical apotheosis of man. The Ism: Azam, or greatest name of God, is even said to be Man. In the second place as a corollary of the foregoing it has led to a belief in special appearances of God in great men. Ali is the supreme example of this. A glance at the picture in Illustration No. rz shows this conception of Ali presented in the form of a secret creed, so devised that no one but the initiated can read it. In the second place, the secret is political, for Bektashis have been Caferites, believers in the Twelve Imams and deniers of the legitimate succession to the Caliphate of the first three Caliphs. We have seen in the story of the struggle of Selim against Ismail how important this phase of the secret was, causing the very heart of the Sultan’s armed force to be in sympathy with the enemy. Among the Bektashis the doctrine of seberré, or undying enmity for all those who do not love the children of Ali, and especially for the family of Yezit, who was responsible for massacring so many, is most positively taught. In the third place, the secret has been moral and social. Woman’s place among Bektashis has been unique in Ottoman history. To her has been ascribed the dignity of personality equal with that of men. The seclusion of Bektashi tekkes at localities removed from other houses, has had as one of its reasons the fact of equal participation of men and women in its rites. Although this fact has undoubtedly opened the way for degraded practices on the part of the self-seeking and the insincere it has at its best been a secret of the order making possible within’ the Bektashi tekke, a social life nowhere else countenanced among Moslems in Ottoman days. To these three phases of the secret should perhaps be added a fourth, the symbolic secret. The fact that the Bektashis used wine and vaki has been generally known in Turkey perhaps T59_ THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES during their whole history. The meaning of their use of it, however, as 2 Bektashi Baba has assured me is “ their secret.” Signs they use to recognize each other, the use of special phrases in their conversation are all a part of the symbolic side of their secret. For example, it is said that when a Bektashi entered a room where there might or might not be another Bektashi it was the custom for the entering Bektashi to close the small and ring fingers of his right hand, then placing over his heart the remaining three fingers open with the thumb up he would bow slightly holding the position for a moment quickly gazing from one to another of those present to see if his gesture was returned, Since the hand placed over the heart was a usual custom accompanying the word ‘“‘ merhaba’”’ as one entered and sat down in an assembly the position of the fingers would be likely to be noticed only by a Bektashi present. If there was no sign given in reply to show that there was a Bektashi present the new-comer might try another sign. With his right hand, fingers on one side and thumb on the other he would stroke his beard, or if without beard move his hand as if so stroking, and for a moment with fingers and thumb touching, let his hand rest just under his chin. On meeting, one Bektashi was said to greet another by touching his lips with his thumb then im- mediately lowering his hand to a position below his heart and a trifle on the left side, at the same time bowing his head for a few seconds. In shaking hands Bektashis were said to press the ends of their thumbs together, a sign that their hearts are attached to one another. In addition to these signs the Bek- tashis have expressions which are much used especially among themselves. Instead of saying “you” they say Sultan, “my Sultan,” or Nazarim, “my glance or my favour”; or Erenlerim, ““my ones who have attained.” Instead of the word “I” they said Fakiy, or “the poor one,” or Nazaron, “your glance or favour.’ A typical conversation between a visiting Bektashi efendi and his Baba might be like this, the visitor first having ceremoni- ously kissed the hand of the Baba : Baba: Ask olsun erenler, ‘‘ May your reward be the Divine Love, O you have attained to the Real.” 1 These signs are described thus in Ziya Bey’s articles in Yeni Giin, No. 14 Feb. 8, 1931. Other expressions used I have been told are for “No,” Hak vere, ““ may God give it;’’ for “bring a light,” bir mercan getir, literally, “bring a coral”; for ‘to give permission”’ destuy vermek, used also in sense of ‘‘ to give a diploma,” 160 DOCTRINES AND BELIEFS Efendi: Askin cemal olsun, ““May your love be rewarded by the happiness of beholding the Divine Beauty.” Baba: Kapryt strret, ““ Make the door a mystery,” but using the word savvy in the sense of shut, like the Greek word ptorns in its old etymological sense of pvew ‘‘ to shut the eyes.” Efendi: Eyvallah imanm, ‘ Yes, by God, O my faith.” Baba: Zilha Baci kaltbs dinlendirmis (or haka yurtimiis) ses geldt, ‘‘ Our sister Zilha has caused her body to have a rest (or she has walked to the Divine Reality) a voice (from her or about her) has come.”’ Efendi: Himmeti hazw ola sahim, “ May her spiritual influ- ence be ever present’ implying that she’ was a saint, and so living in the spiritual world and able to give help to this world. Thus we might continue with expressions taken from Bek- tashi ritual or used in a way which Bektashis recognize as their way of speaking. While other orders permit the presence of visitors at their zikvs or assemblies of worship the aynicem of the Bektashi has been strictly secret. Had the order not maintained secrecy its life surely could not havebeen sustained in the midst of a political environment where the influence of the ulema was so strong that a determined ruler like Muhammad II was compelled, apparently against his will, to deliver into their hands to be burned alive teachers he had come, in part at least, to believe. +? 1 See above page 62. I am indebted to Dr. Riza Teufik Bey of Syria for the general outline of the Bektashi Secret as given above, and for the statement that Man is regarded as the Ismi Azam. In the Third Word of the Hutbetil Beyan it seems to be stated that Ali’s name is the Ismi Azam. The element of confusion at this point is quite characteristic of Bektashi theology, the e’ements of a systematic theology existing but the formulation of them into a consistent arrangement never having been accomplished. 161 % CHAPTER IV RITES AND PRACTICES The student who is himself outside the ranks of Bektashi members may well approach with more than usual diffidence a study of Bektashi practices. When everything is secret it is little wonder if there are many points on which information is inadequate. As in the case of Bektashi Beliefs when it was stated that the difficulty of comprehensive study was increased by the lack of any formal agreement among themselves, even more here the developments of time and the lack of a close-knit organization with a unified control have resulted in variations of practice. 1. Degrees There does, however, seem to be general agreement on the use of certain terms to describe what might be called degrees: On the fringe of Bektashiism, for example, stands the asok. Literally meaning, ‘‘one who loves,’ technically it refers to one who is attracted by and feels a certain loyalty to Bektashi principles and practice but who has not actually taken the nasip*or initiation. In this sense the word may refer to interested inquirers who are in the process of being drawn into the order. They visit the tekke, talk with the Baba and regular members, perhaps listen to Bektashi music and the singing of Bektashi nefes'es. They are, in fact, candidates for full membership. The word may also be used to refer to members of the family of Bektashi members. Not themselves actually initiated they are, nevertheless, counted as members of the Bektashi community. Their babies are brought to the Babas for blessing. The Baba or Dede may even choose the name for the new baby. In time of trouble the Baba is consulted. On special days he is visited. The Bektashi Baba is, in fact, the pastor of a flock much larger than the bare limits of actual initiated membership would seem Literally meaning, “portion”’ or “share allotted’? and hence “ fate,” the word asip has general use among Bektashis in the sense of formal accept- ance by the initiation rite of Bektashi teachings. 162 RITES AND PRACTICES to suggest. In the case, for example, of the Tuvan tekke just outside Korge, Zylfo Baba who is both the head of that tekke and also Halife presiding over a wider area, told me that there were about two hundred actual initiated members in his tekke, and that for each such there were many aszk’s. As we left the tekke we passed a family group approaching the tekke and carrying a little baby evidently for a blessing from the Baba. At almost every tekke there is at least one tomb, often more. These tombs are places of sacred visitation. Not infrequently, especially among the more ignorant population, the Baba possesses books which aid him in the preparation of charms. Not only does the presence of a holy man buried there give efficacy, therefore, to the prayers of visitors but specific treat- ment is often given to individuals who consult the Baba regard- ing their particular ailment. We have already seen as an example of this, how in the home of one of the leading families of Albania a grain of wheat supposed to have been blessed by Haji Bektash himself was given to a mother from whom then, in answer to her prayer, a boy baby was born. People go in great crowds to visit sacred tombs. In the yard of one of the tekkes in Albania a drinking fountain. had been erected shortly before our visit so that the crowds could quench their thirst from the constantly flowing stream before undertaking the half-hour walk back to the city. The vast majority of such visitors would be aszk, not formally initiated members. In the family where the writer was visiting the father and uncles had been regular members: but the mother and her two sons and their families, although not initiated, nor even interested as candidates for initiation, were still regarded in the capacity of asik’s as members of the Bektashi community. The second degree? or stage of progress in Bektashiism is that of the muhip. With its literal meaning not greatly different from the word as?k, meaning “ one who loves,” or “an affec- tionate friend,’ its technical use is for one who has actually passed through the initiation rite, taken his mas7f and is there- fore qualified to sit in the formal ceremonies of the order. The ceremony by which one is made a muhip called the [kvaraywnt, 1 For the importance of graves see Hasluck’s Christ. and Islam, page 250ff. For a classic story of how a holy tomb may gain reputation when only an animal is buried there see Brown’s Dervishes, pp. 275-290, Rose, 308-322. 2 From another point of view this might more properly be called the first degree since the agik stage is really a preliminary condition of one still outside the order. 163 THE BEKTASHI ORDER OF DERVISHES ceremony of Confession of Faith, or the Aynicem, ceremony of Assembly, will be later described in full, It is of the very nature of Bektashiism that this initiation is open to men and women alike. It is this freedom for social intercourse between the sexes that has always been a distinguishing characteristic of the order. It is perhaps inevitable that Babas eager to have their tekkes grow in membership and influence should at times fall into the temptation of relaxing their standards and admitting as muhips those who come only for the social life which is forbidden by universal custom outside. It is also perfectly easy to see how any basis of this kind for scandal would be magnified by those leaders outside who not only are shocked at the secret taking down of social barriers but also made deeply indignant by the indifference to orthodox ritual and by the obvious theological heresy of the Bektashi order. When the Bektashis, therefore, are attacked for their indifference to the moral law it is never easy to distinguish between the possible abuse in actual practice, and the malicious gossip of those outside who are naturally in bitter opposition. + The third degree is that of “ dervish.”” This involves a further commitment of self to following professionally the religious life. On going through the necessary ceremony, often called the vakft vucut,* or dedication of body or existence, the dervish may then wear the official tac or headpiece of the order, . and not infrequently he makes his home in the tekke, serving the Baba. Sometimes it is said a muhip may serve in the tekke for ten or more years before he is admitted as a dervish. It is not a fixed time or a formal standard by which a muhip may qualify as a dervish. It is rather a case of a disciple’s sitting at the feet of his teacher ; a miirit, making spiritual progress under the authority of his miirsit, bound to give obedience to that mist and patiently awaiting the day when he may be advanced to a more intimate relationship with the order. Perhaps not a fourth degree, rather a special step sometimes accompanying this degree of “ dervish,”’ is the miicerret ayimt or rite by which one is made into a celibate dervish. We have already seen that Bektashiism possesses both a married and a celibate branch. Supposed to have been introduced by Balom Sultan about 1400 this celibate branch has continued down to + See bibliography p. 278 for a list of attacks that have been printed about the Bektashis. * This ceremony is not an elaborate one with formal ritual like the aynicem. It consists rather of a simple blessing, 164 RITES AND PRACTICES to-day, and has been particularly strong in Albania. The out- standing characteristic of the ceremony by which one becomes a celibate dervish has been, in the past, the boring of the ear of the candidate on the threshold of the Bahm Evi, House of Balm, at the central tekke in Haji Bektash Village. Since the abolition of dervish orders in the progressive Republic of Turkey, this cere- mony is now performed, I am informed, at the tekke of the Dede in Tirana, Albania. In token of having taken the vows of a celibate, miicerret, the dervish is entitled afterwards to wear in his ear a horse-shoe-shaped earring known as a mengus, said to be so shaped in memory of the horse-shoe of Ali.1 The fourth degree is that of Baba. By a special ceremony, a copy of the ritual of which the writer has not found, a dervish deemed worthy is elevated to the position of Baba, * in which rank he is ‘the head of a tekke, miirvgit to the seekers who ask for instruction and initiation, and pastor to the wider flock of those in families and among friends who look to the Bektashi Baba as friend and priest and adviser. To become a Baba a dervish may be either married or celibate. In the case of the married Babas a son not infrequently succeeded to the position of the father, and both the tekke buil