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THE
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
THE GUIDE FOR THE
PERPLEXED
BY
MOSES MAIMONIDES
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL ARABIC TEXT
BY
M. FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D
SECOND EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT
LONDON
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS LTD
New York : E. P. DUITON & CO
191c
Second Edition, 1904; Reprinted, 1910.
■r^l f?
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PREFACE
The first Edition of the English Translation of Maimonides' Dalalat
al-Hairin being exhausted without having fuUy supplied the demand,
I prepared a second, revised edition of the Translation. In the new
edition the three volumes of the first edition have been reduced to one
volume by the elimination of the notes ; besides Hebrew words and phrases
have been eliminated or transliterated. By these changes the translator
sought to produce a cheap edition in order to bring the work of
Maimonides within the reach of all students of Theology and Jewish
Literature.
M. FRIEDLANDER.
Jews' College, July 1904.
PREFACE TO VOLUME ONE OF THE
FIRST EDITION
In compliance with a desire repeatedly expressed by the Committee
of the Hebrew Literature Society, I have undertaken to translate
Maimonides' Dalalat al-Hairin, better known by the Hebrew title
Moreh Nebuchim, and I offer the first instalment of my labours in
the present volume. This contains — (i) A short Life of Maimonides,
in which special attention is given to his alleged apostasy. (2) An
analysis of the whole of the Moreh Nebuchim. (3) A translation of
the First Part of this work from the Arabic, with explanatory and
critical notes.
Parts of the Translation have been contributed by Mr. Joseph
Abrahams, B.A., Ph.D., and Rev. H. GoUancz — the Introduction
by the former, and the first twenty-five chapters by the latter.
In conclusion I beg to tender my thanks to Rev , A . Loewy, Editor
of the Publications of the Hebrew Literature Society, for his careful
revision of my manuscript and proofs, and to Mr. A. Neubauer,
M.A., for his kindness in supplying me with such inform^ation as I
required .
M. FRIEDLANDER.
Jews' College, Jnnt' 1S81.
CONTENTS
Life of Maimonides . ,
Moreh Nebuchim Literature.
Analysis of the Guide for the Perplexed
PACK
XV
xxvii
Part I.
Introduction —
Dedicatory Letter ....
The Object of the Guide ....
On Similes ......
Directions for the Study of this Work
Introductory Remarks ....
CHAPTER
I
II
The homonymity of Relent . .
On Genesis iii. 5 ...
III
On tahtiit and temunab
IV
On raah, hibbit and hazah
V
On Exod. xxiv. 10
VI
On iih and ishshah, ah and ahot
VII
VIII
On yalad .
On makom
IX
On kisse
X
On ' alah, yarad .
XI
XII
On yaihab
On kam
XIII
On' amad
XIV
On adam .
XV
On nazab,yazab ,
XVI
On Zur
XVII
On Mishnah Hagigah ii
. 1 .
XVIII
XIX
On karab, nagd , niggash
On male
XX
On ram, nissa
XXI
On 'abar
XXII
On ba
XXIII
On Taaa, shub .
XXIV
On hal'ak
XXV
On shaken
XXVI
On " The Torah speaketh the language
XXVII
On Targum of Gen. xlvi. 4 .
XXVIII
On regel .....
XXIX
On 'azeb .....
XXX
On ak'al
XXXI, XXXII On the Limit of Man's Intellect
XXXIII to XXXVI On the Study and the Teaching
XXXVII
On panim .....
XXXVIII
On ahor
XXXIX
On leb
XL
On ruab .
XLI
XLII
On nefesb .
On bayyim-ma'vet
man
Met
physics
I
2
4
8
13
14
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zo
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40,42
43-52
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IX
CONTENTS
CUArTBK
XLllI On ianaf
XLIV On'aym
XLV On s'bama
XLVI, XLVII On the Attribution of Scnsis and StMTJations to God
XLVlll The Targum of ibjmti and raah
XLIX Figurative Expressions applied to Angels .
L On Faith . . . . •
LI-LX On Attributes
LI On the Necessity of Proving the Inadmissibility of Attributes
reference to God
LII Classification of Attributes
LIII The Arguments of the Attributists .
LIV On Exod. xxxiii. 13 ; xxxiv. 7. . .
LV On Attributes implying Corporeality, Emotion, Non-existence and
Comparison
LVI On Attributes denoting Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom and Will
LVII On the Identity of the Essence of God and His Attributes
LVI 1 1 On the Negative Sense of the True Attributes of God .
LIX On the Character of the Knowledge of God Consisting of Negations
LX On the Difference between Positive and Negative Attributes
LXI On the Names of God ......
LXII On the Divine Names composed of Four, Twelve and Forty-two
Letters . . . . ■
LXIII On Eheh, Tab and Shaddai
LXIV On "The Name of the Lord," and "The Glory of God"
LXV On the phrase "God spake" .
,XVI On Exod. xxxii. 16
(VII On shahat and nab .....--
LXVIII On the Terms : The Intcllectus, the Intelligens and the Intelligibile
LXIX On the Primal Cause
LXX On the attribute rokeh hd arahot
LXXI The Origin of the Kaldm ....
LXXII A Parallel between the Universe and Man.
LXXIII Twelve Propositions of the /fj/'im .
LXXIV Proofs of the Kaldm for tbe creatio ex nihilo
LXXV Proofs of the Kaldm for the Unity of God
LXXVI Proofs of the Kaldm for the Incorporeality of God
LX)
rAGX
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59. 63
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■ 98
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lOZ
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113
IZO
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138
141
Part II.
The Author's Introduction. The Twenty-Six Propositions employed by the Philo-
sophers to prove the Existence of God ......
CHAPTtB.
Philosophical proofs for the Existence, Incorporeality, and Unity of
the First Cause ......
On the Existence of Intelligences or purely Spiritual Beings .
The Author adopts the Theory of Aristotle as least open to Objec
tions ........
The Spheres and the Causes of their Motion . . . .
Agreement of the Aristotelian Theory with the Teaching of Scripture
What is meant by the Scriptural Term "Angels"
The Homonymity of the term "Angel" ....
On the Music of the Spheres ......
On the Number of the Heavenly Spheres ....
The Influence of the Spheres upon the Earth manifests itself in fou
different ways ......
The Theory of Eccentricity Preferable to that of Epicycles
On the Nature of the Divine Influence and that of the Spheres
Three Different Theories about the Beginning of the Universe
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIH
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
H5
149
»54
,56
156
159
160
162
163
163
164
166
168
171
CONTENTS
XI
CHAPTER PAGF.
XIV Seven Methods by which the Philosophers sought to prove the Eternity
of the Universe . . . . . . .174
XV Aristotle does not scientifically demonstrate his Theory . . .176
XVI The Author refutes all Objections to Creatio ex nibilo . . .178
XVII The Laws of Nature apply to Things Created, but do not regulate the
Creative Act which produces them .... 178
XVIII Examinations of the Proofs of Philosophers for the Eternity of the
Universe . . . . . , . .181
XIX Design in Nature . . . . . . . . .184
XX The Opinion of Aristotle as regards Design in Nature . . .189
XXI Explanation of the Aristotelian Theory that the Universe is the
necessary Result of the First Cause . . . .190
XXII Objections to the Theory of the Eternity of the Universe . . 192
XXIII The Theory of Creatio ex nibilo is preferable to that of the Eternity of
the Universe . . . . . . . .195
XXIV Difficulty of Comprehending the Nature and the Motion of the Spheres
according to the Theory of Aristotle . . . .196
XXV The Theory of Creation is adopted because of its own Superiority, the
Proofs based on Scripture being Inconclusive . . . 199
XXVI Examination of a passage from Pirke di-Rahbi Elieaer in reference to
Creation ........ 200
XXVII The Theory of a Future Destruction of the Universe is not part of
the Religious Belief taught in the Bible . . . 201
XXVIII Scriptural Teaching is in favour of the Indestructibility of the
Universe ........ 202
XXIX Explanation of Scriptural Phrases implying the Destruction of Heaven
and Earth ........ 204
XXX Philosophical Interpretation of Genesis i.-iv. . . . . 212
XXXI The Institution of the Sabbath serves (i) to Teach the Theory of Cre-
ation, and (2) to promote Man's Welfare . . . 2l8
XXXII Three Theories concerning Prophecy . . . . .219
XXXIII The Difference between Moses and the other Israelites as regards the
Revelation on Mount Sinai . . . . .221
XXXIV Explanation of Exodus xxiii. 20 ..... . 223
XXXV The Difference between Moses and the other Prophets as regards the
Miracles wrought by them ...... 223
XXXVI On the Mental, Physical and Moral Faculties of the Prophets . 225
XXXVII On the Divine Influence upon Man's Imaginative and Mental Faculties
through the Active Intellect ..... 227
XXXVIII Courage and Intuition reach the highest degree of Perfection in
Prophets ........ 229
XXXIX Moses was the fittest Prophet to Receive and Promulgate the Immut-
able Law, which succeeding Prophets merely Taught and
Expounded ........ 231
XL The Test of True Prophecy 232
XLI What is Meant by "Vision" . 234
XLII Prophets Received Direct Communication only in Dreams or Visions 236
XLIII On the Allegories of the Prophets ...... 238
XLIV On the Different Modes in which Prophets Receive Divine Messages. 240
XLV The Various Classes of Prophets . . . . . .241
XLVI The Allegorical Acts of Prophets formed Parts of Prophetic Visions. 245
XLVII On the Figurative Style of the Prophetic Writings . . . 247
XLVIII Scripture ascribes Phenomena directly produced by Natural Causes to
God as the First Cause of all things .... 249
Part III.
The Author's Introduction and Apology for Publishing, contrary to the Teaching of
the Mishnah, an Interpretation of Ezek. i. . . . . .
251
Til
CONTENTS
CHAfTI*
I
II
III
rv
V
VI On
The " Four Faces" are Human Faces with four different peculiarities
The Hayyot and the Ojannim ..•■•••
Further Explanation of the Haj^yof and the Ofonnim derived from
Ezck. X. ..••••• •
The rendering of O/jn by Gilgal in the Targum of Jonathan .
The Vision of Ezckicl is divided into three stages : (i) Hayyot
( = the Spheres); (2) Ofannim ( = Earthly elements) ; and
(3) the man above the //'IVV'" (=^I"t<^"'6^"'^*')
the Difference between the Vision of Ezekiel and that of
Isaiah (vi.) ...•••••
VII The Different Ways in which the Prophet perceived the Three Parts
of the Mercahab (Chariot) . . • • •
VIII Man has the Power to Control his Bodily Wants and Earthly Desires
IX The Material Element in Man Prevents him from Attaining Perfec-
tion ....•••••
X God is not the Creator of Evil ....••
XI Man is the Cause of his own Misfortunes .....
XII Three Kinds of Evil : (i) That caused by the Nature of Man ; (2)
Caused by Man to Man ; (3) Caused by Man to himself .
XIII The Universe has No other Purpose than its own Existence .
XIV It is the Will of the Creator that the Spheres regulate the Affairs of
Mankind . . • • • • _ •
XV Impossible Things are not ascribed to the Creator, but it is difficult to
Prove the Impossibility in each Individual Case
XVI On God's Omniscience ....••••
XVII Five Theories concerning Providence . . • • •
XVIII Every Individual Member of Mankind enjoys the Influence of Divine
Providence in proportion to his Intellectual Perfection
XIX It is an ancient Error to Assume that God takes no Notice of Man.
XX God's Knowledge is Different from Man's Knowledge .
XXI The Creator's knowledge of His Production is Perfect
XXII Object of the Book of Job, and Explanation of the First Two
Chapters ....••••
XX HI Job and his Friends Discuss the various Theories concerning Provi-
dence ....•••••
XXIV On Trials and Temptations .......
XXV The Actions of God are Not Purposeless .....
XXVI The Divine Precepts Serve a certain Purpose ....
XXVII The Object of the Divine Precepts is to Secure the Well-being of
Man's Soul and Body ......
XXVIII This Object is easily seen in some Precepts, whilst in others it is only
known after due Reflection .....
XXIX On the Sabcans or Star-worshippers .....
XXX It is one cf the Objects of the Law of Moses to Oppose Idolatry .
XXXI The Law Promotes the Well-being of Man by teaching Truth,
Morality and Social Conduct .....
XXXII Why did God give Laws to Oppose Idolatry instead of Uprooting it
directly ?........
XXXHI Another chief Object of the Law is to Train Man in Mastering his
Appetites and Desires ......
XXXIV The Law is based on the ordinary condition of man
XXXV Division of the Precepts into Fourteen Classes ....
XXXVI First Class of Precepts, to Know, Love and Fear God .
XXXVII Second Class, Laws concerning Idolatry .....
XXXVIII Third Class, Moral Precepts
XXXIX Fourth Class, Laws relating to Charity .....
XL Fifth Class, Compensation for Injury and the Duty of Preventing
Sin .........
XLI Sixth Class, Punishment of the Sinner . . . . .
XLII Seventh Class, Equity and Honesty ......
VAGI
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CONTENTS
xtn
CHAPTER
XLIII Eighth Class, Sabbath and Festivals ....
Ninth Class, Prayer, Tefillin, Zizit and Meauzah
Tenth Class, The Temple, its Vessels and its Ministers
Eleventh Class, Sacrifices .....
Twelfth Class, Distinction between Clean and Unclean ; and on Puri
fication .......
Thirteenth Class, Dietary Laws .....
Fourteenth Class, Marriage Laws .....
On Scriptural Passages with seemingly Purposeless Contents .
How God is worshipped by a Perfect Man
On the Fear of God .......
Explanation of Hesed (Love), Miihpat (Judgment), and Zcdakah
(Righteousness)
On True Wisdom
Index of Scriptural Passages .
Index of Quotations from the Targumim
Index of Quotations from the Midrashim
Index of Quotations from the Talmud
Index of References to Other Works of Maimonides
Index of References to Works of Science and Philosophy
Alphabetical Index ......
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
XLVIII
XLIX
L
LI
LII
LIII
LIV
PAGE
352
354
355
359
366
370
372
380
384
391
392
393
399
409
409
410
411
412
412
THE LIFE OF MOSES MAIMONIDES
" Before the sun of Eli had set the sun of Samuel had risen." Before the
voice of the prophets had ceased to guide the people, the Interpreters of the
Law, the Doctors of the Talmud, had commenced their labours, and before
the Academies of Sura and of Pumbadita were closed, centres of Jewish
thought and learning were already flourishing in the far West. The circum-
stances which led to the transference of the head-quarters of Jewish learning
from the East to the West in the tenth century are thus narrated in the Sefer
ha-kabbalah of Rabbi Abraham ben David :
" After the death of Hezekiah, the head of the Academy and Prince of the
Exile, the academies were closed and no new Geonim were appointed. But
long before that time Heaven had willed that there should be a discontinu-
ance of the pecuniary gifts which used to be sent from Palestine, North Africa
and Europe. Heaven had also decreed that a ship sailing from Bari should
be captured by Ibn Romahis, commander of the naval forces of Abd-er-
rahman al-nasr. Four distinguished Rabbis were thus made prisoners —
Rabbi Hushiel, father of Rabbi Hananel, Rabbi Moses, father of Rabbi
Hanok', Rabbi Shemarjahu, son of Rabbi Elhanan, and a fourth whose
name has not been recorded. They were engaged in a mission to collect
subsidies in aid of the Academy in Sura. The captor sold them as slaves ;
Rabbi Hushiel was carried to Kairuan, R. Shemarjahu was left in Alexandria,
and R. Moses was brought to Cordova. These slaves were ransomed by their
brethren and were soon placed in important positions. When Rabbi Moses
was brought to Cordova, it was supposed that he was uneducated. In that
city there was a synagogue known at that time by the name of Keneset ha-
midrash, and Rabbi Nathan, renowned for his great piety, was the head of
the congregation. The members of the community used to hold meetings
at which the Talmud was read and discussed. One day when Rabbi Nathan
was expounding the Talmud and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation
of the passage under discussion. Rabbi Moses promptly removed the difficulty
and at the same time answered several questions whch were submitted to
him. Thereupon R. Nathan thus addressed the assembly : — 'I am no longer
your leader ; that stranger in sackcloth shall henceforth be my teacher, and
you shall appoint him to be your chief.' The admiral, on hearing of the
high attainments of his prisoner, desired to revoke the sale, but the king
would not permit this retraction, being pleased to learn that his Jewish sub-
jects were no longer dependent for their religious instruction on the schools
in the East."
Henceforth the schools in the West asserted their independence, and even
surpassed the parent institutions. The Caliphs, mostly opulent, gave every
encouragement to philosophy and poetry ; and, being generally liberal in
sentiment, they entertained kindly feelings towards their Jewish subjects.
XV
xvi GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
These were allowed to compete for the acquisition of wealth and honour on
equal terms with their Mohammedan fellow-citizens. Philosophy and poetry
were consequently cultivated by the Jews with the same zest as by the Arabs.
Ibn Gabirol, Ibn Hasdai, Judah ha-levi, Hananel, Alfasi, the Ibn Ezras,
and others who flourished in that period were the ornament of their age,
and the pride of the Jews at all times. The same favourable condition
was maintained during the reign of the Omeyades ; but when the Moravides
and the Almohades came into power, the horizon darkened once more, and
misfortunes threatened to destroy the fruit of several centuries. Amidst
this gloom there appeared a brilliant luminary which sent forth rays of light
and comfort : this was Moses Maimonides.
Moses, the son of Maimon, was born at Cordova, on the 14th of Nisan, 4895
(March 30, 11 35). Although the date of his birth has been recorded with
the utmost accuracy, no trustworthy notice has been preserved concerning
the early period of his life. But his entire career is a proof that he did not
pass his youth in idleness ; his education must have been in harmony with
the hope of his parents, that one day he would, like his father and forefathers,
hold the honourable office of Dayyan or Rabbi, and distinguish himself in
theological learning. It is probable that the Bible and the Talmud formed the
chief subjects of his study ; but he unquestionably made the best use of the
opportunities which Mohammedan Spain, and especially Cordova, afforded
him for the acquisition of general knowledge. It is not mentioned in any of
his writings who were his teachers ; his father, as it seems, was his principal
guide and instructor in many branches of knowledge. David Conforte, in
his historical work, Kore ha-dorot, states that Maimonides was the pupil of
two eminent men, namely. Rabbi Joseph Ibn Migash and Ibn Roshd (Aver-
roes) ; that by the former he was instructed in the Talmud, and by the latter
in philosophy. This statement seems to be erroneous, as Maimonides was
only a child at the time when Rabbi Joseph died, and already far advanced
in years when he became acquainted with the wTitings of Ibn Roshd. The
origin of this mistake, as regards Rabbi Joseph, can easily be traced. Mai-
monides in his Mishneh Tora, employs, in reference to R. Isaac Alfasi and R.
Joseph, the expression " my teachers " (rabbotai), and this expression, by
which he merely describes his indebtedness to their writings, has been taken
in its literal meaning.
Whoever his teachers may have been, it is evident that he was well prepared
by them for his future mission. At the age of twenty-three he entered upon
his literary career with a treatise on the Jewish Calendar. It is unknown
where this work was composed, whether in Spain or in Africa. The author
merely states that he wrote it at the request of a friend, whom he, however,
leaves unnamed. The subject was generally considered to be very abstruse,
and to involve a thorough knowledge of mathematics. Maimonides must,
therefore, even at this early period, have been regarded as a profound scholar
by those who knew him. The treatise is of an elementary character. — It
was probably about the same time that he wrote, in Arabic, an explanation
of Logical terms, Millot higgayon, which Moses Ibn Tibbon translated
into Hebrew.
The earlier period of his life does not seem to have been marked by any
incident worth noticing. It may, however, be easily conceived that the later
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xvii
period of his life, which was replete with interesting incidents, engaged the
exclusive attention of his biographers. So much is certain, that his youth
was beset with trouble and anxiety ; the peaceful development of science
and philosophy was disturbed by wars raging between Mohammedans and
Christians, and also between the several Mohammedan sects. The Mora-
vides, who had succeeded the Omeyades, were opposed to liberality and
toleration ; but they were surpassed in cruelty and fanaticism by their suc-
cessors. Cordova was taken by the Almohades in the year 1 148, when Mai-
monides was about thirteen years old. The victories of the Almohades, first
under the leadership of the Mahadi Ibn Tamurt, and then under Abd-al-
mumcn, were, according to all testimonies, attended by acts of excessive
intolerance. Abd-al-mumen would not suffer in his dominions any other
faith but the one which he himself confessed. Jews and Christians had the
choice between Islam and emigration or a martyr's death. The Sefer ha-
kabbalah contains the following description of one of the persecutions which
then occurred :
" After the death of R. Joseph ha-levi the study of the Torah was inter-
rupted, although he left a son and a nephew, both of whom had under his
tuition become profound scholars. ' The righteous man (R. Joseph) was
taken away on account of the approaching evils.' After the death of R.
Joseph there came for the Jews a time of oppression and distress. They
quitted their homes, ' Such as were for death, to death, and such as were for
the sword, to the sword ; and such as were for the famine, to the famine, and
such as were for the captivity, to the captivity ' ; and — it might be added to
the words of Jeremiah (xv. 2) — ' such as were for apostasy, to apostasy.' All
this happened through the sword of Ibn Tamurt, who, in 4902 (1142), de-
termined to blot out the name of Israel, and actually left no trace of the Jews
in any part of his empire."
Ibn Verga in his work on Jewish martyrdom, in Shebet Jehudah, gives
the following account of events then happening : — " In the year 4902 the
armies of Ibn Tamurt made their appearance. A proclamation was issued
that any one who refused to adopt Islam would be put to death, and his
property would be confiscated. Thereupon the Jews assembled at the gate
of the royal palace and implored the king for mercy. He answered — ' It is
because I have compassion on you, that I command you to become Musle-
mim ; for I desire to save you from eternal punishment.' The Jews replied
— ' Our salvation depends on our observance of the Divine Law ; you are the
master of our bodies and of our property, but our souls will be judged by the
King who gave them to us, and to whom they will return ; whatever be our
future fate, you, O king, will not be held responsible for it.' ' I do not
desire to argue with you,' said the king J ' f or I know you will argue according
to your own religion. It is my absolute will that you either adopt my reli-
gion or be put to death.' The Jews then proposed to emigrate, but the
king would not allow his subjects to serve another king. In vain did the Jews
implore the nobles to intercede in their behalf ; the king remained inexor-
able. Thus many congregations forsook their religion ; but within a
month the king came to a sudden death ; the son, believing that his father
had met with an untimely end as a punishment for his cruelty to the Jews,
assured the involuntary converts that it would be indifferent to him what
xviii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
religion they professed. Hence many Jews returned at once to the religion
of their fathers, while others hesitated for some time, from fear that the king
meant to entrap the apparent converts."
From sucli records it appears that during these calamities some of the Jews
fled to foreign countries, some died as martyrs, and many others submitted
for a time to outvvard conversion. Which course was followed by the family
of Maimon ? Did they sacrifice personal comfort and safety to their reli-
gious con\'iction, or did they, on the contrary, for the sake of mere worldly
considerations dissemble their faith and pretend that they completely sub-
mitted to the dictates of the tyrant I An answer to this question presents
itself in the following note which Maimonides has appended to his commen-
tary on the Mishnah : " I have now finished this work in accordance wdth my
promise, and I fervently beseech the Almighty to save us from error. If
there be one who shall discover an inaccuracy in this Commentary or shall
have a better explanation to offer, let my attention be directed unto it ;
and let me be exonerated by the fact that I have worked with far greater
application than any one who writes for the sake of pay and profit, and that
I have worked under the most trying circumstances. For Heaven had or-
dained that we be exiled, and we were therefore driven about from place to
place ; I was thus compelled to work at the Commentary while travelling by
land, or crossing the sea. It might have sufficed to mention that during that
time I, in addition, was engaged in other studies, but I preferred to give the
above explanation in order to encourage those who wish to criticise or anno-
tate the Commentary, and at the same time to account for the slow progress
of this work. I, Moses, the son of Maimon, commenced it when I was
twenty-three years old, and finished it in Egypt, at the age of thirty[-three]
years, in the year 1479 Sel. (1168)."
The S^/er Haredim of R. Eleazar Askari of Safed contains the following
statement of Maimonides: — "On Sabbath evening, the 4th of lyyar, 4925
(1165), I went on board ; on the following Sabbath the waves threatened
to destroy our lives. . , . On the 3rd of Sivan, I arrived safely at Acco, and
was thus rescued from apostasy. . . . On Tuesday, the 4th of Marheshvan,
4926, I left Acco, arrived at Jerusalem after a journey beset with difficulties
and with dangers, and prayed on the spot of the great and holy house on the
4th, 5th, and 6th of Marheshvan. On Sunday, the 9th of that month, I
left Jerusalem and visited the cave of Machpelah, in Hebron."
From these two statements it may be inferred that in times of persecution
Maimonides and his family did not seek to protect their lives and property
by dissimulation. They submitted to the troubles of exile in order that they
might remain faithful to their religion. Carmoly, Geiger, Munk, and others
are of opinion that the treatise of Maimonides on involuntary apostasy, as
well as the accounts of some Mohammedan authors, contain strong evidence
to show that there was a time when the family of Maimon publicly professed
their belief in Mohammed. A critical examination of these documents com-
pels us to reject their evidence as inadmissible. — After a long period of trouble
and anxiety, the family of Maimon arrived at Fostat, in Egypt, and settled
there. David, the brother of Moses Maimonides, carried on a trade in
precious stones, while Moses occupied himself uith his studies and inter-
ested himself in the communal affairs of the Jews.
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xix
It appears that for some time Moses was supported by his brother, and
when this brother died, he earned a living by practising as a pliysician ; but he
never sought or derived any benefit from his services to his community, or
from his correspondence or from the works he wrote for the instruction of
his brethren ; the satisfaction of being of service to his fellow-creatures was
for him a suthcient reward.
The first public act in which Maimonides appears to have taken a leading
part was a decree promulgated by the Rabbinical authorities in Cairo in the
year 1 167. The decree begins as' follows :— " In times gone by, when storms
and tempests threatened us, we used to wander about from place to place ;
but by the mercy of the Almighty we have now been enabled to find here a
resting-place. On our arrival, we noticed to our great dismay that the
learned were disunited ; that none of them turned his attention to the needs
of the congregation. We therefore felt it our duty to undertake the task of
guiding the holy flock, of inquiring into the condition of the community, of
" reconciling the hearts of the fathers to their children," and of_ correcting
their corrupt ways. The injuries are great, but we may succeed in effecting
a cure, and— in accordance with the words of the prophet—' I will seek the
lost one, and that which has been cast out I will bring back, and the broken
one I will cure ' (Micah iv. 6). When we therefore resolved to take the
management of the communal affairs into our hands, we discovered the ex-
istence of a serious evil in the midst of the community," etc.
It was probably about that time that Maimon died. Letters of condo-
lence were sent to his son Moses from all sides, both from Mohammedan and
from Christian countries ; in some instances the letters were several months
on their way before they reached their destination.
The interest which Maimonides now took in communal affairs did not
prevent him from completing the great and arduous work, the Commentary
on the Mishnah, which he had begun in Spain and continued during his
wanderings in Africa. In this Commentary he proposed to give the quint-
essence of the Gemara, to expound the meaning of each dictum in the Mish-
nah, and to state which of the several opinions had received the sanction of
the Talmudical authorities. His object in writing this work was to enable
those who are not disposed to study the Gemara, to understand the Mishnah,
and to facilitate the study of the Gemara for those who are willing to engage
in it. The commentator generally adheres to the explanations given in the
Gemara, and it is only in cases where the halakah, or practical law, is not
affected, that he ventures to dissent. lie acknowledges the benefit he de-
rived from such works of his predecessors as the Halakot of Alfasi, and the
writings of the Geonim, but afterwards he asserted that errors which were
discovered in his works arose from his implicit reliance on those authorities.
His originality is conspicuous in the Introduction and in the treatment of
general principles, which in some instances precedes the exposition of an
entire section or chapter, in others that of a single rule. The commentator
is generally concise, except when occasion is afforded to treat of ethical and
theological principles, or of a scientific subject, such as weights and measures,
or mathematical and astronomical problems. Although exhortations to
virtue and warnings against vice are found in aU parts of his work, they are
especially abundant in the Commentary on Abot, which is prefaced by a
XX GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
separate psychological treatise, called The Eight Chapters. The dictum
" He who speaketh much commits a sin," elicited a lesson on the economy of
speech ; the explanation of 'olam ha-ha in the treatise Sanhedrin (xi. l) led
him to discuss the principles of faith, and to lay down the thirteen articles
of the Jewish creed. The Commentary was written in Arabic, and was
subsequently translated into Hebrew and into other languages. The esti-
mation in which the Commentary was held may be inferred from the follow-
ing fact : When the Jews in Italy became acquainted with its method and
spirit, through a Hebrew translation of one of its parts, they sent to Spain
in search of a complete Hebrew version of the Commentary. R. Simhah,
who had been entrusted with the mission, found no copy extant, but he
succeeded, through the influence of Rabbi Shelomoh ben Aderet, in causing
a Hebrew translation of this important work to be prepared. — In the Intro-
duction, the author states that he has written a Commentary on the Baby-
lonian Talmud treatise Hullin and on nearly three entire sections, viz., Moed,
Nashim, and Nezikin. Of all these Commentaries only the one on Rosh
ha-shanah is known.
In the year 1 1 72 Maimonides wrote the Iggeret Teman, or Petah-tikvah
(" Letter to the Jews in Yemen," or " Opening of hope ") in response to a
letter addressed to him by Rabbi Jacob al-Fayumi on the critical condition
of the Jews in Yemen. Some of these Jews had been forced into apostasy ;
others were made to believe that certain passages in the Bible alluded to the
mission of Mohammed ; others again had been misled by an impostor who
pretended to be the Messiah. The character and style of Maimonides' reply
appear to have been adapted to the intellectual condition of the Jews in
Yemen, for whom it was written. These probably read the Bible with
Midrashic commentaries, and preferred the easy and attractive Agadah to
the more earnest study of the Halakah. It is therefore not surprising that
the letter contains remarks and interpretations which cannot be reconciled
with the philosophical and logical method by which all the other works of
Maimonides are distinguished. After a few complimentary words, in which
the author modestly disputes the justice of the praises lavished upon him,
he attempts to prove that the present sufferings of the Jews, together with
the numerous instances of apostasy, were foretold by the prophets, especially
by Daniel, and must not perplex the faithful. It must be borne in mind, he
continues, that the attempts made in past times to do away with the Jewish
religion, had invariably failed ; the same would be the fate of the present
attempts ; for " religious persecutions are of but short duration." The
arguments which profess to demonstrate that in certain Biblical passages
allusion is made to Mohammed, are based on interpretations which are totally
opposed to common sense. He urges that the Jews, faithfully adhering to
their religion, should impress their children with the greatness of the Reve-
lation on Mount Sinai, and of the miracles wrought through Moses ; they
also should remain firm in the belief that God will send the Messiah to deliver
their nation, but they must abandon futile calculations of the Messianic
period, and beware of impostors. Although there be signs which indicate
the approach of the promised deliverance, and the times seem to be the
period of the last and most cruel persecution mentioned in the visions of
Daniel (xi. and xii.), the person in Yemen who pretends to be the Messiah
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxi
is an impostor, and if care be not taken, he is sure to do mischief.^ Similar
impostors in Cordova, France, and Africa, have deceived the multitude and
brought great troubles upon the Jews.— Yet, inconsistently with this sound
advice the author gives a positive date of the Messianic time, on the basis of
an old tradition ; the inconsistency is so obvious that it is impossible to
attribute this passage to Maimonides himself. It is probably spurious, and
has, perhaps, been added by the translator. With the exception of the
rhymed introduction, the letter was written in Arabic, " in order that all
should be able to read and understand it " ; for that purpose the author
desires that copies should be made of it, and circulated among the Jews.
Rabbi Nahum, of the Maghreb, translated the letter into Hebrew.
The success in the first great undertaking of explaining the Mishnah en-
couraged Maimonides to propose to himself another task of a still more
ambitious character. In the Commentary on the Mishnah, it was his object
that those who were unable to read the Gemara should be made acquainted
with the results obtained by the Amoraim in the course of their discussions
on the Mishnah. But the Mishnah, with the Commentary, was not such a
code of laws as might easily be consulted in cases of emergency ; only the
initiated would be able to find the section, the chapter, and the paragraph
in which the desired information could be found. The halakah had, be-
sides, been further developed since the time when the Talmud was compiled.
The changed state of things had suggested new questions ; these were dis-
cussed and settled by the Geonim, whose decisions, being contained in special
letters or treatises, were not generally accessible. Maimonides therefore
undertook to compile a complete code, which would contain, in the language
and style of the Mishnah, and without discussion, the whole of the Written
and the Oral Law, all the precepts recorded in the Talmud, Sifra, Sifre and
Tosefta, and the decisions of the Geonim. According to the plan of the
author, this work was to present a solution of every question touching the
religious, moral, or social duties of the Jews. It was not in any way his ob-
ject to discourage the study of the Talmud and the Midrash ; he only sought
to diffuse a knowledge of the Law amongst those who, through incapacity or
other circumstances, were precluded from that study. In order to ensure
the completeness of the code, the author drew up a list of the six hundred
and thirteen precepts of the Pentateuch, divided them into fourteen groups,
these again he subdivided, and thus showed how many positive and negative
precepts were contained in each section of the Mishneh torah. The prin-
ciples by which he was guided in this arrangement were laid down in a
separate treatise, called Sefer ha-mizvot. Works of a similar kind, written
by his predecessors, as the Halakot gedolot of R. Shimon Kahira, and the
several Azharot were, according to Maimonides, full of errors, because their
authors had not adopted any proper method. But an examination of the
rules laid down by Maimonides and of their application leads to the conclu-
sion that his results were not less arbitrary ; as has, in fact, been shown by
the criticisms of Nahmanides. The Sejer Z^^-w/zt'o/ was written in Arabic,
and thrice translated into Hebrew, namely, by Rabbi Abraham ben Hisdai,
Rabbi Shelomoh ben Joseph ben Job, and Rabbi Moses IbnTibbon. Mai-
monides himself desired to translate the book into Hebrew, but to his dis-
appointment he found no time.
xxii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
This Sefer ha-mizvot was executed as a preparation for his principal work,
the Mishneh Torah, or Tad ha-hazakah, which consists of an Introduction
and fourteen Books. In the Introduction the author first describes the
chain of tradition from Moses to the close of the Talmud, and then he ex-
plains his method in compiling the work. He distinguishes between the
dicta found in the Talmud, Sifre, Sifra, or Tosefta, on the one hand, and the
dicta of the Geonim on the other ; the former were binding on all Jews, the
latter only as far as their necessity and their utility or the authority of their
propounders was recognized. Having once for all stated the sources from
which he compiled his work, he did not deem it necessary to name in each
case the authority for his opinion or the particular passage from which he
derived his dictum.' Any addition of references to each paragraph he prob-
ably considered useless to the uninformed and superfluous to the learned.
At a later time he discovered his error, he being himself unable to find again
the sources of some of his decisions. Rabbi Joseph Caro, in his commentary
on the Mishneh Torah, termed Keseph Mishneh, remedied this deficiency.
The Introduction is followed by the enumeration of the six hundred and
thirteen precepts and a description of the plan of the work, its division into
fourteen books, and the division of the latter into sections, chapters, and
paragraphs.
According to the author, the Mishneh Torah is a mere compendium of the
Talmud; but he found sufficient opportunities to display his real genius, his
philosophical mind, and his ethical doctrines. For in stating what the tra-
ditional Law enjoined he had to exercise his own judgment, and to decide
whether a certain dictum was meant to be taken literally or figuratively ;
whether it was the final decision of a majority or the rejected opinion of a
minority ; whether it was part of the Oral Law or a precept founded on the
scientific views of a particular author ; and whether it was of universal appli-
cation or was only intended for a special period or a special locality. The
first Book, Sejer ha-madda', is the embodiment of his own ethical and theo-
logical theories, although he frequently refers to the Sayings of our Sages,
and employs the phraseology of the Talmud. Similarly, the section on the
Jewish Calendar, Hilkot ha-ibur, may be considered as his original work.
In each group of the halakot, its source, a certain passage of the Pentateuch,
is first quoted, with its traditional interpretation, and then the detailed rules
follow in systematic order. The Mishneh Torah was written bv the author
in pure Hebrew ; when subsequently a friend asked him to translate it into
Arabic, he said he would prefer to have his Arabic writings translated into
Hebrew instead of the reverse. The style is an imitation of the Mishnah ;
he did not choose, the author says, the philosophical style, because that would
be unintelligible to the common reader ; nor did he select the prophetic
style, because that would not harmonize with the subject.
Ten years of hard work by day and by night were spent in the compilation
of this code, which had originally been undertaken for " his own benefit, to
save him in his advanced age the trouble and the necessity of consulting the
Talmud on every occasion." Maimonidcs knew very well that his work
would meet with the opposition of those whose ignorance it would expose,
also of those who were incapable of comprehending it, and of those who were
inclined to condemn every deviation from their own preconceived notions.
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxiii
But he had the satisfaction to learn that it was well received in most of the
congregations of Israel, and that there was a general desire to possess and
study it. This success confirmed him in his hope that at a later time, when
all cause for jealousy would have disappeared, the Mishneh Torah would be
received by all Jews as an authoritative code. This hope has not been real-
ized. The genius, earnestness, and zeal of Maimonides are generally recog-
nized ; but there is no absolute acceptance of his dicta. The more he
insisted on his infallibility, the more did the Rabbinical authorities examine
his words and point out errors wherever they believed that they could dis-
cover any. It was not always from base motives, as contended by Maimon-
ides and his followers, that his opinions were criticised and rejected. The
language used by Rabbi Abraham ben David in his notes (hasagot) on the
Mishneh Torah appears hars hand disrespectful, if read together with the
text of the criticised passage, but it seems tame and mild if compared with
expressions used now and then by Maimonides about men who happened to
hold opinions differing from his own.
Maimonides received many complimentary letters, congratulating him
upon his success ; but likewise letters with criticisms and questions respecting
individual halakot. In most cases he had no difficulty in defending his
position. From the replies it must, however, be inferred that Maimonides
made some corrections and additions, which were subsequently embodied in
his work. The letters addressed to him on the Mishneh Torah and on other
subjects were so numerous that he frequently complained of the time he had
to spend in their perusal, and of the annoyance they caused him ; but " he
bore all this patiently, as he had learned in his youth to bear the yoke."
He was not surprised that many misunderstood his words, for even the sirpple
words of the Pentateuch, " the Lord is one," had met with the same fate.
Some inferred from the fact that he treated fully of 'Olam ha-ba, " the future
state of the soul," and neglected to expatiate on the resurrection of the dead,
that he altogether rejected that principle of faith. They therefore asked
Rabbi Samuel ha-levi of Bagdad to state his opinion ; the Rabbi accordingly
discussed the subject ; but, according to Maimonides, he attempted to solve
the problem in a very unsatisfactory manner. The latter thereupon likewise
wrote a treatise " On the Resurrection of the Dead," in which he protested
his adherence to this article of faith. He repeated the opinion he had stated
in the Commentary on the Mishnah and in the Mishneh Torah, but " in
more words ; the same idea being reiterated in various forms, as the treatise
was only intended for women and for the common multitude."
These theological studies engrossed his attention to a great extent, but it
did not occupy him exclusively. In a letter addressed to R. Jonathan, of
Luncl, he says: "Although from my birth the Torah was betrothed to me, and
continues to be loved by me as the wife of my youth, in whose love I find a
constant delight, strange women whom I at first took into my house as her
handmaids have become her rivals and absorb a portion of my time." He
devoted himself especially to the study of medicine, in which he distinguished
himself to such a degree, according to Alkifti, that " the King of the Franks
in Ascalon wanted to appoint him as his physician." Maimonides declined
the honour. Alfadhel, the Vizier of Saladin king of Egypt, admired the
genius of Maimonides, and bestowed upon him many distinctions. The
xxiv GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
name of Maimonides was entered on the roll of physicians, he received a pen-
sion, and was introduced to the court of Saladin. The method adopted in
his professional practice he describes in a letter to his pupil, Ibn Aknin, as
follows : " You know how difficult this profession is for a conscientious and
exact person who only states what he can support by argument or authority."
This method is more fully described in a treatise on hygiene, composed for
Alfadhel, son of Saladin, who was suffering from a severe illness and had
applied to Maimonides for advice. In a letter to Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon
he alludes to the amount of time spent in his medical practice, and says :
" I reside in Egypt (or Fostat) ; the king resides in Cairo, which lies about
two Sabbath-day journeys from the first-named place. My duties to the
king are very heavy. I am obliged to visit him every day, early in the morn-
ing ; and when he or any of his children or the inmates of his harem are
indisposed, I dare not quit Cairo, but must stay during the greater part of
the day in the palace. It also frequently happens that one or two of the
royal officers fall sick, and then I have to attend them. As a rule, I go to
Cairo very early in the day, and even if nothing unusual happens I do not
return before the afternoon, when I am almost dying with hunger ; but I
find the antechambers filled with Jews and Gentiles, with nobles and common
people, awaiting my return," etc.
Notwithstanding these heavy professional duties of court physician, Mai-
monides continued his theological studies. After having compiled a religious
guide — Mishneh Torah — based on Revelation and Tradition, he found it
necessary to prove that the principles there set forth were confirmed by
philosophy. This task he accomplished in his Dalaldt al-ha'inn, " The Guide
for the Perplexed," of which an analysis will be given below. It was composed
in Arabic, and written in Hebrew characters. Subsequently it was trans-
lated into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon, in the lifetime of Maimon-
ides, who was consulted by the translator on all difficult passages. The
congregation in Luncl, ignorant of Ibn Tibbon's undertaking, or desirous to
possess the most correct translation of the Guide, addressed a very flattering
letter to Maimonides, requesting him to translate the work into Hebrew.
Maimonides replied that he could not do so, as he had not sufficient leisure
for even more pressing work, and that a translation was being prepared by
the ablest and fittest man. Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon. A second translation
was made later on by Jehudah Alharizi. The Guide delighted many, but
it also met with much adverse criticism on account of the peculiar views held
by Maimonides concerning angels, prophecy, and miracles, especially on
account of his assertion that if the Aristotelian proof for the Eternity of the
Universe had satisfied him, he would have found no difficulty in reconciling
the Biblical account of the Creation with that doctrine. The controversy
on the Guide continued long after the death of Maimonides to divide the
community, and it is difficult to say how far the author's hope to effect a
reconciliation between reason and revelation was realized. His disciple,
Joseph Ibn Aknin, to whom the work was dedicated, and who was expected
to derive from it the greatest benefit, appears to have been disappointed.
His inability to reconcile the two antagonistsic elements of faith and science,
he describes allegorically in the form of a letter addressed to Maimonides, in
which the following passage occurs : " Speak, for I desire that you be justi-
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxv
fied ; if you can, answer me. Some time ago your beloved daughter, the
beautiful and charming Kimah, obtained grace and favour in my sight, and
I betrothed her unto me in faithfulness, and married her in accordance with
the Law, in the presence of two trustworthy witnesses, viz., our master,
Abd-allah and Ibn Roshd. But she soon became faithless to me ; she could
not have found fault with me, yet she left me and departed from my tent.
She does no longer let me behold her pleasant countenance or hear her melo-
dious voice. You have not rebuked or punished her, and perhaps you are
the cause of this misconduct. Now, ' send the wife back to the man, for he
is ' — or might become — ' a prophet ; he wiU pray for you that you may live,'
and also for her that she may be firm and steadfast. If, however, you do not
send her back, the Lord will punish you. Therefore seek peace and pursue
it ; listen to what our Sages said : ' Blessed be he who restores to the owner
his lost property ' ; for this blessing applies in a higher degree to him who
restores to a man his virtuous wife, the crown of her husband." Maimonides
replied in the same strain, and reproached his " son-in-law " that he falsely
accused his wife of faithlessness after he had neglected her ; but he restored
him his wife with the advice to be more cautious in future. In another letter
Maimonides exhorts Ibn Aknin to study his works, addii^g, " apply yourself
to the study of the Law of Moses ; do not neglect it, but, on the contrary,
devote to it the best and the most of your time, and if you tell me that you
do so, I am satisfied that you are on the right way to eternal bliss."
Of the letters written after the completion of the" Guide," the one addressed
to the wise men of Marseilles (1194) is especially noteworthy. Maimonides
was asked to give his opinion on astrology. He regretted in his reply that
they were not yet in the possession of his Mishneh Torah ; they would have
found in it the answer to their question. According to his opinion, man
should only believe what he can grasp with his intellectual faculties, or per-
ceive by his senses, or what he can accept on trustworthy authority. Beyond
this nothing should be believed. Astrological statements, not being founded
on any of these three sources of knowledge, must be rejected. He had himself
studied astrology, and was convinced that it was no science at all. If some
dicta be found in the Talmud which appear to represent astrology as a true
source of knowledge, these may either be referred to the rejected opinion of
a small minority, or may have an allegorical meaning, but they are by no
means forcible enough to set aside principles based on logical proof.
The debility of which Maimonides so frequently complained in his cor-
respondence, gradually increased, and he died, in his seventieth year, on the
20th Tebeth, 4965 (1204). His death was the cause of great mourning to
all Jews. In Fostat a mourning of three days was kept ; in Jerusalem a fast
was appointed ; a portion of the tochahah (Lev. xxvi. or Deut. xxix.) was
read, and also the history of the capture of the Ark by the Philistines (i Sam.
iv.). His remains were brought to Tiberias. The general regard in which
Maimonides was held, both by his contemporaries and by succeeding gener-
ations, has been expressed in the popular saying : " From Moses to Moses
there was none like Moses."
THE MOREH NEBUCHIM LITERATURE
I. The Arabic Text. — The editio frinceps, the only edition of the original
text of the Guide (in Arabic, DHil, or Dalalat al-ha'irin), was undertaken
and executed by the late S. Munk. Its title is : Le Guide des Egares, traite
de Theologie et de Philosophie far Mo'ise ben Maimon, publie four la fremihe
fois dans Voriginal Arabe, et accomfagne d'une traduction Franfaise et de notes
critiques, litter aires et exflicatives, far S. Munk (Paris, 1 850-1 866). The
plan was published, 1833, in Reflexions sur le culte des anciens Hebreux (La
Bible, par S. Cahen, vol. iv.), with a specimen of two chapters of the Third
Part. The text adopted has been selected from the several MSS. at his
disposal with great care and judgment. Two Leyden MSS. (cod. 18 and
221), various MSS. of the Bibliotheque Nationale (No. 760, very old ; 761
and 758, written by R. Saadia Ibn Danan), and some MSS. of the Bodleian
Library were consulted. In the notes which accompany the French trans-
lation, the various readings of the different MSS. are fully discussed. At
the end of the third volume a list is added of " Variantes des Manuscrits
Arabes et des deux Versions Hebraiqucs."
The library of the British Museum possesses two copies of the Arabic text ;
the one Or. 1423 is complete, beautifully written, with explanatory notes in
the margin and between the lines. The name of the copyist is not men-
tioned, nor the date when it has been written. The volume has in the
beginning an incomplete index to the Scriptural passages referred to in the
Guide, and at the end fragments of Psalm cxli. in Arabic and of astrono-
mical tables.
The second copy of the Dalalat al-ha'irin is contained in the MS. Or.
2423, written in large Yemen Rabbinic characters. It is very fragmentary.
The first fragment begins with the last paragraph of the introduction ; there
are a few marginal notes in Hebrew.
In the Bodleian Library there are the following copies of the Dalalat al-
ha'irin according to the Catal. of Hebr. MSS. by Dr. A. Neubauer : —
No. 1236. The text is preceded by Jehudah al-Charizi's index of the contents of the
chapters, and by an index of Biblical quotations. In the margin there are notes,
containing omissions, by different hands, two in Arabic characters. The volume was
written 1473.
No. 1237. The Arabic text, with a few marginal notes containing various readings;
the text is preceded by three Hebrew poems, beginning, De'i holek, Bi-sedeb tebunot -^
and Binu he-dat Mosheh. Fol. 212 contains a fr.igincnt of the book (III., xxix.).
No. 1238. Text with a few marginal notes.
xxviii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
No. 1239. The end of the work is wanting in this copy. The second part has fortf-
ninc chapters, as the introduction to Part II. is counted as chapter i. ; Part III. has fifty-
six chapters, the introduction being counted as chapter i., and chapter xxiv. being divided
into two chapters. The index of passages from the Pentateuch follows the ordinary mode
of counting the chapters of the Guide.
No. 1240. Arabic text transcribed in Arabic characters by Saadiah b. Levi Azankot for
Prof. Golius in 1645.
No. 1 241. First part of the Dalalat al-Aa{rin, v/rktea by Saadiah b. Mordccai b. Mosheh
in the year 143 1.
No. 1242 contains the same Part, but incomplete.
Nos. 1243, 1244, 124s, and 1246 contain Part II, of the Arabic text, incomplete in
Nos. 1245 and 1246.
Nos. 1247, 1248, and 1249 have Part III.; it is incomplete in Nos. 1248 and 1249.
No. 1249 was written 1291, and begins with III., viii.
A fragment of the Arabic text, the end of Part III., is contained in No. 407, 2.
No. 2508 includes a fragment of the original (I. ii.-xxxii.), with a Hebrew interlineary
translation of some words and a few marginal notes. It is written in Yemen square
characters, and is marked as " holy property of the Synagogue of Alsiani."
A fragment (I. i.) of a different recension from the printed is contained in 2422, 16.
On the margin the Commentaries of Shem-tob and Ephodi are added in Arabic.
A copy of the Dalalat is also contained in the Berlin Royal Library MS. Or. Qu., 579
(105 Cat. Steinschneider) ; it is defective in the beginning and at the end.
The Cairo Genizah at Cambridge contains two fragments : {a) I. Ixiv. and beginning of
Ixv ; [b] II. end of xxzii. and xxxiii. According to Dr. H. Hirschfeld, yeiviih Quarterly
Re-viciv (vol. XV. p. 677, they are in the handwriting of Maimonides.
The valuable collection of MSS. in the possession of Dr. M. Caster includes a fragment
of the Dalalat-al-bairin (Codex 605). II. xiii-xv., beginning and end defective.
II. Translations, a. Hebrew. — As soon as European Jews heard of the
existence of this work, they procured its translation into Hebrew. Two
scholars, independently of each other, undertook the task : Samuel Ibn
Tibbon and Jehudah al-Harizi. There is, besides, in the Moreh ha-7^oreh of
Shcmtob Palquera an original translation of some portions of the Moreh.
In the Sifte yeshenim (No. 112) a rhymed translation of the Dalalat by Rabbi
Mattityahu Kartin is mentioned. Ibn Tibbon's version is very accurate ;
he sacrificed elegance of style to the desire of conscientiously reproducing the
author's work, and did not even neglect a particle, however unimportant it
may appear. Ibn Tibbon went in his anxiety to retain peculiarities of the
original so far as to imitate its ambiguities, e.g., meziut (I. Iviii.) is treated as
a masculine noun, only in order to leave it doubtful whether a pronoun which
follows agrees with meziut, " existence," or with nimza, " existing being,"
both occurring in the same sentence (Br. Mus. MS. Harl. 7586, marg. note
by Ibn Tibbon). When he met with passages that offered any difficulty he
consulted Maimonides. Harizi, on the other hand, was less conscientious
about words and particles, but wrote in a superior style. Fox fopuli, how-
ever, decided in favour of the version of Ibn Tibbon, the rival of which be-
came almost forgotten. Also Abraham, the son of Moses Maimonides, in
Alilhamoth ha-shem, describes Harizi's version as being inaccurate. Most
of the modern translations were made from Ibn Tibbon's version. There
arc, therefore, MSS. of this version almost in every library containing collec-
tions of Hebrew books and MSS. It has the title Moreh-nebuchim. The
British Museum has the following eight copies of Ibn Tibbon's version : —
Harl. 7586 A. This codex was written in the year 1284, for Rabbi Shabbatai ben
Rabbi Maltitynhu. In the year 1340 it came into the possession of Jacob b. Shelomoh ;
his ton Mcnaljcm sold it in the year 1378 to R. Mattityahu, son of R. Shabbatai, for
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxix
fifty gold florins. It was again sold in the year 1461 by Yehiel ben Joab. There is this
peculiarity in the writing, that long words at the end of a line are divided, and written
half on the one line, half on the next 5 in words which are vocalized, patah is frequently
found for ^amez. There are numerous various readings in the margin. The text is pre-
ceded by a poem, written by Joseph Ibn Aknin, pupil of Maimonides, in praise of his
master, and beginning Adon yizro. This poem is attributed to R. Yehudah ha-Levi
(Luzzatto, in his Divan, Betulat-bat-Tehudah, p. 104). At the end the copyist adds an
epigram, the translation of which is as follows : —
"The Moreh is finished — Praise to Him who formed and created everything — ^written
for the instruction and benefit of the few whom the Lord calleth. Those who oppose the
Moreh ought to be put to death ; but those who study and understand it deserve that
Divine Glory rest upon them, and inspire them with a spirit from above."
Harl. 7586 B. This codex, much damaged in the beginning and at the end, contains
the version of Ibn Tibbon, with marginal notes, consisting of words omitted in the
text, and other corrections. The version is followed by the poems Karob meod, etc., and
De'i holek, etc.
Harl. 5507 contains the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon, with the translator's preface
and marginal notes, consisting of various readings and omissions from the text. The work
of Maimonides is followed by Ibn Tibbon's Vocabulary (millot-aarot) , Mcsharet-mosheh,
' Arugot ha-meaimmah, Millot biggayon, Ruah-hen, Alfarabi's Hathalot, a Hebrew-Italian
vocabulary of logical terms, and an explanation of koteb. The passage in Part I., chap.
Ixxi., which refers to Christianity, has been erased.
Harl. 5525 was the property of Shimshon Kohen Modon. The MS. begins with
Harizi's Ka-wanat ha-perakim ; then follows the text, with a few marginal notes of a later
hand, mostly adverse criticisms and references to 'Arama's ' Akedah and the Biblical com-
mentaries of Abarbanel. There is also a note in Latin. The text is followed by Ibn
Tibbon's Vocabulary [Millot-aarot) and Masoret ha-pesukim (Index to the Biblical
quotations in the Moreh) . In a poem, beginning Moreh a%her mennu deraka'u gabehu,
the Moreh is compared to a musical instrument, which delights when played by one that
understands music, but is spoiled when touched by an ignorant person.
Add. 27068 (Almanzi coll.). At the end the following remark is added : I, Samuel Ibn
Tibbon, finished the translation of this work in the month of Tebet 4965 (1205). The
text is preceded by the well-known epigrams, De'i bolek and Moreb-nebuchim sa she/omi ;
the last page contains the epigram Karob meod. There are some notes in the margin,
mostly referring to various readings.
Add. 14763. This codex, written 1273 at Viterbo, contains the preface of Hirizi to
his translation of the Moreh and his index of contents, Ibn Tibbon's version with a few
marginal notes of different hands, including some remarks of the translator, and the con-
tents of the chapters. The codex contains besides the following treatises : Commentary
of Maimonides on Abot ; Comm, of Maim, on Mishnah Sanhedrin x. i ; Letter of
Maimonides on the Resurrection of the Dead 5 Vocabulary of difficult words by Samuel
Ibn Tibbon ; Maimonides' Letter to the wise men of Marseilles ; his Letter to Rabbi
Jonathan ; Keter-malkut, Mesharet-moiheh, Ruah-hen, Otot ha-shamayim, translated
from the Arabic by Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; Hathalot ha-nimzaot, of Alfarabi ; Sefer ba-
happuah, Mishle hamhhtm ba-talmidim ; on the seven zones of the earth ; a fragment of
a chronicle from the exile of Babylon down to the fourth year of the Emperor Nicepheros
of Constantinople, and a poem, which begins asheryishal, and has the following sense : — " If one
asks the old and experienced for advice, you may expect his success in all he undertakes ;
but if one consults the young, remember the fate of Rehoboam, son of Solomon."
Add. 14764, In addition to the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon (from end of I. xxvii.)
with a few marginal notes and index, the codex contains at the end of Part I. an Index of
references made by the author to explanations given in preceding or succeeding chapters.
At the end of the text the statement is added, that the translation was finished in the
month of Tebet 968 (1208). The Moreh is followed by Ruah-hen, and Ibn Tibbon's
Vocabulary of millot-aarot (incomplete), and is preceded by four poems in praise of the
Moreh, beginning Sbim'u nebone leb, Moreb nebucbim sa shelomiy De'i bolek and Nofet
makkim.
Bibl. Reg. 16 A, xi. This codex, written in Prov. curs, characters in the year 130S,
has in front a fragment of III, i., then follows the poem of Meshullam, beginning Tebgu
mezimmotai (Gratz Lcket-sboshannim, p. 151), and other poems.
xxK GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
The following MS. copies of Ibn Tibbon's version are included in the
Oxford Bodleian Library ; the numbers refer to Dr. Neubauer's catalogue
of the MSS. :—
1250. An index of the passages from the Bible referred to in the work, and an index
of the contents precede the version. The marginal notes contain chiefly omissions.
1251. This codex was written in 1675. The marginal notes contain omissions and
explanations.
1252. The marginal notes contain the translator's remarks on I. Ixxiv. 4, and III. xlvii.
The version is followed by Ibn Tibbon's vocabulary, and his additional remarks on the
reasons for the commandments. The MS. was bought by Samuel ben Moses from a
Christian after the pillage of Padua, where it had belonged to a Synagogue of foreigners
{Jo'aaim) ; he gave it to a Synagogue of the same character at Mantua.
1253. The marginal notes include that of the translator on III. xlvii.
1254. I. Text with marginal notes containing omissions.
1255. The marginal notes include those of the translator on I. xlvi. and Ixxiv. 5,
1256. The marginal notes contain various readings, notes relating to Harizi's transla-
tion and the Arabic text ; on fol. 80 there is a note in Latin. There are in this codex six
epigrams concerning the Moreh.
1257. Text incomplete j with marginal notes.
Fragments of the Version are contained in the following codices : 2047, 3, p. 65 ; 2283,
8 ; 2309, 2, and 2336.
Among the MS. copies of the Moreh in the Bibl. Nat. in Paris, there is
one that has been the property of R. Eliah Mizrahi, and another that had
been in the hands of Azariah de Rossi (No. 685 and No. 691) ; the Giinzburg
Library (Paris) possesses a copy (No. 771), that was written 1452 by Samuel
son of Isaac for Rabbi Moses de Leon, and Eliah del Medigo's copy of the
Moreh is in the possession of Dr. Ginsburg (London) ; it contains six poems,
beginning Moreh nebuchim sa ; Emet moreh emet ; Bi-leshon esh ; Mah-
ba'aru ; Kamu more shav.
The editio princeps of this version has no statement as to where and when
it was printed, and is without pagination. According to Filrst (Bibliogr.)
it is printed before 1480. The copy in the British Museum has some MS.
notes. Subsequent editions contain besides the Hebrew text the Com-
mentaries of Shem-tob and Efodi, and the index of contents by Harizi
(Venice, 1551, fol.); also the Comm. of Crescas and Vocabulary of Ibn
Tibbon (Sabionetta, 1553, fol.; Jessnitz, 1742, fol. etc.); the Commen-
taries of Narboni and S. Maimon (Berlin, 1791) ; the commentaries of Efodi,
Shem-tob, Crescas and Abarbanel (Warsaw, 1872, 4to) ; German transla-
tion and Hebrew Commentary (Biiir) Part I. (Krotoschin, 1839, 8vo) ;
German translation and notes, Part II. (Wien. 1864), Part III. (Frankfort-
a-M., 1838).
The Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon (Part I. to ch. Ixxii.) has been trans-
lated into Mishnaic Hebrew by M. I-evin (Zolkiew, 1829, 4to).
There is only one MS. known of Harizi's version, viz.. No. 682 of the
Bibliothcque Nationale at Paris. It has been edited by L. Schlosberg, with
notes. London, 1851 (Part I.), 1876 (II.), and 1879 (III.). The notes on
Part I. were supplied by S. Schcyer.
The first Latin translation of the Moreh has been discovered by Dr. J.
Perles among the Latin MSS. of the Munic Library, Catal. Cod. latinorum
bibl. regiac Monacensis, torn. I, pars iii. pag. 208 (Kaish. 36 b), 1700 (7936 b).
This version is almost identical with that edited by Augustinus Justinianus,
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxxi
Paris, i!;20, and is based on Harizi's Hebrew version of the Morch. The
name of the translator is not mentioned. In the Commentary of Moses,
son of Solomon, of Salerno, on the Moreh, a Latin translation is quoted, and
the quotations agree with this version. It is called by this commentator
ha 'atakat ha-nozrit (" the Christian translation "), and its author,
ha-via 'atik ha-nozer (lit. " the Christian translator "). Dr. Perles is, how-
ever, of opinion that these terms do not necessarily imply that a Christian
has made this translation, as the word nozer may have been used here for
" Latin." He thinks that it is the result of the combined efTorts of Jewish
and Christian scholars connected with the court of the German Emperor
Frederic II., especially as in the thirteenth century several Jewish scholars
distinguished themselves by translating Oriental works into Latin. See
Gratz Monatschrift, 1875, Jan.-June, "Die in einer Miinchener Hand-
schrift aufgefundene erste lateinische Uebersetzung," etc., von Dr. J. Perles.
The title has been variously rendered into Latin : Director neutrorum,
directorium dubitantium, director neutrorum, nutantium or dubitantium ;
doctor perplexorum.
Gedaliah ibn Yahvah, in Shalshelet ha-kabbalah, mentions a Latin trans-
lation of the Moreh by Jacob Monteno ; but nothing is known of it, unless it
be the anonymous translation of the Munich MS., mentioned above. Augus-
tinus Justinianus edited this version (Paris, 1520), with slight alterations and
a great number of mistakes. Joseph Scaliger's opinion of this version is
expressed in a letter to Casaubonus, as follows : Qui latine vertit, Hebraica,
non Arabica, convertit, et quidem saepe hallucinatur, neque mentem Authoris
assequitur. Magna seges mendorum est in Latino. Praeter ilia quae ab
inertia Interpretis peccata sunt accessit et inertia Librariorum aut Typo-
graphorum, e.g., prophetiae pro philosophize ; altitudo pro aptitudo ; boni-
tatem pro brevitatem. (Buxtorf, Doctor Perplexorum, Praef.)
Johannes Buxtorfius, Fil., translated the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon
into Latin (Basileae, 1629, 4to). In the Praefatio ad Lectorem, the trans-
lator discusses the life and the works of Maimonides, and dwells especially
on the merits and the fate of the Moreh-nebuchim. The preface is followed
by a Hebrew poem of Rabbi Raphael Joseph of Treves, in praise of an
edition of the Moreh containing the Commentaries of Efodi, Shem-tob,
and Crescas.
Italian was the first living language into which the Moreh has been trans-
lated. This translation was made by Yedidyah ben Moses (Amadeo de
Moise di Recanati), and dedicated by him to " divotissimo e divinissimo
Signor mio il Signer Immanuel da Fano " (i.e., the Kabbalist Menahem
Azarriah). The translator dictated it to his brother Eliah, who wrote it in
Hebrew characters ; it was finished the 8th of February, 1583. The MS.
copy is contained in the Royal Library at Berlin, MS. Or. Qu. 487 (M.
Steinschneider Catal., etc.) — The Moreh has been translated into Italian a
second time, and annotated by D. J. Maroni: Guida degli Smarriti, Firenze,
1870, fol.
The Moreh has been translated into German by R. Fiirstenthal (Part I„
Krotoschin, 1839), M. Stern (Part II., Wien, 1864), and S. Scheyer (Part III..
Frankfort-a.-M., 1838). The translation is based on Ibn Tibbon's Hebrew
version. The chapters on the Divine Attributes have been translated into
xxxii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
German, and fully discussed, by Dr. Kaufmann in his Geschichte der Attri-
hutcnlehre (Gotha, 1877). An excellent French translation, based on the
Arabic original, has been supplied by the regenerator of the Guide, S. Munk.
It was published together with the Arabic text (Paris, 1850-1866).
The IVIoreh has also been translated into the Hungarian language by Dr.
Klein. The translation is accompanied by notes (Budapest, 1878-80).
The portion containing the reasons of the Commandments (Part III.
ch. xxvi.-xlix.) has been translated into English by James Townley
(London, 1827). The translation is preceded by an account on the life
and works of Maimonides, and dissertations on various subjects ; among
others, Talmudical and Rabbinical writings, the Originality of the Institu-
tions of Moses, and Judicial astrology.
III. Commentaries. — It is but natural that in a philosophical work like the
Moreh, the reader will meet with passages that at first thought seem unin-
telligible, and require further explanation, and this want has been supplied
by the numerous commentators that devoted their attention to the studv
of the Moreh. Joseph Solomon del Medigo (1591) saw eighteen Commen-
taries. The four principal ones he characterizes thus (in imitation
of the Hagadah for Passover) : Moses Narboni is rasha', has no piety,
and reveals all the secrets of the Aloreh. Shem-lob is hakam,
" wise," expounds and criticises ; Crescas is tam, " simple," explains the
book in the style of the Rabbis ; Epodi is she-eno yode'a lishol, " does not under-
stand to ask," he simply explains in short notes without criticism [Miktab-
ahuz; ed. A. Geiger, Berlin, 1840, p. 18). The earliest annotations were
made by the author himself on those passages, which the first translator of
the Moreh was unable to comprehend. They are contained in a letter
addressed to Samuel Ibn Tibbon, beginning, lefi siklo yehullal ish (Bodl
Library, No. 2218, s. ; comp. The Guide, etc., I. 21, 343 ; II. 8, 99). Ibn
Tibbon, the translator, likewise added a few notes, which are found in the
margin of MSB. of the Hebrew version of the Morcli (on I. xlv. Ixxiv. ; II.
xxiv. ; and HI. xlvii. — MSS. Bodl. 1252, i ; 1253, 1255, 1257; Brit. Mus.
Add. 14,763 and 27,068).
Both translators wrote explanations of the philosophical terms employed
in the versions. Harizi wrote his vocabulary first, and Ibn Tibbon, in the
introductory remarks, to Perush millot zarot (" Explanation of difficult
words "), describes his rival's vocabulary as full of blunders. Ibn Tibbon's
Perush is found almost in every copy of his version, both MS. and print ;
so also Harizi's index of the contents of the chapters of the Moreh {Kavvanat
ha-pera/cim).
The following is an alphabetical list of Commentaries on the Moreh : —
Abarhanel (Don Isaak) wrote a Commentary on I. i.— Iv. ; II. xxxi.— xlv., and a separate
book Shamayim-kadaihim, " New Heavens," on II. xix., in which he fully discusses the
question concerning Creatio ex nihilo. The opinion of Maimonides is not always accepted.
Thus twenty-seven objections are raised against his interpretation of the first chapter of
Ezckiel. These objections he wrote at Molin, in the house of R. Abraham Treves Zarfati.
The Commentary is followed by a short essay {maamar) on the plan of the Moreh. The
method adopted by Abarbanel in all his Commentaries, is also employed in this essay. A
series of questions is put forth on the subject, and then the author sets about to answer
them. M. J. Landau edited the Commentary without text, with a Preface, and with ex-
planatory notes, called Moreh li--^eidakah (Prag. 1831; MS. Bodl. 2385). In addition tc
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxxiii
these the same author wrote Tesbubot " Answers " to several questions asked by Rabbi
Shaul ha-Cohen on topics discussed in the Moreh (Venice, I7<;4).
Abraham Ahulajia wrote " Sodot ha-moreh," or Sitrc-t.nih, a kabbalistic Com-
mentary on the Morch. He gives the expression, pU J J (I'aiadise), for the number
(177) of the chapters of the Moreh. MS. Nat. Bibl. 226, 3. Lcipsic Libr. 232, 4. MS.
Bodl. 2360, 5, contains a portion of Part III.
Buchner A. Ha-moreb li-zedakab (Warsaw, 1838). Commentary on "The Reasons of
the Laws," Moreh III. xxix.-xiix. The Commentaiy is preceded by an account of the life
of Maimonidcs.
Comtino, Mordecai b. Eliezer, wrote a short commentary on the Moreh (Dr. Gins-
burg's collection of MSS. No. 10). Narboni, who "spread light on dark passages in
the Guide," is frequently quoted. Reference is also made to his own commentary on Ibn
Ezra's Tewd-mora.
Crescas {Asher b. Abraham)^ expresses in the Preface to his Commentary the conviction
that he could not always comprehend the right sense of the words of Maimonidcs, for
"there is no searching to his understanding." He nevertheless thinks that his explana-
tions will help " the young" to study the Moreh with profit. A long poem in praise of
Maimonides and his work precedes the Preface. His notes are short and clear, and in
spite of his great respect of Maimonides, he now and then criticises and corrects
him.
Da-vid Yahya is named by Joseph Del Medigo {Mikeab-a/mz ed. A. Geiger, Berlin,
1840 ; p. 18, and note 76), as having written a Commentary on the Moreh.
Da-vid ben Tehudah Leon Rabhino wrote 'En ha-iore, MS. Bodl. 1263. He quotes in his
Commentary among others 'Arama's ' Akedat yizkak. The Preface is written by Immanuel
ben Raphael Ibn Meir, after the death of the author.
Efodi is the name of the Commentary written by Isaac ben Moses, who during the
persecution of 1391 had passed as Christian under the name of Profiat Duran. He re-
turned to Judaism, and wrote against Christianity the famous satire "Al tehee ka-
aboteka " ("Be not like your Fathers"), which misled Christians to cite it as written
in favour of Christianity. It is addressed to the apostate En Bonet Bon Giorno. The same
author also wrote a grammatical work, Md aseh-efod. The name Efod (TDS), is explained
as composed of the initials Amar Profiat Duran. His Commentary consists of short notes,
explanatory of the text. The beginning of this Commentary is contained in an Arabic
translation in MS. Bodl. 2422, 16.
Epbraim Al-Naqa-vab in Sba'ar Kebod ha-shem (MS. Bodl. 939, 2 and 1258, 2),
answers some questions addressed to him concerning the Moreh. He quotes Hisdai's
Or adonai.
Funtentbal, /?., translator and commentator of the Mahzor, added a Biur, short ex-
planatory notes, to his German translation of Part I. of the Moreh (Krotoschin, 1839).
Gersbon, Moreh-derek, Commentary on Part I. of the Moreh (MS. Bodl. 1265).
Hillel b. Samuel b. Elazar of Verona explained the Introduction to Part II. (the 25
Propos.). S. H. Halberstam edited this Commentary together with Tagmule ha-nefesh of
the same author, for the Society Mekize-nirdamim (Lyck, 1S74).
Joseph ben Aba-mart b. yoseph, of Caspi (Argcnti^re), wrote three Commentaries on
the Moreh. The first is contained in a Munich MS. (No. 263) ; and seems to have been
recast by the author, and divided into two separate Commentaries : ' Ammude Kesef, and
Maskiyot Kesef. The former was to contain plain and ordinary explanation, whilst pro-
found and mysterious matter was reserved for the second (Steinschn. Cat.). In II., chap,
xlviii., Caspi finds fault with Maimonides that he does not place the book of Job among
the highest class of inspired writings, " its author being undoubtedly Moses." These Com-
mentaries have been edited by T. Werblumer (Frankfort-a.-M., 1848). R. Kirchheim
added a Hebrew introduction discussing the character of these commentaries, and describ-
ing the manuscripts from which these were copied ; a Biography of the author is added
in German.
Joseph Giqatilia wrote notes on the Moreh, printed with "Questions of Shaul ha-kohen "
(Venice, 1574. MS. Bodl. 1911, 3).
Joseph b. Isaac ha-Le-vi's Gib^at ha-Moreh is a short Commentary on portions of the
Morcii, with notes by R. Yom-tob Heller, the author of Tosafot Tom-iob (Prag.,
1 6 1 z).
xxxiv GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
Isaac Satano-v wrote a commentary on Parts II. and III. of the Alorch (sec Maimon
Solomon p. xxi.).
Isaac ben Shcm-toh ihn Sbem-toh wrote a lengthy Commentary on the Morch,
Part I. (MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 1388). The object ot the Commentary is to show that
there is no contradiction between Maimonides and the Divine Law. He praises Mai-
monides as a true believer in Creatio ex nibilo, whilst Ibn Ezra and Gersonides assumed a
prima materia (7*oc<rr, kadosb). Nachmanides is called ba-kasid ha-gadol, but is neverthe-
less blamed, together with Narboni and Zerahyah ha-Levi, for criticising Maimonides,
instead of trying to explain startling utterances even in "a forced way" {bederek
rabok) ; and Narboni, " in spite of his wisdom, frequently misunderstood the Moreh."
At the end of each chapter a resume [derusb) of the contents of the chapter is given,
and the lesson to be derived from it. The MS. is incomplete, chaps, xlvi.— xlviii. are
missing.
Kauffmann, D., in his Gescbicbte der AtrihutenlehrCy translated Part I. chap. 1.— Ixiii. into
German, and added critical and explanatory notes.
Kalonymos wrote a kind of introduction to the Moreh {Mesbaret Mosbeh), in which he
especially discusses the theory of Maimonides on Providence.
Leibnitz made extracts from Buxtorf s Latin version of the Moreh, and added his own
remarks. Obser-vationes ad R. Mosen Maimoniden (Foucher de Careil, C.A., La Philosophic
yui-ve, 1 861).
Levin, M., wrote Allon-moreh as a kind of introduction to his retranslation of Tibbon's
Hebrew version into the language of the Mishnah.
Maimon, Solomon, is the author of Gib''at ha-moreb, a lengthy commentary on Book I.
(Berlin, 1791). The author is fond of expatiating on topics of modern philosophy. In
the introduction he gives a short history of philosophy. The commentary on Books II.
and III. was written by Isaac Satanov.
Aleir ben "Jonah ha-mekunneb Ben-shneor wrote a commentary on the March in Fez
1560 (MS. Bodl. 1262).
Menakem Kara expounded the twenty-five propositions enumerated in the Introduction
to Part il. of the Moreh (MS. Bodl. 164.9, ' 3)-
Mordecai Taffe, in his Or Tekarot, or Pinnat Tikrat, one of his ten Lebushim, com-
ments upon the theories contained in the Moreh.
Moses, son of Abraham Pro-venfal, explains the passage in Part I. chap. Ixxiii. Prop. 3,
in which Maimonides refers to the difference between commensurable and incommensur-
able lines (MS. Bodl. 2033, 8).
Moses, son of "Jehudah Nagari, made an index of the subjects treated in the Moreh, in-
dicating in each case the chapters in which allusion is made to the subject. He did so,
"in obedience to the advice of Maimonides, to consider the chapters in connected order"
(Part I. p. 20). It has been printed together with the questions of Shaul ha-kohen
(Venice, 1574).
Moses son of Solomon of Salerno, is one of the earliest expounders of the Morch. He
wrote his commentary on Parts I. and II., perhaps together with a Christian scholar.
He quotes the opinion of "the Christian scholar with whom he worked together." Thus
he names Petrus de Bernia and Nicolo di Giovenazzo. R. Jacob Anatoli, author of the
Maimed ha-talmidim, is quoted as offering an explanation for the passage from Pirke di-rabbi
Eliezer, which Maimonides (II. chap, xxvi.) considers as strange and inexplicable (Part I.,
written 1439; MS. of Bet ba-midrash, London; Parts I. -II., MS. Bodl. i 261, written,
1547 ; MS. Petersburg, No. 82 ; Munich MS. 60 and 370).
Moses ba-katan, son of jfehudah, son of Moses, wrote To'aliyot pirke ba-maamar (" Les-
sons taught in the chapters of this work"). It is an index to the Moreh (MS. Bodl.
1267).
Moses Leiden explained the 25 Prop, of the Introduction to Part II. (MS. GUnzburg,
Paris).
Moses Narboni wrote a short commentary at Soria, 1362. He freely criticizes Mai-
monides, and uses expressions like the following : — " He went too far, may God pardon
him" (II. viii.). Is. Euchcl ed. Part I. (Berlin, 1791); J. Goldenthal, I. to III. (Wicn,
1852). The Bodl. Libr. possesses several MS. copies of this commentary (Nos. 1260,
1264, 2, and 1266).
Munk, S., added to his French translation of the Moreh numerous critical and explana-
tory notes.
S. Sacbt (Ha-tchiyah, Berlin, 1850, p. 8) explains various passages of the Moreh, with
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxxv
a view of discovering the names of those who are ittacked by Maimonides without being
named.
Scheyer, S., added critical and explanatory notes to his German translation of the Moreh,
Part 3, and to the Hebrew version of Ilarizi, Part I. He also wrote Das Psychologische
System des Maimonides, an Introduction to the Moreh (Frankf.-a-M., 1845).
Shem tob Ihn Palquera^s Moreh ha-moreh consists of 3 parts : (1) a philosophical ex-
planation of the Moreh, (2) a description of the contents of the chapters of the Moreh,
Part I, i.-lvii. (Presburg, 1827) ; (3) Corrections of Ibn Tibbon's version. He wrote the
book for himself, that in old age he might have a means of refreshing his memory. The
study of science and philosophy is to be recommended, but only to those who have had a
good training in "the fear of sin." Ibn Roshd (Averroes) is frequently quoted, and re-
ferred to as he-kakam ha-ni'zkar (the philosopher mentioned above).
Shem-tob ben Joseph ben Shem-tob had the commentary of Efodi before him, which
he seems to have quoted frequently 'verbatim without naming him. In the preface he
dwells on the merits of the Moreh as the just mediator between religion and philosophy.
The commentary of Shem-tobh is profuse, and includes almost a paraphrase of the text.
He apologises In conclusion for having written many superfluous notes and added ex-
planation where no explanation was required ; his excuse is that he did not only intend
to write a commentary (hiur) but also a work complete in itself (hibbur). He often
calls the reader's attention to things which are plain and clear.
Shem-tob Ibn Shem-toh, in Sefer ha-emunot (Ferrara, 1556), criticises some of the
various theories discussed in the Moreh, and rejects them as heretic. His objections were
examined by Moses Al-ashkar, and answered in Hasagot 'al mah she-katab Rabbi Shem-tob
neged ha-Rambam (Ferrara, 1556).
Solomon b. Jehudah ha-nasi wrote in Germany Sitre-torah, a kabbalistic commentary
on the Moreh, and dedicated it to his pupil Jacob b. Samuel (MS. Bet-ha-midrash,
London).
Tabri-zi. The twenty-five Propositions forming the introduction to Part 2, have been
fully explained by Moliammed Abu-becrben Mohammed al-tabrizi. His Arabicexplanations
have been translated by Isaac b. Nathan of Majorca into Hebrew (Ferrara, 1556). At
the end the following eulogy is added : — The author of these Propositions is the chief
whose sceptre is "wisdom" and whose throne is " understanding," the Israelite prince,
that has benefited his nation and all those who love God, etc. : Moses b. Maimon b.
Ebed-elohim, the Israelite. . . . May God lead us to the truth. Amen !
Tishbi. In MS. Bodl. 2279, i, there are some marginal notes on Part III. which arc
signed Tishbi (Neub. Cat.).
Yahya Ibn Suleiman wrote in Arabic a Commentary on the Guide oj the Perplexed.
A fragment is contained in the Berlin MS. Or. Qu., 554, 2 (Steinschneider, Cat. No. 92).
Zerahyah b. Isaac ha-Le'vi. Commentary on the Moreh, I., i.— Ixxi., and some other
portions of the work. (See Maskir, 1861, p. 125).
MS. Bodl. 2360, 8, contains a letter of Jehudah b. Shelomoh on some passages of the
Moreh, and Zerahyah's reply.
Anonymous Commentaries. — The MS. Brit. Mus. 1423 contains marginal
and interlineary notes in Arabic. No author or date is given, nor is any
other commentary referred to in the notes. The explanations given are
mostly preceded by a question, and introduced by the phrase, " the answer
is," in the same style as is employed in the Hebrew-Arabic Midrash, MS.
Brit. Mus. Or. 2213. The Midrashic character is prominent in the notes.
Thus the verse " Open, ye gates, that the righteous nation which keepeth
the truth may enter in," is explained as meaning : Open, ye gates of wisdom,
that human understanding that perceiveth truth may enter. The notes are
numerous, especially in the first part, explaining almost every word ; e.g.,
on " Rabbi " : Why does Maimonides employ this title before the name of
his pupil ? The answer is : either the word is not to be taken literally
(" master "), but as a mere compliment, or it has been added by later copy-
ists. Of a similar style seem to be the Arabic notes in the Berlin MS. Or.
Oct. 258, 2, 8, 10. (Cat. Steinschneider, No. 108.) — Anonymous mareinal
xxxvi GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
notes are met with almost in every MS. of the Moreh ; e.g., Brit. Mus. Harl.
5525; Add. 14,763, 14,764; Bodl. 1264, I; 2282, 10; 2423, 3; Munich
MS., 239, 6.
The explanation of passages from the Pentateuch contained in the Moreh
have been collected by D. Ottensosser, and given as an appendix (Moreh-
derek) to Derek-selulah (Pent, with Comm. etc., Furth, 1824).
IV. Controversies. — The seemingly new ideas put forth by Maimonides
in the Moreh and in the first section of his Mishneh-torah {Sefer ha-madda')
soon produced a lively controversy as regards the merits of Maimonides'
theories. It was most perplexing to pious Talmudists to learn how Mai-
monides explained the anthropomorphisms employed in the Bible, tKe
Midrashim and the Talmud, what he thought about the future state of our
soul, and that he considered the study of philosophy as the highest degree of
Divine worship, surpassing even the study of the Law and the practice of its
precepts. The objections and attacks of Daniel of Damascus were easily
silenced by a herem (excommunication) pronounced against him by the
Rosh ha-golah Rabbi David. Stronger was the opposition that had its centre
in Montpellier. Rabbi Solomon ben Abraham noticed with regret in his
own community the fruit of the theories of Maimonides in the neglect of the
study of the Law and of the practice of the Divine precepts. It happened to
Moses Maimonides what in modern times happened to Moses Mendelssohn.
Many so-called disciples and followers of the great master misunderstood or
misinterpreted his teaching in support of their dereliction of Jewish law and
Jewish practice, and thus brought disrepute on him in the eyes of their oppo-
nents. Thus it came that Rabbi Solomon and his disciples turned their
wrath against the writings of Maimonides instead of combating the argu-
ments of the pseudo-Maimonists. The latter even accused Solomon of
having denounced the Moreh and the Sefer ha-madda' to the Dominicans,
who condemned these writings to the flames ; when subsequently copies of
the Talmud were burnt, and some of the followers of the Rabbi of Mont-
pellier were subjected to cruel tortures, the IVIaimonists saw in this event
a just punishment for offending Maimonides. (Letters of Hillel of Verona,
Hemdah Genuzah, ed. H. Edelmann, p. 18 S(]q.).
Meir b. Todros ha-levi Abulafia wrote already during the lifetime of Mai-
monides to the wise men in Lunel about the heretic doctrines he dis-
covered in the works of Maimonides. Ahron b. McshuUam and Shes-
heth Benvenisti defended Maimonides. About 1232 a correspondence
opened between the Maimonists and the Anti-maimonists (Gratz, Gesch.
d. J. vii. note I). The Grammarian David Kimhi wrote in defence of
Maimonides three letters to Jehudah Alfachar, who answered each of them in
the sense of Rabbi Solomon of Montpellier. Abraham b. Hisdai and Samuel
b. Abraham Saportas on the side of the Maimonists, took part in the contro-
versy, Meshullam b. Kalonymos b. Todros of Narbonne begged Alfachar
to treat Kimhi with more consideration, whereupon Alfachar resolved to
withdraw from the controversy. Nahmanidcs, though more on the side of
Rabbi Solomon, wrote two letters of a conciliatory character, advising moder-
ation on both sides. Representatives of the congregations of Saragossa,
Huesca, Monzon, Kalatajud, and Lerida signed declarations against R.
Solomon. A herem was proclaimed from Lunel and Narbonne against
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xxxvii
the Anti-Maimonists. The son of Maimonides, Abraham, wrote a pam-
phlet Milhamot adonai, in defence of the writings of his father. The con-
troversy raised about fifty years later by Abba Mari Don Astruc and R.
Solomon bcn-Aderet of Barcelona, concerned the Morch less directly. The
question was of a more general character : Is the study of philosophy dan-
gerous to the religious belief of young students ? The letters written in
this controversy are contained in Minfpat-kenaot by Abba Mari Don
Astruc (Presburg, 1838), and Kitab alrasail of Meir Abulafia ed. J. Brill
(Paris, 1871). Yedaya Bedrasi took part in this controversy, and wrote
Ketab hitnazlut in defence of the study of philosophy (Teshubot Rashba,
Hanau, 1610, p, 1 1 1 b.). The whole controversy ended in the victory of the
Moreh and the other writings of Maimonides. Stray remarks are found in
various works, some in praise and some in condemnation of Maimonides. A
few instances may suffice. Rabbi Jacob Emden in his Mitpahat-sejarim
(Lemberg, 1870, p. 56) believes that parts of the Moreh are spurious ; he
even doubts whether any portion of it is the work of " Maimonides, the
author of the Mishneh-torah, who was not capable of writing such heretic
doctrines." S. D. Luzzato regards Maimonides with great reverence, but
this does not prevent him from severely criticising his philosophical theories
(Letters to S. Rappoport, No. 79, 83, 266, Iggeroth Shedal ed. E. Graber,
Przemys'l, 1882), and from expressing his conviction that the saying " From
Moses to Moses none rose like Moses," was as untrue as that suggested by
Rappoport, " From Abraham to Abraham (Ibn-Ezra) none rose like Abra-
ham." Rabbi Hirsch Chayyuth in Darke-Mosheh (Zolkiew, 1840) examines
the attacks made upon the writings of Maimonides, and tries to refute them,
and to show that they can be reconciled with the teaching of the Talmud.
The Bodl. MS. 2240, 3a, contains a document signed by Josselman and
other Rabbis, declaring that they accept the teaching of Maimonides as
correct, with the exception of his theory about angels and sacrifices.
Numerous poems were written, both in admiration and in condemnation
of the Moreh. Most of them precede or follow the Moreh in the printed
editions and in the various MS. copies of the work, A few have been edited
in Dibre-hakamim, pp. 75 and 86 ; in the Literaturblatt d. Or. I. 379, II.
26-27, IV. 748, and Leket-shoshannim by Dr. Gratz. In the Sammelband
of the Mekize Nirdamim (1885) a collection of 69 of these poems is contained,
edited and explained by Prof. Dr. A. Berliner. In imitation of the Moreh
and with a view of displacing Maimonides' work, the Karaite Ahron II. b.
Eliah wrote a philosophical treatise, Ez-hayyim (Ed. F. Delitzsch. Leipzig,
1841).
Of the works that discuss the whole or part of the philosophical system of
the Morch the following are noteworthy : —
Bacher, W. Die Bibilexegese Moses MaimGni's, in the Jahresbericht der Landes
Rabbinerschule zu Buda-Pest. 1896.
Eisler, M. Vorlesungen Ubcr die judischen Philosophen des Mittelalters. Abtheil. II.,
Moses Maimonides (Wien, 1870).
Geiger, A. Das Judenthum u. seine Geschichte (Breslau, 1865), Zehnte Vorlesung :
Aben Ezra u. Maimonides.
Gratz, H. Geschichte d. Juden, VI. p. 363 sqq.
Joel, M. Religionsphilosophie des Moses b. Maimon (Breslau, 1859).
Joel, M. Albertus Magnus u. sein Vorhaltniss zu Maimonides (Breslau, 1863).
xxxviii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
Kaufmann, D. Gcschichte der Attributenlehre, VII. Gotha, 1874.
Philippsohn, L. Die Philosophic des Maimonides. Predigt und Schul-Magazin, I.
xviii. (Magdeburg, 1S34.)
Rosin, D. Die Ethik d. Maimonides (Brcslau, 1876).
Rubin, S. Spinoza u. Maimonides, ein Psychologisch-Philosophisches Antitheton
(Wien, 1868).
Scheyer, S. Das psychologische System des Maimonides. Frankfort-a.-M., 1845.
Weiss, T. H. Beth-Talmud, I. x. p. 289.
David Yellin and Israel Abrahams, Maimonides.
ANALYSIS OF THE GUIDE FOR
THE PERPLEXED
It is the object of this work "to afford a guide for the perplexed," i.e. "to
thinkers whose studies have brought them into collision with religion " (p. 9),
"who have studied philosophy and have acquired sound knowledge, and who,
while firm in religious matters, are perplexed and bewildered on account of the
ambiguous and figurative expressions employed in the holy writings " (p. 5).
Joseph, the son of Jehudah IbnAknin, a disciple of Maimonides, is addressed by
his teacher as an example of this kind of students. It was " for him and for
those like him " that the treatise was composed, and to him this work is
inscribed in the dedicatory letter with which the Introduction begins. Mai-
monides, having discovered that his disciple was sufficiently advanced for an
exposition of the esoteric ideas in the books of the Prophets, commenced to
give him such expositions "by way of hints." His disciple then begged him to
give him further explanations, to treat of metaphysical themes, and to expound
the system and the method of the Kalam, or Mohammedan Theology.^ In
compliance with this request, Maimonides composed the Guide of the Perplexed.
The reader has, therefore, to expect that the subjects mentioned in the disciple's
request indicate the design and arrangement of the present work, and that the
Guide consists of the following parts : — i. An exposition of the esoteric ideas
{sodot) in the books of the Prophets. 2. A treatment of certain metaphysical
problems. 3. An examination of the system and method of the Kalam. This,
in fact, is a correct account of the contents of the book ; but in the second part
of the Introduction, in which the theme of this work is defined, the author
mentions only the first-named subject. He observes : " My primary object is
to explain certain terms occurring in the prophetic book. Of these some are
homonymous, some figurative, and some hybrid terms." " This work has also
a second object. It is designed to explain certain obscure figures which occur
in the Prophets, and are not distinctly characterised as being figures" (p. 2).
Yet from this observation it must not be inferred that Maimonides abandoned
his original purpose ; for he examines the Kalam in the last chapters ot the
First Part (ch. Ixx.-lxxvi.), and treats of certain metaphysical themes in the
beginning of the Second Part (Introd. and ch. i.-xxv.). But in the passage
quoted above he confines himself to a delineation of the main object ot this
treatise, and advisedly leaves unmentioned the other two subjects, which,
however important they may be, are here of subordinate interest. Nor did he
consider it necessary, to expatiate on these subjects ; he only wrote for the student,
for whom a mere reference to works on philosophy and science was sufficient.
We therefore meet now and then with such phrases as the following : " This is
fully discussed in works on metaphysics." By references ot this kind the author
may have intended to create a taste for the study of philosophical works. But
our observation only holds good with regard to the Aristotelian philosophy.
1 See infra, p.ige 4, note I.
k\ guide for the perplexed
The writings of the Mutakallcmim are never commended by him ; he states
their opinions, and tells his disciple that he would not find any additional argu-
ment, even if he were to read all their voluminous works (p. 133). Maimonides
was a zealous disciple of Aristotle, althoujfh the theory of the Kalam might
seem to have been more congenial to Jewish thought and belief. The Kalam
upheld the theory- of God's Existence, Incorporeality, and Unity, together with
the creatio ex n'lkilo. Maimonides nevertheless opposed the Kalam, and, antici-
pating the question, why preference should be given to the system of Aristotle,
which included the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, a theory contrary to
the fundamental teaching of the Scriptures, he exposed the weakness of the
Kalam and its fallacies.
The exposition of Scriptural texts is divided by the author into two parts ;
the first part treats of homonymous, figurative, and hybrid terms,^ employed in
reference to God ; the second part relates to Biblical figures and allegories.
These two parts do not closely follow each other ; they are separated by the
examination of the Kalam, and the discussion of metaphysical problems. It
seems that the author adopted this arrangement for the following reason : first
of all, he intended to establish the fact that the Biblical anthropomorphisms do
not imply corporeality, and that the Divine Being of whom the Bible speaks
could therefore be regarded as identical with the Primal Cause of the philoso-
phers. Having established this principle, he discusses from a purely meta-
physical point of view the properties of the Primal Cause and its relation to the
universe. A solid foundation is thus established for the esoteric exposition of
Scriptural passages. Before discussing metaphysical problems, which he treats
in accordance with Aristotelian philosophy, he disposes of the Kalam, and de-
monstrates that its arguments are illogical and illusory.
The " Guide for the Perplexed " contains, therefore, an Introduction and the
following four parts : — i. On homonymous, figurative, and hybrid terms. 2.
On the Supreme Being and His relation to the universe, according to the Kalam.
3. On the Primal Cause and its relation to the universe, according to the philo-
sophers. 4. Esoteric exposition of some portions of the Bible {iodot) : a,
Maaseh bereshith, or the history of the Creation (Genesis, ch. i.-iv.) ; b, on
Prophecy ; c, Maaseh mercabhah, or the description of the divine chariot
(Ezekiel, ch. i.).
According to this plan, the work ends with the seventh chapter of the Third
Part. The chapters which follow may be considered as an appendix ; they
treat of the following theological themes : the Existence of Evil, Omniscience
and Providence, Temptations, Design in Nature, in the Law, and in the Biblical
Narratives, and finally the true Worship of God.
In the Introduction to the "Guide," Maimonides (i) describes the object or
the work and the method he has followed ; (2) treats of similes ; (3) gives
" directions for the study of the work " ; and (4) discusses the usual causes of
inconsistencies in authors.
I (pp. 2-3). Inquiring into the root of the evil which the Guide was in-
tended to remove, viz., the conflict between science and religion, the author
perceived that in most cases it originated in a misinterpretation of the anthropo-
morphisms in Holy Writ. The main difficulty is found in the ambiguity of the
words employed by the prophets when speaking of the Divine Being ; the
question arises whether they are applied to the Deity and to other things in one
and the same sense or equivocally ; in the latter case the author distinguishes
between homonyms pure and simple, figures, and hybrid terms. In order to
show that the Biblical anthropomorphisms do not imply the corporeality of the
Deity, he seeks in each instance to demonstrate that the expression under exam-
* Sec infrOf page 5, note 4.
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xli
ination is a perfect homonym denoting; things which arc totally distinct from
each other, and whenever such a demonstration is impossible, he assumes that the
expression is a hybrid term, that is, being employed in one instance figuratively
and in another homonymously. His explanation of " form " (zelem) may serve
as an illustration. According to his opinion, it iri'variab/y denotes "form" in
the philosophical acceptation of the term, viz., the complex of the essential
properties of a thing. But to obviate objections he proposes an alternative view,
to take z.e/em as a hybrid term that may be explained as a class noun denoting
o«/v things of the same class, or as a homonym employed for totally different
things, viz., "form" in the philosophical sense, and "form" in the ordinary
meaning of the word. Maimonides seems to have refrained from explaining
anthropomorphisms as figurative expressions, lest by such interpretation he might
implicitly admit the existence of a certain relation and comparison between the
Creator and His creatures.
Jewish philosophers before Maimonides enunciated and demonstrated the
Unity and the Incorporeality of the Divine Being, and interpreted Scriptural
metaphors on the principle that " the Law speaks in the language of man " ;
but our author adopted a new and altogether original method. The Commenta-
tors, when treating of anthropomorphisms, generally contented themselves with
the statement that the term under consideration must not be taken in its literal
sense, or they paraphrased the passage in expressions which implied a lesser degree
of corporeality. The Talmud, the Midrashim, and the Targumim abound in
paraphrases of this kind. Saadiah in " Emunot 've-de'ot," Bahya in his " Hobot
ha-lebabot" and Jehydah ha-levi in the " Cusari," insist on the necessity and the
appropriateness of such interpretations. Saadiah enumerates ten terms which
primarily denote organs of the human body, and are figuratively applied to God.
To establish this point of view he cites numerous instances in which the terms in
question are used in a figurative sense without being applied to God. Saadiah
further shows that the Divine attributes are either qualifications of such of God's
actions as are perceived by man, or they imply a negation. The correctness of
this method was held to be so obvious that some authors found it necessary to
apologize to the reader for introducing such well-known topics. From R. Abra-
ham ben David's strictures on the Yad hahazakah it is, however, evident that in the
days of Maimonides persons were not wanting who defended the literal interpre-
tation of certain anthropomorphisms. Maimonides, therefore, did not content
himself with the vague and general rule, " The Law speaks in the language of
man," but sought carefully to define the meaning of each term when applied to
God, and to identify it with some transcendental and metaphysical term. In
pursuing this course he is sometimes forced to venture upon an interpretation
which is much too far-fetched to commend itself even to the supposed philo-
sophical reader. In such instances he generally adds a simple and plain ex-
planation, and leaves it to the option of the reader to choose the one which
appears to him preferable. The enumeration of the different meanings of a word
is often, from a philological point of view, incomplete ; he introduces only such
significations as serve his object. When treating of an imperfect homonym, the
several significations of which are derived from one primary signification, he
apparently follows a certain system which he does not employ in the interpreta-
tion of perfect homonyms. The homonymity of the term is not proved ; the
author confines himself to the remark, " It is employed homonymously," even
when the various meanings of a word might easily be traced to a common source.
2 (pag. 4-8). In addition to the explanation of homonyms Maimonides
undertakes to interpret similes and allegories. At first it had been his intention
to write two distinct works — Sefer ha-nebuah, "A Book on Prophecy," and Sefer
ha-ihe-uaah, " A Book of Reconciliation." In the former work he had intended
xUi GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
to explain difficult passages of the Bible, and in the latter to expound such pas-
sages in the Midrash and the Talmud as seemed to be in conflict with common
sense. With respect to the " Book of Reconciliation," he abandoned his plan,
because he apprehended that neither the learned nor the unlearned would profit
by it : the one would find it superfluous, the other tedious. The subject of the
" Book on Prophecy" is treated in the present work, and also strange passages
that occasionally occur in the Talmud and the Midrash are explained.
The treatment of the simile must vary according as the simile is compound or
simple. In the first case, each part represents a separate idea and demands a
separate interpretation ; in the other case, only one idea is represented, and it is
not necessary to assign to each part a separate metaphorical meaning. This
division the author illustrates by citing the dream of Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 12 sqg.),
and the description of the adulteress (Prov. vii. 6 sqq.). He gives no rule by
which it might be ascertained to which of the two categories a simile belongs,
and, like other Commentators, he seems to treat as essential those details of a
simile for which he can offer an adequate interpretation. As a general principle,
he warns against the confusion and the errors which arise when an attempt is
made to expound every single detail of a simile. His own explanations are not
intended to be exhaustive 5 on the contrary, they are to consist of brief allusions
to the idea represented by the simile, of mere suggestions, which the reader is
expected to develop and to complete. The author thus aspires to follow in the
wake of the Creator, whose works can only be understood after a long and per-
severing study. Yet it is possible that he derived his preference for a reserved
and mysterious style from the example of ancient philosophers, who discussed
metaphysical problems in figurative and enigmatic language. Like Ibn Ezra,
who frequently concludes his exposition of a Biblical passage with the phrase,
" Here a profound idea (sod) is hidden," Maimonides somewhat mysteriously re-
marks at the end of different chapters, " Note this," " Consider it well." In
such phrases some Commentators fancied that they found references to meta-
physical theories which the author was not willing fully to discuss. Whether
this was the case or not, in having recourse to that method he was not, as some
have suggested, actuated by fear of being charged with heresy. He expresses his
opinion on the principal theological questions without reserve, and does not
dread the searching inquiries of opponents ; for he boldly announces that their
displeasure would not deter him from teaching the truth and guiding those who
are able and willing to follow him, however few these might be. When, how-
ever, we examine the work itself, we are at a loss to discover to which parts the
professed enigmatic method was applied. His theories concerning the Deity, the
Divine attributes, angels, creatio ex nihilo, prophecy, and other subjects, are
treated as fully as might be expected. It is true that a cloud of mysterious
phrases enshrouds the interpretation of Ma'aseh hereshit (Gen. i.-iii.) and
Ma'aseh mercabah (Ez. i.). But the significant words occurring In these por-
tions are explained in the First Part of this work, and a full exposition is found
in the Second and Third Parts. Nevertheless the statement that the exposition
was never Intended to be explicit occurs over and over again. The treatment of
the first three chapters of Genesis concludes thus : "These remarks, together
with what we have already observed on the subject, and what we may have to
add, must suffice both for the object and for the reatlcr we have in view " (II.
XXX.). In like manner, he declares, after the explanation of the first chapter of
Ezekiel : " I have given you here as many suggestions as may be of service to you,
if you will give them a further development. . . . Do not expect to hear from
me anything more on this subject, for I liave, though with some hesitation, gone
as far In my explanation as I possibly could go " (III. vii.).
3 (pag. 8-9). In the next paragraph, headed, " Directions for the Study of
GUIDE FOR rilE PERPLEXED jcliii
this Work," he implores the reader not to be hasty with his criticism, and to
bear in mind that every sentence, indeed every word, had been fully considered
before it was written down. Yet it might easily happen that the reader could
not reconcile his own view with that of the author, and in such a case he is asked
to ignore the disapproved chapter or section altogether. Such disapproval
Maimonides attributes to a mere misconception on the part of the reader, a fate
which awaits every work composed in a mystical style. In adopting this peculiar
style, he intended to reduce to a minimum the violation of the rule laid down in
the Mishnah (Hagigah ii. i), that metaphysics should not be taught publicly.
The violation of this rule he justifies by citing the following two Mishnaic
maxims : " It is time to do something in honour of the Lord " (Berakot ix. 5),
and "Let all thy acts be guided by pure intentions" (Abot ii. 17). Maimonides
increased the mysteriousness of the treatise, by expressing his wish that the reader
should abstain from expounding the work, lest he might spread in the name of
the author opinions which the latter never held. But it does not occur to him
that the views he enunciates might in themselves be erroneous. He is positive
that his own theory is unexceptionally correct, that his esoteric interpretations
of Scriptural texts are sound, and that those who differed from him — viz., the
Mutakallemim on the one hand, and the unphilosophical Rabbis on the other —
are indefensibly wrong. In this respect other Jewish philosophers — e.g. Saadiah
and Bahya — were far less positive ; they were conscious of their own fallibility,
and invited the reader to make such corrections as might appear needful. Owing
to this strong self-reliance of Maimonides, it is not to be expected that opponents
would receive a fair and impartial judgment at his hands.
4 (pag. 9-1 1). The same self-reliance is noticeable in the next and con-
cluding paragraph of the Introduction. Here he treats of the contradictions
which are to be found in literary works, and he divides them with regard
to their origin into seven classes. The first four classes comprise the apparent
contradictions, which can be traced back to the employment of elliptical speech ;
the other three classes comprise the real contradictions, and are due to careless-
ness and oversight, or they are intended to serve some special purpose. The
Scriptures, the Talmud, and the MIdrash abound in instances of apparent con-
tradictions ; later works contain real contradictions, which escaped the notice of
the writers. In the present treatise, however, there occur only such contradic-
tions as are the result of intention and design.
PART L
The homonymous expressions which are discussed in the First Part include —
(i) nouns and verbs used in reference to God, ch. i. to ch. xllx. ; (2) attributes
of the Deity, ch. 1. to Ix. ; (3) expressions commonly regarded as names of God,
ch. Ixi. to Ixx. In the first section the following groups can be distinguished —
{a) expressions which denote form and figure, ch. i. to ch. vi. ; (6) space or re-
lations of space, ch. viii. to ch. xxv. ; (c) parts of the animal body and their
functions, ch. xxviii. to ch. xlix. Each of these groups includes chapters not
connected with the main subject, but which serve as a help for the better under-
standing of previous or succeeding interpretations. Every word selected for
discussion bears upon some Scriptural text which, according to the opinion of
the author, has been misinterpreted. But such phrases as " the mouth of the
Lord," and " the hand of the Lord," are not introduced, because their figurative
meaning is too obvious to be misunderstood.
The lengthy digressions which are here and there interposed appear like out-
bursts of feeling and passion which the author could not repress. Yet they are
"words fitly spoken in the right place" ; for they gradually unfold the author's
xliv GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
theory, and acquaint the reader with those general principles on which he founds
the interpretations in the succeeding chapters. Moral reflections are of frequent
occurrence, and demonstrate the intimate connexion between a virtuous life and
the attainment of higher knowledge, in accordance with the maxim current long
before Maimonides, and expressed in the Biblical words, "The fear of the Lord
is the beginning of wisdom " (Ps. cxi. lo). No opportunity is lost to inculcate
this lesson, be it in a passing remark or in an elaborate essay.
The discussion of the term " ^elem" (ch. i.) afforded the first occasion for
reflections of this kind. Man, "the image of God," is defined as a living and
rational being, as though the moral faculties of man were not an essential
element of his existence, and his power to discern between good and evil were
the result of the first sin. According to Maimonides, the moral faculty would,
in fact, not have been required, if man had remained a purely rational being.
It is only through the senses that " the knowledge of good and evil" has become
indispensable. The narrative of Adam's fall is, according to Maimonides, an
allegory representing the relation which exists between sensation, moral faculty,
and intellect. In this early part (ch. ii.), however, the author does not yet
mention this theory ; on the contrary, every allusion to it is for the ipresent
studiously avoided, its full exposition being reserved for the Second Part.
The treatment oi ha%ah "he beheld " (ch. vi.), is followed by the advice that
the student should not approach metaphysics otherwise than after a sound and
thorough preparation, because a rash attempt to solve abstruse problems brings
nothing but injury upon the inexperienced investigator. The author points to
the "nobles of the children of Israel" (Exod. xxiv. ii), who, according to his
interpretation, fell into this error, and received their deserved punishment. He
gives additional force to these exhortations by citing a dictum of Aristotle to the
same effect. In a like way he refers to the allegorical use of certain terms by
Plato (ch. xvii.) in support of his interpretation oi"%ur" {lit., "rock") as de-
noting " Primal Cause."
The theory that nothing but a sound moral and intellectual training would
entitle a student to engage in metaphysical speculations is again discussed in the
digression which precedes the third group of homonyms (xxxi.-xxxvi.). Man's
intellectual faculties, he argues, have this in common with his physical forces,
that their sphere of action is limited, and they become inefficient whenever they
are overstrained. This happens when a student approaches metaphysics without
due preparation. Maimonides goes on to argue that the non-success of meta-
physical studies is attributable to the following causes : the transcendental
character of this discipline, the imperfect state of the student's knowledge, the
persistent efforts which have to be made even in the preliminary studies, and
finally the waste of energy and time owing to the physical demands of man.
For these reasons the majority of persons are debarred from pursuing the study
of metaphysics. Nevertheless, there are certain metaphysical truths which have
to be communicated to all men, e.g., that God is One, and that He is incorpo-
real ; for to assume that God is corporeal, or that He has any properties, or to
ascribe to Him any attributes, is a sin bordering on idolatry.
Another digression occurs as an appendix to the second group of homonyms
(ch. xxvi.-xxvii.). Maimonides found that only a limited number of terms are
applied to God in a figurative sense; and again, that in the "Targum" of
Onkelos some of the figures are paraphrased, while other figures received a
literal rendering. He therefore seeks to discover the principle which was applied
both in the Sacred Text and in the translation, and he found it in the Talmudical
dictum, " The Law speaketh the language of man." For this reason all figures
are eschewed which, in their literal sense, would appear to the multitude as im-
plying debasement or a blemish. Onkelos, who rigorously guards himsell
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xlv
against using any term that mighi suggest corporification, gives a literal rendering
of figurative terms when there is no cause for entertaining such an apprehension.
Maimonides illustrates this rule by the mode in which Onkelos renders "yarad"
{" he went down,"), when used in reference to God. It is generally paraphrased,
but in one exceptional instance, occurring in Jacob's "visions of the night"
(Gen. xlvi. 4), it is translated literally ; in this instance the literal rendering does
not lead to corporification ; because visions and dreams were generally regarded
as mental operations, devoid of objective reality. Simple and clear as this ex-
planation may be, we do not consider that it really explains the method of
Onkelos. On the contrary, the translator paraphrased anthropomorphic terms,
even when he found them in passages relating to dreams or visions ; and indeed
it is doubtful whether Maimonides could produce a single instance in favour of
his view. He was equally unsuccessful in his explanation of "hazab" "he saw"
(ch. xlviii.). He says that when the object of the vision was derogatory, it was not
brought into direct relation with the Deity ; in such instances the verb is para-
phrased, while in other instances the rendering is literal. Although Maimonides
grants that the force of this observation is weakened by three exceptions, he does
not doubt its correctness.
The next Section (ch. 1. to ch. lix.) " On the Divine Attributes " begins with
the explanation that " faith " consists in thought, not in mere utterance ; in
conviction, not in mere profession. This explanation forms the basis for the
subsequent discussion. The several arguments advanced by Maimonides against
the employment of attributes are intended to show that those who assume the
real existence of Divine attributes may possibly utter with their lips the creed of
the Unity and the Incorporeality of God, but they cannot truly believe it. A
demonstration of this fact would be needless, if the Attributists had not put forth
their false theses and defended them with the utmost tenacity, though with the
most absurd arguments.
After this explanation the author proceeds to discuss the impropriety of
assigning attributes to God. The Attributists admit that God is the Primal
Cause, One, incorporeal, free from emotion and privation, and that He is not
comparable to any of His creatures. Maimonides therefore contends that any
attributes which, either directly or indirectly, are in contradiction to this creed,
should not be applied to God. By this rule he rejects four classes of attributes :
viz., those which include a definition, a partial definition, a quality, or a relation.
The definition of a thing includes its efficient cause ; and since God is the
Primal Cause, He cannot be defined, or described by a partial definition. A
quality, whether psychical, physical, emotional, or quantitative, is always re-
garded as something distinct from its substratum ; a thing which possesses any
quality, consists, therefore, of that quality and a substratum, and should not
be called one. All relations of time and space imply corporeality ; all relations
between two objects are, to a certain degree, a comparison between these two
objects. To employ any of these attributes in reference to God would be as
much as to declare that God is not the Primal Cause, that He is not One, that
He is corporeal, or that He is comparable to His creatures.
There is only one class of attributes to which Maimonides makes no objection,
viz. such as describe actions, and to this class belong all the Divine attributes
which occur in the Scriptures. The "Thirteen Attributes" {shelosh esreh
middot, Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7) serve as an illustration. They were communicated
to Moses when he, as the chief of the Israelites, wished to know the way in
which God governs the universe, in order that he himself in ruling the nation
might follow it, and thereby promote their real well-being.
On the whole, the opponents of Maimonides admit the correctness of this
theory. Only a small number of attributes are the subject of dispute. The
xlvi GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
Scriptures unquestionably ascribe to God Existence, Life, Power, Wisdom,
Unity, Eternity, and Will. The Attributists regard these as properties distinct
from, but co-existing with, the Essence of God. With great acumen, and with
equally great acerbity, Maimonides shows that their theory is irreconcilable with
their belief in the Unity and the Incorporeality of God. He points out three
different ways of interpreting these attributes : — i. They may be regarded as
descriptive of the works of God, and as declaring that these possess such
properties as, in works of man, would appear to be the result ot the will, the
power, and the wisdom of a living being. 2. The term "existing," "one,"
" wise," etc., are applied to God and to His creatures homonymously ; as attri-
butes ot God they coincide with His Essence ; as attributes of anything beside
God they are distinct from the essence of the thing. 3. These terms do not
describe a positive quality, but express a negation of its opposite. This third
interpretation appears to have been preferred by the author ; he discusses it
more fully than the two others. He observes that the knowledge of the incom-
prehensible Being is solely of a negative character, and he shows by simple and
appropriate examples that an approximate knowledge of a thing can be attained
by mere negations, that such knowledge increases with the number of these
negations, and that an error in positive assertions is more injurious than an
error in negative assertions. In describing the evils which arise from the appli-
cation of positive attributes to God, he unsparingly censures the hymnologisU,
because he found them profuse in attributing positive epithets to the Deity.
On the basis of his own theory he could easily have interpreted these epithets
in the same way as he explains the Scriptural attributes of God. His severity
may, however, be accounted for by the fact that the frequent recurrence of
positive attributes in the literary composition of the Jews was the cause that
the Mohammedans charged the Jews with entertaining false notions of the
Deity.
The inquiry into the attributes is followed by a treatment of the names of
God. It seems to have been beyond the design of the author to elucidate the
etymology of each name, or to establish methodically its signification ; for he
does not support his explanations by any proof. His sole aim is to show that
the Scriptural names of God in their true meaning strictly harmonize with the
philosophical conception of the Primal Cause. There are two things which
have to be distinguished in the treatment of the Primal Cause : the Primal
Cause per se, and its relation to the Universe. The first is expressed by the
tetragrammaton and its cognates, the second by the several attributes, especially
by rokeb bdarabot, " He who ridcth on the 'arabot " (Ps. Ixviii. 4)
The tetragrammaton exclusively expresses the essence of God, and therefore
it is employed as a nomen proprium. In the mystery of this name, and others
mentioned in the Talmud, as consisting of twelve and of forty-two letters,
Maimonides finds no other secret than the solution of some metaphysical
problems. The subject of these problems is not actually known, but the author
supposes that it referred to the " absolute existence of the Deity." He discovers
the same idea in ehyeh (Exod. iii. 14), in accordance with the explanation added
in the Sacred Text : asher ehyeh, "that is, I am." In the course of this discus-
sion he exposes the folly or sinfulness of those who pretend to work miracles by
the aid of these and similar names.
With a view of preparing the way for his peculiar interpretation of rokeb
ba'arabot, he explains a variety of Scriptural passages, and treats of several
philosophical terms relative to the Supreme Being. Such expressions as " the
word of God," "the work of God," "the work of His fingers," "He made,"
" He spake," must be taken in a figurative sense ; they merely represent God as
the cause that some work has been produced, and that some person has acquired
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xlvii
a certain knowledge. The passage, "And He rested on the seventh day "
(Exod. XX. I i) is interpreted as follows : On the seventh Day the forces and laws
were complete, which during the previous six days were in the state of being
established for the preservation of the Universe. They were not to be increased
or modified.
It seems that Maimonides introduced this figurative explanation with a view
of showing that the Scriptural "God" does not differ from the "Primal
Cause" or "Ever-active Intellect" of the philosophers. On the other hand,
the latter do not reject the Unity of God, although they assume that the Primal
Cause comprises the causa efficiens, the agens, and the causa Jinalis (or, the cause,
the means, and the end) ; and that the Ever-active Intellect comprises the intel-
ligens, the intellectus, and the intellectum (or, the thinking subject, the act ot
thought, and the object thought of) ; because in this case these apparently
different elements are, in fact, identical. The Biblical term corresponding to
" Primal Cause " is rokeb ba'arabot, " riding on 'arabot." Maimonides is at
pains to prove t\\3.t' arabot denotes " the highest sphere," which causes the motion
of all other spheres, and which thus brings about the natural course of produc-
tion and destruction. By " the highest sphere " he does not understand a
material sphere, but the immaterial world of intelligences and angels, "the seat
of justice and judgment, stores of life, peace, and blessings, the seat of the souls
of the righteous," etc. Rokeb ba'arabot, therefore, means : He presides over the
immaterial beings. He is the source of their powers, by which they move the
spheres and regulate the course of nature. This theory is more fully developed
in the Second Part.
The next section (chap. Ixxi.-lxxvi.) treats of the Kalam. According to the
author, the method of the Kalam is copied from the Christian Fathers, who
applied it in the defence of their religious doctrines. The latter examined in
their writings the views of the philosophers, ostensibly in search of truth, in
reality, however, with the object of supporting their own dogmas. Subsequently
Mohammedan theologians found in these works arguments which seemed to
confirm the truth of their own religion ; they blindly adopted these arguments,
and made no inquiry whence these had been derived. Maimonides rejects a
priori the theories of the Mutakallemim, because they explain the phenomena in
the universe in conformity with preconceived notions, instead of following the
scientific method of the philosophers. Among the Jews, especially in the East
and in Africa, there were also some who adopted the method of the Kalam ; in
doing so they followed the Mu tazilah (dissenting Mohammedans), not because
they found it more correct than the Kalam of the Ashariyah (orthodox Moham-
medans), but because at the time when the Jews became acquainted with the
Kalam it was only cultivated by the Mu'tazilah. The Jews in Spain, however,
remained faitliful to the Aristotelian philosopliy.
The four principal dogmas upheld by the dominant religions were the creatio
ex nihih, the Existence of God, His Incorporcality, and His Unity. By the
philosophers the creatio ex tiihilo was rejected, but the Mutakallemim defended
it, and founded upon it their proofs for the other three dogmas. Maimonides
adopts the philosophical proofs for the Existence, Incorporcality, and Unity of
God, because they must be admitted even by those who deny the creatio ex nihilo,
the proofs being independent of this dogma. In order to show that the Muta-
kallemim are mistaken in ignoring the organization of the existing order of
things, the author gives a minute description of the analogy between the Uni-
verse, or Kosmos, and man, the mikrokosmos (ch. Ixxii.). This analogy is
merely asserted, and the reader is advised either to find the proof by his own
studies, or to accept the fact on ihe authority of the learned. The Kalam does
not admit the existence of law, organization, and unity in the universe. Its
xlviii GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
adherents have, accordinp^ly, no trustworthy criterion to determine whether a
thing is possible or impossible. Everything that is conceivable by imagination
is by them held as possible. The several parts of the universe are in no relation
to each other ; they all consist of equal elements ; they are not composed of
substance and properties, but of atoms and accidents : the law of causality is
ignored ; man's actions are not the result of will and design, but are mere
accidents. Maimonides in enumerating and discussing the twelve fundamental
propositions of the /T^/aw (ch. Ixiii.), which embody these theories, had appar-
ently no intention to give a complete and impartial account of the Kaldm ; he
solely aimed at exposing the weakness of a system which he regarded as founded
not on a sound basis of positive facts, but on mere fiction ; not on the evidences
of the senses and of reason, but on the illusions of imagination.
After having shown that the twelve fundamental propositions of the Kaldm
are utterly untenable, Maimonides finds no difficulty in demonstrating the in-
sufficiency of the proofs advanced by the Mutakallemim in support of the above-
named dogmas. Seven arguments are cited which the Mutakallemim employ
in support of the creatio ex nihilo}- The first argument is based on the atomic
theor)', viz., that the universe consists of equal atoms without inherent proper-
ties : all variety and change observed in nature must therefore be attributed to
an external force. Three arguments are supplied by the proposition that finite
things of an infinite number cannot exist (Propos. xi.). Three other arguments
derive their support from the following proposition (x.) : Everj-thing that can
be imagined can have an actual existence. The present order ot things is only
one out of the many forms which are possible, and exist through the fiat of a
determining power.
The Unity of God is demonstrated by the Mutakallemim as follows : Two
Gods would have been unable to produce the world ; one would have impeded
the work of the other. Maimonides points out that this might have been
avoided by a suitable division of labour. Another argument is as follows : The
two Beings would have one element in common, and would differ in another ;
each would thus consist of two elements, and would not be God. Maimonides
might have suggested that the argument moves in a circle, the unity of God
being proved by assuming His unity. The following argument is altogether
unintelligible : Both Gods are moved to action by will ; the will, being without
a substratum, could not act simultaneously in two separate beings. The fallacy
of the following argument is clear : The existence of otie God is proved ; the
existence of a second God is not proved, it would be possible ; and as possibility
is inapplicable to God, there does not exist a second God. The possibility of
ascertaining the existence of God is here confounded with potentiality of exist-
ence. Again, if one God suffices, the second God is superfluous ; if one God is
not sufficient, he is not perfect, and cannot be a deity. Maimonides objects
that it would not be an imperfection in either deity to act exclusively within
their respective provinces. As in the criticism of the first argument, Maimonides
1 Saadiah proves the existence of the Creator in the following way : — i. The Universe
is limited, and therefore cannot possess an unlimited force. 2. All things are compounds ;
the composition must be owing to some external cause. 3. Changes observed in all
beings are effected by some external cause. 4. If time were infinite, it would be im-
possible to conceive the progress of time from the present moment to the future, or from
the past to the present moment. (Emunot vede'ot, ch. i.). — Bahya founds his argu-
ments on three propositions : — I. A thing cannot be its own maker, 2. The series of
successive causes is finite. 3. Compounds owe their existence to an external force.
His arguments are : — l. The Universe, even the elements, are compounds consisting
of substance and form. 2. In the Universe plan and unity is discernible. (Hobot ha-
lebabot, ch. i.)
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED xlix
seems here to forget that the existence of separate provinces would require a
superior determining Power, and the two Beings would not properly be called
Gods.
The weakest of all arguments are, aceording to Maimonides, those by which
the Mutakallcmim sought to support the doctrine of God's Incorporeality. If
God were corporeal, He would consist of atoms, and would not be one ; or He
would be comparable to other beings : but a comparison implies the existence
of similar and of dissimilar elements, and God would thus not be one. A
corporeal God would be finite, and an external power would be required to
define those limits.
PART II.
The Second Part includes the following sections: — i. Introduction ; 2. Philo-
sophical Proof of the Existence of One Incorporeal Primal Cause (ch. i.) ; 3. On
the Spheres and the Intelligences (il.-xil.) ; 4. On the theory of the Eternity
of the Universe (xiil.-xxix.) ; 5. Exposition of Gen. i.-Iv. (xxx., xxxi.) ; 6. On
Prophecy (xxxil.-xlviil.).
The enumeration of twenty-six propositions, by the aid of which the philo-
sophers prove the Existence, the Unity, and the Incorporeality of the Primal
Cause, forms the Introduction to the Second Part of this work. The proposi-
tions treat of the properties of the finite and the infinite (I. -Hi., x.-xii., xvi.),
of change and motion (iv.-Ix., xlli.-xviii.), and of the possible and the absolute
or necessary (xx.-xxv.) ; they are simply enumerated, but are not demonstrated.
Whatever the value of these Propositions may be, they were inadequate for their
purpose, and the author is compelled to Introduce auxiliary propositions to
prove the existence of an Infinite, Incorporeal, and uncompounded Primal Cause.
(Arguments I. and III.)
The first and the fourth arguments may be termed cosmological proofs.
They are based on the hypothesis that the series of causes for every change is
finite, and terminates In the Primal Cause. There Is no essential difference In
the two arguments : in the first are discussed the causes ot the motion of a
moving object ; the fourth treats of the causes which bring about the transition
of a thing from potentiality to reality. To prove that neither the spheres nor
a force residing In them constitute the Primal Cause, the philosophers employed
two propositions, of which the one asserts that the revolutions of the spheres
are infinite, and the other denies the possibility that an infinite force should
reside in a finite object. The distinction between the finite in space and the
finite In time appears to have been Ignored ; for it is not shown why a force
infinite in time could not reside in a body finite In space. Moreover, those
who, like Maimonides, reject the eternity of the universe, necessarily reject this
proof, while those who hold that the universe is eternal do not admit that the
spheres have ever been only potential, and passed from potentiality to actuality.
The second argument is supported by the following supplementary proposition :
If two elements coexist in a state of combination, and one of these elements Is
to be found at the same time separate, in a free state. It is certain that the
second element is likewise to be found by Itself. Now, since things exist
which combine in themselves motive power and mass moved by that power,
and since mass is found by Itself, motive power must also be found by Itself
Independent of mass.
The third argument has a logical character : The universe is either eternal or
temporal, or partly eternal and partly temporal. It cannot be eternal in all its
parts, as many parts undergo destruction ; it is not altogether temporal, because,
if so, the universe could not be reproduced after being destroyed. The con-
1 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
tinued existence of the universe leads, therefore, to the conclusion that there is
an immortal force, the Primal Cause, besides the transient world.
These arguments have this in common, that while proving the existence of
a Primal Cause, they at the same time demonstrate the Unity, the Incorporeality,
and the Eternity of that Cause. Special proofs are nevertheless superadded for
each of these postulates, and on the whole they differ very little from those ad-
vanced by the Mohammedan Theologians.
This p'hilosophical theory of the Primal Cause was adapted by Jewish scholars
to the Biblical theory of the Creator. The universe is a living, organized being,
of which the earth is the centre. Any changes on this earth are due to the
revolutions of the spheres ; the lowest or innermost sphere, viz., the one nearest
to the centre, is the sphere of the moon ; the outermost or uppermost is
" the all-encompassing sphere." Numerous spheres are interposed ; but Mai-
monides divides all the spheres into four groups, corresponding to the moon, the
sun, the planets, and the fixed stars. This division is claimed by the author as his
own discovery ; he believes that it stands in relation to the four causes of their
motions, the four elements of the sublunary world, and the four classes of beings,
viz., the mineral, the vegetable, the animal, and the rational. The spheres have
souls, and are endowed with intellect ; their souls enable them to move freely, and
the impulse to the motion is given by the intellect in conceiving the idea of the
Absolute Intellect. Each sphere has an intellect peculiar to itself ; the intellect
attached to the sphere of the moon is called " the active intellect " {Sekel ha-po'el).
In support of this theory numerous passages are cited both from Holy Writ and
from post-Biblical Jewish literature. The angels {elohim, malakim) mentioned in
the Bible are assumed to be identical with the intellects of the spheres ; they are
free agents, and their volition invariably tends to that which is good and noble ;
they emanate from the Primal Cause, and form a descending series of beings, ending
with the active intellect. The transmission of power from one element to the
other is called "emanation" [shefd). This transmission is performed without
the utterance of a sound ; if any voice is supposed to be heard, it is only an illu-
sion, originating in the human imagination, which is the source of all evils (ch.
xii.).
In accordance with this doctrine, Maimonides explains that the three men who
appeared to Abraham, the angels whom Jacob saw ascend and descend the ladder,
and all other angels seen by man, are nothing but the intellects of the spheres, four
in number, which emanate from the Primal Cause (ch. x). In his description of
the spheres he, as usual, follows Aristotle. The spheres do not contain any of the
four elements of the sublunary world, but consist of a quintessence, an entirely
different element. Whilst things on this earth are transient, the beings which
inhabit the spheres above are eternal. According to Aristotle, these spheres, as
well as their intellects, coexist with the Primal Cause. Maimonides, faithful to
the teaching of the Scriptures, here departs from his master, and holds that the
spheres and the intellects had a beginning, and were brought into existence by the
will of the Creator. He does not attempt to give a positive proof of his doctrine ;
all he contends is that the theory of the creatio ex nihilo is, from a philosophical
point of view, not inferior to the doctrine which asserts the eternity of the universe,
and that he can refute all objections advanced against his theory (ch. xiii.-
xxviii.).
He next enumerates and criticises the various theories respecting the origin of
the Universe, viz. : A. God created the Universe out of nothing. B. God formed
the Universe from an eternal substance. C. The Universe originating in the
eternal Primal Cause is co-eternal. — It is not held necessary by the author to dis-
cuss the view of those who do not assume a Primal Cause, since the existence of
such a cause has already been proved (ch. xiii.).
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED li
The objections raised to a creatio ex n'lhilo by its opponents are founded partly
on the })ropcitics of Nature, ami partly on tbose of the Primal Cause. They inter
from the properties of Nature the following arguments : (i) The first moving
force is eternal ; for if it had a beginning, another motion must have produced it,
and then it would not be tlie First moving force. (2) If the formless matter be
not eternal, it must have been produced out of another substance ; it would then
have a certain form by which it might be distinguished from the primary sub-
stance, and then it would not beyor;;//«J. (3) The circular motion of the spheres
does not involve the necessity of termination ; and anything that is without an end,
must be without a beginning. (4) Anything brought to existence existed pre-
viously/« /xj/fw/m ,• something must therefore have pre-existed of which potential
existence could be predicated. Some support for the theory of the eternity ot the
heavens has been derived from the general belief in the eternity of the heavens. —
The properties of the Primal Cause furnished the following arguments : — If it
were assumed that the Universe was created from nothing, it would imply that the
First Cause had changed from the condition of a potential Creator to that of an
actual Creator, or that His will had undergone a change, or that He must be im-
perfect, because He produced a perishable work, or that He had been inactive
during a certain period. All these contingencies would be contrary to a true con-
ception of the First Cause (ch. xiv.).
Maimonides is of opinion that the arguments based on the properties of things
in Nature are inadmissible, because the laws by which the Universe is regulated
need not have been in force before the Universe was in existence. This refutation
is styled by our author " a strong wall built round the Law, able to resist all
attacks" (ch. xvii.). In a similar manner the author proceeds against the objec-
tions founded on the properties of the First Cause. Purely intellectual beings, he
says, are not subject to the same laws as material bodies ; that which necessitates a
change in the latter or in the will of man need not produce a change in immaterial
beings. As to the belief that the heavens are inhabited by angels and deities, it has
not its origin in the real existence of these supernatural beings ; it was suggested
to man by meditation on the apparent grandeur of heavenly phenomena (ch.
xviii.).
Maimonides next proceeds to explain how, independently of the authority or
Scripture, he has been led to adopt the belief in the creatio ex tiihilo. Admitting
that the great variety of the things in the sublunary world can be traced to those
immutable laws which regulate the influence of the spheres on the beings below —
the variety in the spheres can only be explained as the result of God's free will.
According to Aristotle — the principal authority for the eternity of the Universe —
it is impossible that a simple being should, according to the laws of nature, be the
cause of various and compound beings. Another reason for the rejection of the
Eternity of the Universe may be found in the fact that the astronomer Ptolemy
has proved the incorrectness of the view which Aristotle had of celestial spheres,
although the system of that astronomer is likewise far from being perfect and
final (ch. xxiv.). It is impossible to obtain a correct notion of the properties of
the heavenly spheres ; " the heaven, even the heavens, are the Lord's, but the
earth hath He given to the children of man " (Ps. cxv. 1 6). The author, observing
that the arguments against the cr^<z//o ^;«r «/Z'//o are untenable, adheres to his theory,
which was taught by such prophets as Abraham and Moses. Although each
Scriptural quotation could, by a figurative interpretation, be made to agree with
the opposite theory, Maimonides declines to ignore the literal sense of a term,
unless it be in opposition to well-established truths, as is the case with anthropo-
morphic expressions ; for the latter, if taken literally, would be contrary to the
demonstrated truth of God's incorporeality (ch. xxv.). He is therefore surprised
that the author of Pirke-di Rabbi Eliezer ventured to assume the eternity of
lu GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
matter, and he thinks it possible that Rabbi Eliezer carried the license ot figura-
tive speech too far. (Ch. xxvi.).
The theory of the creatio ex n;7'r7o does not involve the belief that the Universe
will at a future time be destroyed ; the Bible distinctly teaches the creation, but
not the destruction of the world except in passages which are undoubtedly con-
ceived in a metaphorical sense. On the contrary, respecting certain parts of the
Universe it is clearly stated " He established them forever." (Ps. cxlviii. 5.) The
destruction of the Universe would be, as the creation has been, a direct act of the
Divine will, and not the result of those immutable laws which govern the
I^niverse. The Divine will would in that case set aside those laws, both in the
initial and the final stages of the Universe. Within this interval, however, the laws
remain undisturbed (ch. xxvii.). Apparent exceptions, the miracles, originate in
these laws, although man is unable to perceive the causal relation. The Biblical
account of the creation concludes with the statement that God rested on the
seventh day, that is to say, He declared that the work was complete ; no new
act of creation was to take place, and no new law was to be introduced. It is
true that the second and the third chapters of Genesis appear to describe a new
creation, that of Eve, and a new law, viz., that of man's mortality, but these
chapters are explained as containing an allegorical representation of man's
psychical and intellectual faculties, or a supplemental detail of the contents of
the first chapter. Maimonides seems to prefer the allegorical explanation which,
» it seems, he had in view without expressly stating it, in his treatment of
Adam's sin and punishment. (Part I. ch. ii.) It is certainly inconsistent on the
one hand to admit that at the pleasure of the Almighty the laws of nature may
become inoperative, and that the whole Universe may become annihilated, and on
the other hand to deny, that during the existence of the Universe, any of the
natural laws ever have been or ever will be suspended. It seems that Maimonides
could not conceive the idea that the work of the All-wise should be, as the Muta-
kallemim taught — without plan and system, or that the laws once laid down
should not be sufficient for all emergencies.
The account of the Creation given in the book of Genesis is explained by
the author according to the following two rules : First its language is allegorical ;
and. Secondly, the terms employed are homonyms. The words erez, mayim,
ruah, and hoshek in the second verse (ch. i.), are homonyms and denote the four
elements : earth, water, air, and fire ; in other instances ere-z is the terrestrial
globe, mayim is water or vopour, ruah denotes wind, and hoshek darkness:
According to Maimonides, a summary of the first chapter may be given thus ;
God created the Universe by producing first the reshit the "beginning" Gen.
i. i), or hathalahf i.e., the intellects which give to the spheres both existence
and motion, and thus become the source of the existence of the entire Universe.
At first this Universe consisted of a chaos of elements, but its form was suc-
cessively developed by the influence of the spheres, and more directly by the
action of light and darkness, the properties of which were fixed on the first
day of the Creation. In the subsequent five days minerals, plants, animals, and
the intellectual beings came into existence. The seventh day, on which the
Universe was for the first time ruled by the same natural laws which still con-
tinue in operation, was distinguished as a day blessed and sanctified by the
Creator, who designed it to proclaim the creatio ex nikilo (Exod. xx. 11). The
Israelites were moreover commanded to keep this Sabbath in commemoration
of their departure from Egypt (Deut. v. 15), because during the period of the
Egyptian bondage, they had not been permitted to rest on that day. In the
history of the first sin of man, Adam, Eve, and the serpent represent the intel-
lect, the body, and the imagination. In order to complete the imagery,
Hamael or Satan, mentioned in the Midrasii in connexion with this account,
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED liii
is added as representing man's appetitive faculties. Imagination, the source of
error, is directly aided by the appetitive faculty, and the two are intimately
connected with the body, to which man generally gives paramount attention,
and for the sake of which he indulges in sins ; in the end, however, they sub-
due the intellect and weaken its power. Instead of obtaining pure and real
knowledge, man forms false conceptions ; in consequence, the body is subject
to suffering, whilst the imagination, instead of being guided by the intellect
and attaining a higher development becomes debased and depraved. In the
three sons of Adam, Kain, Abel, and Seth, Maimonides finds an allusion to
the three elements in man : the vegetable, the animal, and the intellectual.
First, the animal element (Abel) becomes extinct ; then the vegetable elements
(Kain) are dissolved ; only the third element, the intellect (Seth), survives, and
forms the basis of mankind (ch. xxx., xxxi.).
Maimonides having so far stated his opinion in explicit terms, it is difficult
to understand what he had in view by the avowal that he could not disclose
everything. It is unquestionably no easy matter to adapt each verse in the
first chapters of Genesis to the foregoing allegory ; but such an adaptation is,
according to the author's own view (Part I., Introd., p. 19), not only un-
necessary, but actually objectionable.
In the next section (xxxii.-xlviii.) Maimonides treats of Prophecy. He
mentions the following three opinions : — i. Any person, irrespective of his
physical or moral qualifications, may be summoned by the Almighty to the
mission of a prophet. 2. Prophecy is the highest degree of mental develop-
ment, and can only be attained by training and study. 3. The gift of
prophecy depends on physical, moral, and mental training, combined with in-
spiration. The author adopts the last-mentioned opinion. He defines pro-
phecy as an emanation (shefa), which through the will of the Almighty
descends from the Active Intellect to the intellect and the imagination of
thoroughly qualified persons. The prophet is thus distinguished both from
wise men whose intellect alone received the necessary impulse from the Active
Intellect, and from diviners or dreamers, whose imagination alone has been
influenced by the Active Intellect. Although it is assumed that the attainment
of this prophetic faculty depends on God's will, this dependence is nothing else
but the relation which all things bear to the Primal Cause ; for the Active
Intellect acts in conformity with the laws established by the will of God ; it
gives an impulse to the intellect of man, and, bringing to light those mental
powers which lay dormant, it merely turns potential faculty into real action.
These faculties can be perfected to such a degree as to enable man to apprehend
the highest truths intuitively, without passing through all the stages of research
required by ordinary persons. The same fact is noticed with respect to
imagination ; man sometimes forms faithful images of objects and events which
cannot be traced to the ordinary channel of information, viz., impressions
made on the senses. Since prophecy is the result of a natural process, it may
appear surprising that, of the numerous men excelling in wisdom, so few became
prophets. Maimonides accounts for this fact by assuming that the moral
faculties of such men had not been duly trained. None of them had, in the
author's opinion, gone through the moral discipline indispensable for the voca-
tion of a prophet. Besides this, everything which obstructs mental improve-
ment, misdirects the imagination or impairs the physical strength, and precludes
man from attaining to the rank of prophet. Hence no prophecy was vouch-
safed to Jacob during the period of his anxieties on account of his separation
from Joseph. Nor did Moses receive a Divine message during the years which
the Israelites, under Divine punishment, spent in the desert. On the other hand,
music and song awakened the prophetic power (comp. 2 Kings iii. 15), and
fiv GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED.
" The spirit of prophecy alights only on him who is wise, strong, and rich "
(B;ihyl. Talm. Shabbat, 92a). Although the preparation for a prophetic
mission, the pursuit of earnest and persevering study, as also the execution of
the Divine dictates, required physical strength, yet in the moment when the
prophecy was received the functions of the bodily organs were suspended. The
intellect then acquired true knowledge, which presented itself to the prophet's
imagination in forms peculiar to that faculty. Pure ideals are almost incom-
prehensible ; man must translate them into language which he is accustomed to
use, and he must adapt them to his own mode of thinking. In receiving
prophecies and communicating them to others the exercise of the prophet's
imagination was therefore as essential as that of his intellect, and Maimonides
seems to apply to this imagination the term "angel," which is so frequently
mentioned in the Bible as the medium of communication between the Supreme
Being and the prophet.
Only Moses held his bodily functions under such control that even without
their temporary suspension he was able to receive prophetic inspiration ; the
interposition of the imagination was in his case not needed : " God spoke to
him mouth to mouth" (Num. xii. 8). Moses differed so completely from
other prophets that the term "prophet" could only have been applied to him
and other men by way of homonymy.
The impulses descending from the Active Intellect to man's intellect and to
his imagination produce various effects, according to his physical, moral, and
intellectual condition. Some men are thus endowed with extraordinary courage
and with an ambition to perform great deeds, or they feel themselves impelled
to appeal mightily to their fellowmen by means of exalted and pure language.
Such men are filled with " the spirit of the Lord," or, " with the spirit of
holiness." To this distinguished class belonged Jephthah, Samson, David,
Solomon, and the authors of the Hagiographa. Though above the standard
of ordinary men, they were not included in the rank of prophets. Maimonides
divides the prophets into two groups, viz., those who receive inspiration in
a dream and those who receive it in a vision. The first group includes the
following five classes : — i. Those who see symbolic figures ; 2. Those who hear a
voice addressing them without perceiving the speaker ; 3. Those who see a
man and hear him addressing them ; 4. Those who see an angel addressing
them ; 5. Those who see God and hear His voice. The other group is
divided in a similar manner, but contains only the first four classes, for Mai-
monides considered it impossible that a prophet should see God in a vision.
This classification is based on the various expressions employeil in the Scriptures
to describe the several prophecies.
When the Israelites received the Law at Mount Sinai, they distinctly heard
the first two commandments, which include the doctrines of the Existence and
the Unity of God ; of the other eight commandments, which enunciate moral,
not metaphysical truths, they heard the mere "sound of words" ; and it was
through the mouth of Moses that the Divine instruction was revealed to them.
Maimonides defends this opinion by quotations from the Talmud and the
Midrashim.
The theory that imagination was an essential element in prophecy is sup-
ported by the fact that figurative speech predominates in the prophetical
writings, which abound in figures, hyperbolical expressions and allegories. The
symbolical acts which are described in connexion with the visions of the
prophets, such as the translation of Ezekiel from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ez.
viii. 3), Isaiah's walking about naked and barefoot (Isa. xx. 2), Jacob's wrestling
with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 27 ^yy.), and the speaking of Balaam's ass (Num.
xxii. 28), had no positive reality. The prophets, employing an elliptical style,
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED Iv
frequently omitted to state that a certain event related by tliem was part of a
vision or a dream. In consequence of such elliptical speech events are de-
scribed in the Bible as coming directly from God, although they simply arc the
effect of the ordinary laws of nature, and as such depend on the will of God.
Such passages cannot be misunderstood when it is borne in mind that every
event and every natural phenomenon can for its origin be traced to the Primal
Cause. In this sense the prophets employ such phrases as the following : "And
/ will command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it" (Isa. v, 6) ; " I have
also called my mighty men " {ibid. xi. 3).
PART III.
This part contains the following six sections :— i. Exposition of the ma'asek
mercabah (Ez. i.), ch. i. vii. ; 2. On the nature and the origin of evil, ch. viii. xii. ;
3. On the object of the creation, ch. xiii.,-xv. ; 4. On Providence and Omni-
science, ch.xvi.-xxv. ; 5. On the object of the Divine precepts {td ame ha-mi'^'vot)
and the historical portions of the Bible, ch. xxv.-xl. ; 6. A guide to the proper
worship of God.
With great caution Maimonides approaches the explanation of the mdaseh
mercabah, the chariot which Ezekiel beheld in a vision (Ez. i.). The
mysteries included in the description of the Divine chariot had been orally
transmitted from generation to generation, but in consequence of the dispersion
of the Jews the chain of tradition was broken, and the knowledge of these
mysteries had vanished. Whatever he knew of those mysteries he owed
exclusively to his own intellectual faculties ; he therefore could not reconcile
himself to the idea that his knowledge should die with him. He committed
his exposition of the mdaseh mercabah and the mdaseh bereshit to writing,
but did not divest it of its original mysterious character ; so that the explan-
ation was fully intelligible to the initiated— that is to say, to the philosopher
— but to the ordinary reader it was a mere paraphrase of the Biblical text. —
(Introduction.)
The first seven chapters are devoted to the exposition of the Divine chariot.
According to Maimonides three distinct parts are to be noticed, each of which
begins with the phrase, "And I saw." These parts correspond to the three
parts of the Universe, the sublunary world, the spheres and the intelligences.
First of all the prophet is made to behold the material world which consists
of the earth and the spheres, and of these the spheres, as the more important,
are noticed first. In the Second Part, in which the nature of the spheres is
discussed, the author dwells with pride on his discovery that they can be
divided into four groups. This discovery he now employs to show that the four
" hayyot " (animals) represent the four divisions of the spheres. He points out
that the terms which the prophet uses in the description of the hayyot are iden-
tical with terms applied to the properties of the spheres. For the four hayyot
or "angels," or cherubim, (i) have human form ; (2) have human faces ;
(3) possess characteristics of other animals ; (4) have human hands ; (5) their
feet are straight and round (cylindrical) ; (6) their bodies are closely joined to
each other; (7) only their faces and their wings are separate ; (8) their sub-
stance is transparent and refulgent ; (9) they move uniformly ; (10) each moves
in its own direction; (11) they run; (12) swift as lightning they return
towards their starting point ; and (13) they move in consequence of an extra-
neous impulse (ruah). In a similar manner the spheres are described :— (i)they
possess the characteristics of man, viz., life and intellect ; (2) they consist like
man of body and soul ; (3) they are strong, mighty and swift, like the ox, the
lion, and the eagle ; (4) they perform all manner of work as though they had
Ivi GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
hands ; (5) they are round, and are not divided into parts ; (6) no vacuum
intervenes between one sphere and the other ; (7) they may be considered as
one being, but in respect to the intellects, which are the causes of their existence
and motion, they appear as four different beings ; (8) they are transparent and
refulgent; {9) each sphere moves uniformly, (10) and according to its special
laws ; (11) they revolve with great velocity ; (12) each point returns again to
its previous position ; (13) they are self-moving, yet the impulse emanates from
an external power.
In the second part of the vision the prophet saw the ofannim. These represent
the four elements of the sublunary world. For the ofannim (i) are connected
with the kayyotzx^A with the earth ; (2) they have four faces, and are four separate
beings, but interpenetrate each other "as though it were a wheel in the midst
of a wheel" (Ez. i. 16) ; (3) they are covered with eyes ; (4) they are not
self-moving ; (5) they are set in motion by the hayyot ; (6) their motion is not
circular but rectilinear. The same may almost be said of the four elements : —
(i) they are in close contact with the spheres, being encompassed by the sphere
of the moon ; earth occupies the centre, water surrounds earth, air has its position
between water and fire ; (2) this order is not invariably maintained ; the respec-
tive portions change and they become intermixed and combined with each other ;
(3) though they are only four elements they form an infinite number of things ;
(4) not being animated they do not move of their own accord ; (5) they are set
in motion by the action of the spheres ; (6) when a portion is displaced it returns
in a straight line to its original position.
In the third vision Ezekiel saw a human form above the fpayyot. The figure
was divided in the middle ; in the upper portion the prophet only noticed that
it was hashmal, (mysterious) ; from the loins downwards tliere was " the vision
of the likeness of the Divine Glory," and " the likeness of the throne." The
world of Intelligences was represented by the figure ; these can only be per-
ceived in as far as they influence the spheres, but their relation to the Creator is
beyond human comprehension. The Creator himself is not represented in this
vision.
The key to the whole vision Maimonides finds in the introductory words,
"And the heavens were opened," and in the minute description of the place and
the time of the revelation. When pondering on the grandeur of the spheres
and their influences, which vary according to time and place, man begins to
think of the existence of the Creator. At the conclusion of this exposition
Maimonides declares that he will, in the subsequent chapters, refrain from giving
further explanation of the ma'aseh mercabah. The foregoing summary, how-
ever, shows that the opinion of the author on this subject is fully stated, and it
is indeed difficult to conceive what additional disclosures he could still have
made.
The task which the author has proposed to himself in the Preface he now
regarded as accomplished. He has discussed the method of the Kalam, the
system of the philosophers, and his own theory concerning the relation between
the Primal Cause and the Universe : he has explained the Biblical account of
the creation, the nature of prophecy, and the mysteries in Ezekiel's vision. In
the remaining portion of the work the author attempts to solve certain theo-
logical problems, as though he wished to obviate the following objections, which
might be raised to his theory that there is a desijTi throughout the creation, and
that the entire Universe is subject to the law of causation : — What is the purpose
of the evils which attend human life > For what purpose was the world created .?
In how far does Providence interfere with the natural course of events t Does
God know and foresee man's actions .> To what end was the Divine Law
revealed ? These problems are treated seriatim.
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED Ivii
All evils, Maiinonides holds, orij;inate in the material element of man's
existence. Those who are able to emancipate themselves from the tyranny ol
the body, and unconditionally to submit to the dictates of reason, are protected
from many evils. Man should disrcfj^ard the cravings of the body, avoid them
as topics of conversation, and keep his thoughts far away from them ; convivial
and erotic songs debase man's noblest gifts — thought and speech. Matter is
the partition separating man from the pure Intellects ; it is "the thickness of
the cloud " which true knowledge has to traverse before it reaches man. In
reality, evil is the mere negative of good : " God saw all that He had made,
and behold it was very good " (Gen. i. 31). Evil does not exist at all. When
evils are mentioned in the Scriptures as the work of God, the Scriptural expres-
sions must not be taken in their literal sense.
There are three kinds of evils : — i. Evils necessitated by those laws of pro-
duction and destruction by which the species are perpetuated. 2. Evils which
men inflict on each other ; they are comparatively few, especially among civilized
men. 3. Evils which man brings upon himself, and which comprise the majority
of existing evils. The consideration of these three classes of evils leads to the
conclusion that "the Lord is good to all, and his tender mercies are over all
his works " (Ps. cxlv. 9).
The question. What is the object of the creation ? must be left unanswered.
The creation is the result of the will of God. Also those who believe that the
Universe is eternal must admit that they are unable to discover the purpose of
the Universe. It would, however, not be illogical to assume that the spheres
have been created for the sake of man, notwithstanding the great dimensions of
the former and the smallness of the latter. Still it must be conceded that, even
if mankind were the main and central object of creation, there is no absolute
interdependence between them ; for it is a matter of course that, under altered
conditions, man could exist without the spheres. All teleological theories must
therefore be confined within the limits of the Universe as it now exists. They
are only admissible in the relation in which the several parts of the Universe
stand to each other ; but the purpose of the Universe as a whole cannot be
accounted for.- It is simply an emanation from the will of God.
Regarding the belief in Providence, Maimonides enumerates the following
five opihions : — i. There is no Providence; e'verything is subject to chance;
2. Only a part of the Universe is governed by Providence, viz., the spheres, the
species, and such individual beings as possess the power of perpetuating their
existence (e.g., the stars) ; the rest — that is, the sublunary world — is left to mere
chance. 3. Everthing is predetermined ; according to this theory, revealed
Law is inconceivable. 4. Providence assigns its blessings to all creatures,
according to their merits ; accordingly, all beings, even the lowest animals, if
innocently injured or killed, receive compensation in a future life. 5. Accord-
ing to the Jewish belief, all living beings are endowed with free-will ; God is
just, and the destiny of man depends on his merits. Maimonides denies the
existence of trials inflicted by Divine love, i.e. afflictions which befall man, not
as punishments of sin, but as means to procure for him a reward in times to
come. Maimonides also rejects the notion that God ordains special temptation.
The Biblical account, according to which God tempts men, " to know what is
in their hearts," must not be taken in its literal sense ; it merely states that God
made the virtues of certain people known to their fellowmen in order that their
good example should be followed. Of all creatures man alone enjoys the especial
care of Providence : because the acts of Providence are identical with certain
influences [shefa') which the Active Intellect brings to bear upon the human
intellect ; their eflcct upon man varies according to his physical, moral, and
intellectual condition ; irrational beings, however, cannot be aftectcd by these
Iviu GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
influences. If we cannot in each individual case see how these principles are
applied, it must be borne in mind tliat God's wisdom is far above that of man.
The author seems to have ielt that his theory has its weak points, for he intro-
duces it as follows : — " My theory is not established by demonstrative proof ; it
is based on the authority of the Bible, and it is less subject to refutation than any
of the theories previously mentioned."
Providence implies Omniscience, and men who deny this, eo ipso, have no
belief in Providence. Some are unable to reconcile the fate of man with Divine
Justice, and are therefore of opinion that God takes no notice whatever of the
events which occur on earth. Others believe that God, being an absolute Unity,
cannot possess a knowledge of a multitude of things, or of things that do not
yet exist, or the number of which is infinite. These objections, which are based
on the nature of man's perception, are illogical ; for God's knowledge cannot
be compared to that of man ; it is identical with His essence. Even the Attri-
butists, who assume that God's knowledge is different from His essence, hold
that it is distinguished from man's knowledge in the following five points : —
I. It is one, although it embraces a plurality. 2. It includes even such things
as do not yet exist. 3. It includes things which are infinite in number. 4. It
does not change when new objects of perception present themselves. 5. It does
not determine the course of events. — However difficult this theory may appear
to human comprehension, it is in accordance with the words of Isaiah (Iv. 8) :
" Your thoughts are not My thoughts, and your ways are not My ways."
According to Maimonides, the difficulty is to be explained by the fact that God
is the Creator of all things, and His knowledge of the things is not dependent
on their existence ; while the knowledge of man is solely dependent on the objects
which come under his cognition.
According to Maimonides, the book of Job illustrates the several views which
have been mentioned above. Satan, that is, the material element in human
existence, is described as the cause of Job's sufferings. Job at first believed that
man's happiness depends on riches, health, and children ; being deprived of
these sources of happiness, he conceived the notion that Providence is indifferent
to the fate of mortal beings. After a careful study of natural phenomena, he
rejected this opinion. Eliphaz held that all misfortunes of man serve as punish-
ments of past sins. Bildad, the second friend of Job, admitted the existence of
those afflictions which Divine love decrees in order that the patient sufferer
may be fitted to receive a bountiful reward. Zophar, the third friend of Job,
declared that the ways of God are beyond human comprehension ; there is
but one explanation assignable to all Divine acts, namely : Such is His Will.
Elihu gives a fuller development to this idea ; he says that such evils as befell
Job may be remedied once or twice, but the course of nature is not altogether
reversed. It is true that by prophecy a clearer insight into the ways of God
can be obtained, but there are only few who arrive at that exalted intellectual
degree, whilst the majority of men must content themselves with acquiring a
knowledge of God through the study of nature. Such a study leads man to
the conviction that his understanding cannot fathom the secrets of nature and
the wisdom of Divine Providence.
The concluding section of the Third Part treats of the purpose of the Divine
precepts. In the Pentateuch they are described as the means of acquiring
wisdom, enduring happiness, and also bodily comfort (ch. xxxi.). Generally a
distinction is made between "hukkim" ("statutes") and mishpatim ("judg-
ments "). The object of the latter is, on the whole, known, but the hukkim
are considered as tests of man's obedience ; no reason is given why they have
been enacted. Maimonides rejects this distinction ; he states that all precepts
are the result of wisdom and design, that all contribute to the welfare of man-
GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED lix
kind, although with regard to the huHim this is less obvious. The author
draws another line of distinction between the general principles and the details
of rules. For the selection and the introduction of the latter there is but one
reason, viz. : " Such is the will of God."
The laws are intended to promote man's perfection ; they improve both his
mental and his physical condition ; the former in so far as they lead him to the
acquisition of true knowledge, the latter through the training of his moral and
social faculties. Each law thus imparts knowledge, improves the moral con-
dition of man, or conduces to the well-being of society. Many revealed laws
help to enlighten man, and to correct false opinions. This object is not
always clearly announced. God in His wisdom sometimes withheld from the
knowledge of man the purpose of commandments and actions. There are
other precepts which tend to restrain man's passions and desires. If the same
end is occasionally attainable by other means, it must be remembered that the
Divine laws are adapted to the ordinary mental and emotional state of man, and
not to exceptional circumstances. In this work, as in the Tad ha-haz.akah,
Maimonides divides the laws of the Pentateuch into fourteen groups, and in
each group he discusses the principal and the special object of the laws included
in it.
In addition to the legislative contents, the Bible includes historical informa-
tion ; and Maimonides, in briefly reviewing the Biblical narratives, shows that
these are likewise intended to improve man's physical, moral, and intellectual
condition. "It is not a vain thing for you " (Deut. xxxii. 47), and when it
proves vain to anyone, it is his own fault.
In the final chapters the author describes the several degrees of human per-
fection, from the sinners who have turned from the right path to the best of
men, who in all their thoughts and acts cling to the Most Perfect Being, who
aspire after the greatest possible knowledge of God, and strive to serve their
Maker in the practice of "loving-kindness, righteousness, and justice." This
degree of human perfection can only be attained by those who never forget the
presence of the Almighty, and remain firm in their fear and love of God.
These servants of the Most High inherit the choicest of human blessings ;
they are endowed with wisdom : they are godlike beings.
INTRODUCTION
[Lftier of the Author to his Pupil, R. Joseph Ibn Jknin.]
In the name of God, Lord of the Universe.
To R. Joseph (may God protect him !), son of R. Jehudah (may his repose
be in Paradise !) : —
" My dear pupil, ever since you resolved to come to me, from a distant
country, and to study under my direction, I thought highly of your thirst
for knowledge, and your fondness for speculative pursuits, which found ex-
pression in your poems. I refer to the time when I received your writings
in prose and verse from Alexandria. I was then not yet able to test your
powers of apprehension, and I thought that your desire might possibly exceed
your capacity. But when you had gone with me through a course of astro-
nomy, after having completed the [other] elementary studies which are
indispensable for the understanding of that science, I was still more gratified
by the acuteness and the quickness of your apprehension. Observing your
great fondness for mathematics, I let you study them more deeply, for I felt
sure of your ultimate success. Afterwards, when I took you through a course
of logic, I found that my great expectations of you were confirmed, and I
considered you fit to receive from me an exposition of the esoteric ideas con-
tained in the prophetic books, that you might understand them as they are
understood by men of culture. When I commenced by way of hints, I
noticed that you desired additional explanation, urging me to expound some
metaphysical problems ; to teach you the system of the Mutakallemim ; to
tell you whether their arguments were based on logical proof ; and if not,
what their method was. I perceived that you had acquired some knowledge
in those matters from others, and that you were perplexed and bewildered ;
yet you sought to find out a solution to your difficulty. I urged you to desist
from this pursuit, and enjoined you to continue your studies systematically ;
for my object was that the truth should present itself in connected order,
and that you should not hit upon it by mere chance. Whilst you studied
with me I never refused to explain difficult verses in the Bible or passages in
rabbinical literature which we happened to meet. When, by the will of
God, we parted, and you went your way, our discussions aroused in me a
resolution which had long been dormant. Your absence has prompted me
to compose this treatise for you and for those who are like you, however few
they may be. I have divided it into chapters, each of which shall be sent to
you as soon as it is completed. Farewell ! "
[Prefatory Remarks.]
" Cause me to know the way wherein I should walk, for I lift up my soul unto Thee."
(Psalm cxliii. 8.)
" Unto you, O men, I call, and my voice is to the sons of men." (Prov. viii. 4.)
"Bow down thine ear and hear the words of the wise, and apply thine heart unto my
knowledge." (Prov. xxii. 17.)
^ B
2 INTRODUCTION
My primary object in this work is to explain certain words occurring in
the prophetic books. Of these some are homonyms, and of their several
meanings the ignorant choose the wrong ones ; other terms which are em-
ployed in a figurative sense are erroneously taken by such persons in their
primary signification. There are also hybrid terms, denoting things which
are of the same class from one point of view and of a different class from
another. It is not here intended to explain all these expressions to the un-
lettered or to mere tyros, a previous knowledge of Logic and Natural Philo-
sophy being indispensable, or to those who confine their attention to the
study of our holy^aw, I mean the study of the canonical law alone ; for the
true knowledge of the Torah is the special aim of this and similar works.
The object of this treatise is to enlighten a religious man who has been
trained to believe in the truth of our holy Law, who conscientiously fulfils
his moral and religious duties, and at the same time has been successful in
his philosophical studies. Human reason has attracted him to abide within
its sphere ; and he finds it difficult to accept as correct the teaching based
on the literal interpretation of the Law, and especially that which he himself
or others derived from those homonymous, metaphorical, or hybrid expres-
sions. Hence he is lost in perplexity and anxiety. If he be guided solely by
reason, and renounce his previous views which are based on those expressions,
he would consider that he had rejected the fundamental principles of the
Law ; and even if he retains the opinions which were derived from those ex-
pressions, and if, instead of following his reason, he abandon its guidance
altogether, it would still appear that his religious convictions had suffered loss
and injury. For he would then be left with those errors which give rise to
fear and anxiety, constant grief and great perplexity.
This work has also a second object in view. It seeks to explain certain
obscure figures which occur in the Prophets, and are not distinctly char-
acterized as being figures. Ignorant and superficial readers take them-in a
literal, not in a figurative sense. Even well informed persons are bewildered
if they understand these passages in their literal signification, but they are
entirely relieved of their perplexity when we explain the figure, or merely
suggest that the terms are figurative. For this reason I have called this book
Guide for the Perplexed.
I do not presume to think that this treatise settles every doubt in the minds
of those who understand it, but I maintain that it settles the greater part of
their difficulties. No intelligent man will require and expect that on intro-
ducing any subject I shall completely exhaust it ; or that on commencing
the exposition of a figure I shall fully explain all its parts. Such a course
could not be followed by a teacher in a viva voce exposition, much less by an
author in writing a book, without becoming a target for every foolish con-
ceited person to discharge the arrows of folly at him. Some general prin-
ciples bearing upon this point have been fully discussed in our works on the
Talmud, and we have there called the attention of the reader to many themes
of this kind. We also stated {Mishneh torah, I. ii. 12, and iv. 10) that the
expression Ma'ase Bereshit (Account of the Creation) signified " Natu-
ral Science," and Ma'aseh Mercabah (" Description of the Chariot ")
Metaphysics, and we explained the force of the Rabbinical dictum, " The
Ma'aseh Mercabah must not be fully expounded even in the presence of a
INTFWDUCriON 3
single student, unless he be wise and able to reason for himself, and even then
you should merely acquaint him with the heads of the different sections of
the subject. (Habyl. 'I'alm. JJagigah, fol. ii b). You must, therefore, not
expect from me more than such heads. And even these have not been
methodically and systematically arranged in this work, but have been, on the
contrary, scattered, and are interspersed with other topics which we shall have
occasion to explain. My object in adopting this arrangement is that the
truths should be at one time apparent, and at another time concealed. Thus
we shall not be in opposition to the Divine Will (from which it is wrong to
deviate) which has withheld from the multitude the truths required for the
knowledge of God, according to the words, " The secret of the Lord is with
them that fear Him " (Ps. xxv. 14).
Know that also in Natural Science there are topics which are not to be
fully explained. Our Sages laid down the rule, " The Ma'aseh Bere-
shith must not be expounded in the presence of two." If an author were to
explain these principles in writing, it would be equal to expounding them
unto thousands of men. For this reason the prophets treat these subjects
in figures, and our Sages, imitating the method of Scripture, speak of them in
metaphors and allegories ; because there is a close affinity between these sub-
jects and metaphysics, and indeed they form part of its mysteries. Do not
imagine that these most difficult problems can be thoroughly understood by
any one of us. This is not the case. At times the truth shines so brilliantly
that we perceive it as clear as day. Our nature and habit then draw a veil
over our perception, and we return to a darkness almost as dense as before.
We are like those who, though beholding frequent flashes of lightning, still
find themselves in the thickest darkness of the night. On some the lightning
flashes in rapid succession, and they seem to be in continuous light, and
their night is as clear as the day. This was the degree of prophetic excellence
attained by (Moses) tiie greatest of prophets, to whom God said, " But
as for thee, stand thou here by Me " (Deut. v. 31), and of whom it is written
" the skin of his face shone," etc. (Exod. xxxiv. 29). [Some perceive the
prophetic flash at long intervals ; this is the degree of most prophets.] By
others only once during the whole night is a flash of lightning perceived.
This is the case with those of whom we are informed, " They prophesied, and
did not prophesy again " (Num. xi. 25). There are some to whom the flashes
of lightning appear with varying intervals; others are in the condition
of men, whose darkness is illumined not by lightning, but by some kind of
crystal or similar stone, or other substances that possess the property of
shining during the night ; and to them even this small amount of light is
not continuous, but now it shines and now it vanishes, as if it were " the
flame of the rotating sword."
The degrees in the perfection of men vary according to these distinctions.
Concerning those who never beheld the light even for one day, but walk in
continual darkness, it is written, " They know not, neither will they under-
stand ; they walk on in darkness " (Ps. Ixxxii. 5). Truth, in spite of all its
powerful manifestations, is completely withheld from them, and the follow-
ing words of Scripture may be applied to them, " And now men see not the
light which is bright in the skies " (Job xxxvii. 21). They are the multitude
of ordinary men ; there is no need to notice them in this treatise.
4 INTRODUCTION
You must kn iw that if a person, who has attained a certain degree of per-
fection, wishes to impart to others, cither orally or in writing, any portion
of the knowledge which he has acquired of these subjects, he is utterly unable
to be as systematic and explicit as he could be in a science of which the method
is well known. The same difficulties which he encountered when investi-
gating the subject for himself will attend him when endeavouring to in-
struct others ; viz., at one time the explanation will appear lucid, at another
time, obscure ; this property of the subject appears to remain the same both
to the advanced scholar and to the beginner. For this reason, great theo-
logical scholars gave instruction in all such matters only by means of meta-
phors and allegories. They frequently employed them in forms varying
more or less essentially. In most cases they placed the lesson to be illus-
trated at the beginning, or in the middle, or at the end of the simile. When
they could find no simile which from beginning to end corresponded to the
idea which was to be illustrated, they divided the subject of the lesson, al-
though in itself one whole, into different parts, and expressed each by a
separate figure. Still more obscure are those instances in which one simile
is employed to illustrate many subjects, the beginning of the simile repre-
senting one thing, the end another. Sometimes the whole metaphor may
refer to two cognate subjects in the same branch of knowledge.
If we were to teach in these disciplines, without the use of parables and
figures, we should be compelled to resort to expressions both profound and
transcendental, and by no means more intelligible than metaphors and sim-
iles ; as though the wise and learned were drawn into this course by the
Divine Will, in the same way as they are compelled to follow the laws of
nature in matters relating to the body. You are no doubt aware that the
Almighty, desiring to lead us to perfection and to improve our state of
society, has revealed to us laws which are to regulate our actions. These
laws, however, presuppose an advanced state of intellectual culture. We
must first form a conception of the Existence of the Creator according to our
capabilities ; that is, we must have a knowledge of Metaphysics. But this
discipline can only be approached after the study of Physics ; for the science
of Physics borders on Metaphysics, and must even precede it in the course of
our studies, as is clear to all who are familiar with these questions. 'I herefore
the Almighty commenced Holy Writ with the description of the Creation,
that is, with Physical Science ; the subject being on the one hand most
weighty and important, and on the other hand our means of fully compre-
hending those great problems being limited. He described those profound
truths, which His Divine Wisdom found it necessary to communicate to us,
in allegorical, figurative, and metaphorical language. Our Sages have said
(Yemen Midrash on Gen. i. i), " It is impossible to give a full account of the
Creation to man. Therefore Scripture simply tells us. In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth " (Gen. i. l). Thus they have suggested
that this subject is a deep mystery, and in the words of Solomon, " Far off
and exceedingly deep, who can find it out ? " (Eccles. vii. 24). It has been
treated in metaphors in order that the uneducated may comprehend it
according to the measure of their faculties and the feebleness of their appre-
hension, while educated persons may take it in a different sense. In our
commentary on the Mishnah we stated our intention to explain difficult
INTRODUCTION 5
problems in the Book on Prophecy and in the Book of Harmony. In the
latter we intended to examine all the passages in the Midrash which, if taken
literally, appear to be inconsistent with truth and common sense, and must
therefore be taken figuratively. Many years have elapsed since I first com-
menced those works. I had proceeded but a short way when I became
dissatisfied with my original plan. For I observed that by expounding these
passages by means of allegorical and mystical terms, we do not explain any-
thing, but merely substitute one thing for another of the same nature, whilst
in explaining them, fully our efforts would displease most people ; and my
sole object in planning to write those books was to make the contents of
Midrashim and the exoteric lessons of the prophecies intelligible to every-
body. We have further noticed that when an ill-informed Theologian
reads these Midrashim, he will find no difficulty ; for possessing no know-
ledge of the properties of things, he will not reject statements which involve
impossibilities. When, however, a person who is both religious and well
educated reads them, he cannot escape the following dilemma : either he
takes them literally, and questions the abilities of the author and the sound-
ness of his mind — doing thereby nothing which is opposed to the principles
of our faith, — or he will acquiesce in assuming that the passages in question
have some secret meaning, and he will continue to hold the author in high
estimation whether he understood the allegory or not. As regards prophecy
in its various degrees and the different metaphors used in the prophetic books,
we shall give in the present work an explanation, according to a different
method. Guided by these considerations I have refrained from writing
those two books as I had previously intended. In my larger work, the Mish-
nah Tjrah, I have contented myself with briefly stating the principles of our
faith and its fundamental truths, together with such hints as approach a clear
exposition. In this work, however, I address those who have studied philo-
sophy and have acquired sound knowledge, and who while firm in religious
matters are perplexed and bewildered on account of the ambiguous and
figurative expressions employed in the holy writings. Some chapters may
be found in this work which contain no reference whatever to homonyms.
Such chapters will serve as an introduction to others ; they will contain some
reference to the signification of a homonym which I do not wish to men-
tion in that place, or explain some figure ; point out that a certain expression
is a figure ; treat of difficult passages generally misunderstood in consequence
of the homonymy they include, or because the simile they contain is taken
in place of that which it represents, and vice versa.
Having spoken of similes, I proceed to make the following remark : — The
key to the understanding and to the full comprehension of all that the
Prophets have said is found in the knowledge of the figures, their general
ideas, and the meaning of each word they contain. You know the verse : —
" I have also spoken in similes by the Prophets " (Hosea xii. lo) ; and also
the verse, " Put forth a riddle and speak a parable " (Ezek. xvii. 2). And
because the Prophets continually employ figures, Ezekiel said, " Does He
not speak parables ? " (xxi. 5). Again, Solomon begins his book of Proverbs
with the words, " To understand a proverb and figurative speech, the words
of the wise and their dark sayings " (Prov. i. 6) ; and we read in Midrash, Shir
ha-shirim Rabba, i. l) ; " To what were the words of the Law to be com-
6 INTRODUCTION
pared before the time of Solomon ? To a well the waters of which are at a
great depth, and though cool and fresh, yet no man could drink of them.
A clever man joined cord with cord, and rope with rope, and drew up and
drank. So Solomon went from figure to figure, and from subject to sub-
ject, till he obtained the true sense of the Law." So far go the words of our
Sages. I do not believe that any intelligent man thinks that " the words of
the Law " mentioned here as requiring the application of figures in order to
be understood, can refer to the rules for building tabernacles, for preparing
the lulab, or for the four kinds of trustees. What is really meant is the appre-
hension of profound and difficult subjects, concerning which our Sages said,
" If a man loses in his house a sela, or a pearl, he can find it by lighting a taper
worth only one issar. Thus the parables in themselves are of no great value,
but through them the words of the holy Law are rendered intelligible."
These likewise are the words of our Sages ; consider well their statement,
that the deeper sense of the words of the holy Law are pearls, and the literal
acceptation of a figure is of no value in itself. They compare the hidden
meaning included in the literal sense of the simile to a pearl lost in a dark
room, which is full of furniture. It is certain that the pearl is in the room,
but the man can neither see it nor know where it lies. It is just as if tlie pearl
were no longer in his possession, for, as has been stated, it affords him no
benefit whatever until he kindles a light. The same is the case with the com-
prehension of that which the simile represents. The wise king said, " A word
fitly spoken is like apples of gold in vessels of silver " (Prov. xxv. ll). Hear
the explanation of what he said : — The word maskiyoth, the Hebrew equi-
valent for " vessels," denotes " filigree network " — i.e., things in which there
are very small apertures, such as are frequently wrought by silversmiths.
They are called in Hebrew maskiyyoth (lit. " transpicuous," from the verb
sakah, " he saw," a root which occurs also in the Targum of Onkelos, Gen,
xxvi. 8), because the eye penetrates through them. Thus Solomon meant
to say, " Just as apples of gold in silver filigree with small apertures, so is a
word fitly spoken."
See how beautifully the conditions of a good simile are described in this
figure ! It shows that in every word which has a double sense, a literal one
and a figurative one, the plain meaning must be as valuable as silver, and the
hidden meaning still more precious ; so that the figurative meaning bears
the same relation to the literal one as gold to silver. It is further necessary
that the plain sense of the phrase shall give to those who consider it some
notion of that which the figure represents. Just as a golden apple overlaid
with a network of silver, when seen at a distance, or looked at superficially,
is mistaken for a silver apple, but when a keen-sighted person looks at the
object well, he will find what is within, and see that the apple is gold. The
same is the case with the figures employed by prophets. Taken literally,
such expressions contain wisdom useful for many purposes, among others,
for the amelioration of the condition of society ; e.g., the Proverbs (of Solo-
mon), and similar sayings in their literal sense. Their hidden meaning,
however, is profound wisdom, conducive to the recognition of real truth.
Know that the figures employed by prophets are of two kinds : first, where
every word which occurs in the simile represents a certain idea ; and secondly,
where the simile, as a whole, represents a general idea, but has a great
INTRODUCTION 7
many points which have no reference whatever to that idea ; they are simply
required to give to the simile its proper form and order, or better to conceal
the idea ; the simile is therefore continued as far as necessary, according to
its literal sense. Consider this well.
An example of the first class of prophetic figures is to be found in Genesis :
— " And, behold, a ladder set up on the earth, and the top of it reached to
heaven ; and, behold, the angels of God ascending and descending on it "
(Gen. xxviii. 12). The word " ladder " refers to one idea ; " set up on the
earth " to another ; " and the top of it reached to heaven " to a third ;
" angels of God " to a fourth ; " ascending " to a fifth ; " descending " to
a sixth ; " the Lord stood above it " (ver. 13) to a seventh. Every word in
this figure introduces a fresh element into the idea represented by the figure.
An example of the second class of prophetic figures is found in Proverbs
(vii. 6-26) : — " For at the window of my house I looked through my case-
ment, and beheld among the simple ones ; I discerned among the youths a
young man void of understanding, passing through the street near her corner :
and he went the way to her house, in the twilight, in the evening, in the black
and dark night : and, behold, there met him a woman with the attire of a
harlot, and subtil of heart. (She is loud and stubborn ; her feet abide not
in her house : now she is without, now in the streets, and lieth in wait in
every corner.) So she caught him, and kissed him, and with an impudent
face said unto him, I have peace offerings with me ; this day have I paid my
vows. Therefore came I forth to meet thee, diligently to seek thy face, and
I have found thee. I have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with
striped cloths of the yarn of Egypt. I have perfumed my bed with myrrh,
aloes, and cinnamon. Come, let us take our fill of love until the morning :
let us solace ourselves with loves. For the goodman is not at home, he is
gone a long journey : he hath taken a bag of money with him, and will come
home at the day appointed. With her much fair speech she caused him to
yield, with the flattering of her lips she forced him. He goeth after her
straightway, as an ox goeth to the slaughter, or as fetters to the correction of
a fool : till a dart strike through his liver ; as a bird hasteth to the snare,
and knoweth not that it is for his life. Hearken unto me now therefore, O
ye children, and attend to the words of my mouth. Let not thine heart de-
cline to her ways, go not astray in her paths. For she hath cast down many
wounded : yea, many strong men have been slain by her."
The general principle expounded in all these verses is to abstain from
excessive indulgence in bodily pleasures. The author compares the body,
which is the source of all sensual pleasures, to a married woman who at the
same time is a harlot. And this figure he has taken as the basis of his entire
book. We shall hereafter show the wisdom of Solomon in comparing sensual
pleasures to an adulterous harlot. We shall explain how aptly he concludes
that work with the praises of a faitliful wife who devotes herself to the welfare
of her husband and of her household. All obstacles which prevent man from
attaining his highest aim in life, all the deficiencies in the character of man,
all his evil propensities, are to be traced to the body alone. This will be ex-
plained later on. The predominant idea running throughout the figure is,
that man shall not be entirely guided by his animal, or material nature ; for
the material substance of man is identical with that of the brute creation.
8 INTRODUCTION
An adequate explanation of the figure having been given, and its meaning
having been shown, do not imagine that you will find in its application a
corresponding element for each part of the figure ; you must not ask what is
meant by " I have peace offerings with me " (ver. 14) ; by " I have decked
my bed with coverings of tapestry " (ver. 16) ; or what is added to the force
of the figure by the observation " for the goodman is not at home " (ver. 19),
and so on to the end of the chapter. For all this is merely to complete the
illustration of the metaphor in its literal meaning. The circumstances de-
scribed here are such as are common to adulterers. Such conversations take
place between all adulterous persons. You must well understand what I
have said, for it is a principle of the utmost importance with respect to those
things which I intend to expound. If you observe in one of the chapters
that I explained the meaning of a certain figure, and pointed out to you its
general scope, do not trouble yourself further in order to find an interpre-
tation of each separate portion, for that would lead you to one of the two
following erroneous courses ; either you will miss the sense included in the
metaphor, or you will be induced to explain certain things which require no
explanation, and which are not introduced for that purpose. Through this
unnecessary trouble you may fall into the great error which besets most
modern sects in their foolish writings and discussions ; they all endeavour to
find some hidden meaning in expressions which were never uttered by the
author in that sense. Your object should be to discover in most of the figures
the general idea which the author wishes to express. In some instances it
will be sufficient if you understand from my remarks that a certain expression
contains a figure, although I may offer no further comment. For when you
know that it is not to be taken literally, you will understand at once to what
subject it refers. My statement that it is a figurative expression will, as it
were, remove the screen from between the object and the observer.
Directions for the Study of this Work.
If you desire to grasp all that is contained in this book so that nothing shall
escape your notice, consider the chapters in connected order. In studying
each chapter, do not content yourself wath comprehending its principal sub-
ject, but attend to every term mentioned therein, although it may seem to
have no connection with the principal subject. For what I have written in
this work was not the suggestion of the moment ; it is the result of deep study
and great application. Care has been taken that nothing that appeared
doubtful should be left unexplained. Nothing of what is mentioned is
out of place, every remark will be found to illustrate the subject-matter of
the respective chapter. Do not read superficially, lest you do me an injury,
and derive no benefit for yourself. You must study thoroughly and read
continually ; for you will then find the solution of those important problems
of religion, which are a source of anxiety to all intelligent men. I adjure
any reader of my book, in the name of the Most High, not to add any ex-
planation even to a single word ; nor to explain to another any portion of it
except such passages as have been fully treated of by previous theological
authorities ; he must not teach others anything that he has learnt from my
work alone, and that has not been hitherto discussed by any of our authorities.
The reader must, moreover, beware of raising objections to any of my state-
INTRODUCTION 9
mcnts, because it is very probable that he may understand my words to mean
the exact opposite to what I intended to say. He will injure me, while I en-
deavoured to benefit him. " He will requite me evil for good." Let the
reader make a careful study of this work ; and if his doubt be removed on
even one point, let him praise his Maker and rest contented with the know-
ledge he has acquired. But if he derive from it no benefit whatever, he may
consider the book as if it had never been written. Should he notice any
opinions with which he does not agree, let him endeavour to find a suitable
explanation, even if it seem far-fetched, in order that he may judge me
charitably. Such a duty we owe to every one. We owe it especially to our
scholars and theologians, who endeavour to teach us what is the truth accord-
ing to the best of their ability. I feel assured that those of my readers who
have not studied philosophy, will still derive profit from many a chapter.
But the thinker whose studies have brought him into collision with religion,
will, as I have already mentioned, derive much benefit from every chapter.
How greatly will he rejoice ! How agreeably will my words strike his ears !
Those, however, whose minds are confused with false notions and perverse
methods, who regard their misleading studies as sciences, and imagine them-
selves philosophers, though they have no knowledge that could truly be
termed science, will object to many chapters, and will find in them many
insuperable difficulties, because they do not understand their meaning, and be-
cause I expose therein the absurdity of their perverse notions, which constitute
their riches and peculiar treasure, " stored up for their ruin." God knows
that I hesitated very much before writing on the subjects contained in this
work, since they are profound mysteries ; they are topics which, since the
time of our captivity have not been treated by any of our scholars as far as
we possess their writings ; how then shall I now make a beginning and dis-
cuss them ? But I rely on two precedents : first, to similar cases our Sages
applied the verse, " It is time to do something in honour of the Lord : for
they have made void thy law" (Ps. cxix. 126). Secondly, they have said,
" Let all thy acts be guided by pure intentions." On these two principles
I relied while composing some parts of this work. Lastly, when I have a
difficult subject before me — when I find the road narrow, and can see no
other way of teaching a well established truth except by pleasing one intelli-
gent man and displeasing ten thousand fools — I prefer to address myself to
the one man, and to take no notice whatever of the condemnation of the
multitude ; I prefer to extricate that intelligent man from his embarrass-
ment and show him the cause of his perplexity, so that he may attain per-
fection and be at peace.
Introductory Remarks.
[On Method.]
There are seven causes of inconsistencies and contradictions to be met with
in a literary work. The first cause arises from the fact that the author collects
the opinions of various men, each diflFering from the other, but neglects
to mention the name of the author of any particular opinion. In such a work
contradictions or inconsistencies must occur, since any two statements may
belong to two different authors. Second cause : The author holds at first
one opinion which he subsequently rejects ; in his work, however, both his
10 INTRODUCTION
original and altered views are retained. Third cause: The passages in question
are not all to be taken literally ; some only arc to be understood in their
literal sense, while in others figurative language is employed, which includes
another meaning besides the literal one : or, in the apparently inconsistent
passages, figurative language is employed which, if taken literally, would seem
to be contradictories or contraries. Fourth cause : The premises are not
identical in both statements, but for certain reasons they are not fully stated
in these passages ; or two propositions with different subjects which are
expressed by the same term without having the difference in meaning
pointed out, occur in two passages. The contradiction is therefore only
apparent, but there is no contradiction in reality. The fifth cause is
traceable to the use of a certain method adopted in teaching and ex-
pounding profound problems. Namely, a difficult and obscure theorem
must sometimes be mentioned and assumed as known, for the illustra-
tion of some elementary and intelligible subject which must be taught
beforehand, the commencement being always made with the easier thing.
The teacher must therefore facilitate, in any manner which he can
devise, the explanation of those theorems, which have to be assumed as
known, and he must content himself with giving a general though some-
what inaccurate notion on the subject. It is, for the present, explained
according to the capacity of the students, that they may comprehend it as far
as they are required to understand the subject. Later on, the same subject
is thoroughly treated and fully developed in its right place. Sixth cause :
The contradiction is not apparent, and only becomes evident through a
series of premises. The larger the number of premises necessary to prove
the contradiction between the two conclusions, the greater is the chance that
it will escape detection, and that the author will not perceive his own incon-
sistency. Only when from each conclusion, by means of suitable premises,
an inference is made, and from the enunciation thus inferred, by means of
proper arguments, other conclusions are formed, and after that process has
been repeated many times, then it becomes clear that the original conclusions
are contradictories or contraries. Even able writers are liable to overlook
such inconsistencies. If, however, the contradiction between the original
statements can at once be discovered, and the author, while writing the
second, does not think of the first, he evinces a greater deficiency, and his
words deserve no notice whatever. Seventh cause : It is sometimes necessary
to introduce such metaphysical matter as may partly be disclosed, but must
partly be concealed ; while, therefore, on one occasion the object which the
author has in view may demand that the metaphysical problem be treated as
solved in one way, it may be convenient on another occasion to treat it as
solved in the opposite way. The author must endeavour, by concealing the
fact as much as possible, to prevent the uneducated reader from perceiving
the contradiction.
Inconsistencies occurring in the Mishnah and Boraitot are traceable to
the first cause. You meet frequently in the Gemara with passages like the
following : — " Does not the beginning of the passage contradict the end ?
No ; the beginning is the dictum of a certain Rabbi ; the end that of an-
other " ; or " Rabbi (Jehudah ha-Nasi) approved of the opinion of a certain
rabbi in one case and gave it therefore anonymously, and having accepted
INTRODUCTION ii
that of another rabbi in the other case he introduced that view without
naming the authority " ; or " Who is the author of this anonymous dictum ?
Rabbi A." " Who is the author of that paragraph in the Mishnah ?
Rabbi B." Instances of this kind are innumerable.
• Apparent contradictions or differences occurring in the Gemara may be
traced to the first cause and to the second, as e.g., " In this particular case he
agrees with this rabbi " ; or " He agrees with him in one point, but differs
from him in another " ; or " These two dicta are the opinions of two Amo-
raim, who differ as regards the statement made by a certain rabbi." These
are examples of contradictions traceable to the first cause. The following
are instances which may be traced to the second cause. " Rabba altered his
opinion on that point " ; it then becomes necessary to consider which of the
two opinions came second. Again, " In the first recension of the Talmud
by Rabbi Ashi, he made one assertion, and in the second a different one."
The inconsistencies and contradictions met with in some passages of the
prophetic books, if taken literally, are all traceable to the third or fourth
cause, and it is exclusively in reference to this subject that I wrote the present
Introduction. You know that the following expression frequently occurs,
" One verse says this, another that," showing the contradiction, and explain-
ing that either some premise is wanting or the subject is altered. Comp.
" Solomon, it is not sufficient that thy words contradict thy father ; they are
themselves inconsistent, etc." Many similar instances occur in the writings
of our Sages. The passages in the prophetical books which our Sages have
explained, mostly refer to religious or moral precepts. Our desire, however,
is to discuss such passages as contain apparent contradictions in regard to the
principles of our faith. I shall explain some of them in various chapters of
the present work ; for this subject also belongs to the secrets of the Torah.
Contradictions traceable to the seventh cause occurring in the prophetical
works require special investigation ; and no one should express his opinion
on that matter by reasoning and arguing without weighing the matter well
in his mind.
Inconsistencies in the writings of true philosophers are traceable to the
fifth cause. Contradictions occurring in the writings of most authors and
commentators, such as are not included in the above-mentioned works, are
due to the sixth cause. Many examples of this class of contradictions are
found in the Midrash and the Agada ; hence the saying, " We must not raise
questions concerning the contradictions met with in the Agada." You may
also notice in them contradictions due to the seventh cause. Any inconsis-
tency discovered in the present work will be found to arise in consequence of
the fifth cause or the seventh. Notice this, consider its truth, and remember
it well, lest you misunderstand some of the chapters in this book.
Having concluded these introductory remarks I proceed to examine those
expressions, to the true meaning of which, as apparent from the context, it
is necessary to direct your attention. This book will then be a key admitting
to places the gates of which would otherwise be closed. When the gates are
opened and men enter, their souls will enjoy repose, their eyes will be grati-
fied, and even their bodies, after all toil and labour, will be refreshed.
PART I
" Open ye the gates, that the righteous nation which keepeth the truth may
enter in." — (Isa. xxvi. 2.)
CHAPTER I
Some have been of opinion that by the Hebrew z.elem, the shape and figure
of a thing is to be understood, and this explanation led men to believe in the
corporeality [of the Divine Being] : for they thought that the words " Let
us make man in our xelem " (Gen.i. 26), implied that God had the form
of a human being, i.e., that He had figure and shape, and that, consequently,
He was corporeal. They adhered faithfully to this view, and thought that
if they were to relinquish it they would eo ipso reject the truth of the Bible :
and further, if they did not conceive God as having a body possessed of face
and limbs, similar to their own in appearance, they would have to deny even
the existence of God. The sole difference which they admitted, was that
He excelled in greatness and splendour, and that His substance was not flesh
and blood. Thus far went their conception of the greatness and glory of
God. The incorporeality of the Divine Being, and His unity, in the true
sense of the word — for there is no real unity without incorporeality — will be
fully proved in the course of the present treatise. (Part n.,ch.i.) In this
chapter it is our sole intention to explain the meaning of the words zelem
and demut. I hold that the Hebrew equivalent of " form " in the ordinary
acceptation of the word, viz., the figure and shape of a thing, is toiir. Thus
we find" [And Joseph was] beautiful in toiir ('form'), and beautiful in
appearance" (Gen. xxxix. 6): "What form {toiir) is he of?" (i Sam.
xxviii. 14) : " As the form {toiir) of the children of a king " (Judges viii. 18).
It is also applied to form produced by human labour, as " He marketh its
form {toiir) with a line," " and he marketh its form {toar) with the compass "
(Isa. xliv. 13). This term is not at all applicable to God. The term zelem,
on the other hand, signifies the specific form, viz., that which constitutes t-x
essence of a thing, whereby the thing is what it is ; the reality of a thing in
so far as it is that particular being. In man the " form " is that constituent
which gives him human perception : and on account of this intellectual per-
ception the term z,elem is employed in the sentences " In the zelem of God
he created him " (Gen. i. 27). It is therefore rightly said, " Thou despisest
their zelem " (Ps. Ixiii. 20) ; the " contempt " can only concern the soul —
the specific form of man, not the properties and shape of his body. I am
also of opinion that the reason why this term is used for " idols " may be
found in the circumstance that they are worshipped on account of some idea
represented by them, not on account of their figure and shape. For the
same reason the term is used in the expression, " the forms {zalme) of your
13
14 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
emerods " (i Sam. vi. 5), for the chief object was the removal of the injury
caused by the emerods, not a change of their shape. As, however, it must
be admitted that the term z^lem is employed in these two cases, viz. " the
images of the emerods " and " the idols " on account of the external shape,
the term z:.elgm is either a homonym or a hybrid term, and would denote both
the specific form and the outward shape, and similar properties relating to
the dimensions and the shape of material bodies ; and in the phrase " Let
us make man in our zeUm " (Gen. i. 26), the term signifies " the specific
form " of man, viz., his intellectual perception, and does not refer to his
" figure " or " shape." Thus we have shown the difference between zeUm and
toar, and explained the meaning of zelem.
Demut is derived from the verb damah, " he is like." This term likewise
denotes agreement with regard to some abstract relation : comp. " I am
like a pelican of the wilderness " (Ps. cii. 7) ; the author does not compare
himself to the pelican in point of wings and feathers, but in point of sadness.
" Nor any tree in the garden of God was like unto him in beauty" (Ezek. xxxi.
8) ; the comparison refers to the idea of beauty. " Their poison is like the
poison of a serpent " (Ps. Iviii. 5) ; " He is like unto a lion " (Ps. xvii. 1 2) ;
the resemblance indicated in these passages does not refer to the figure and
shape, but to some abstract idea. In the same manner is used " the likeness
of the throne " (Ezek. i. 26); the comparison is made with regard to greatness
and glory, not, as many believe, with regard to its square form, its breadth, or
the length of its legs : this explanation applies also to the phrase " the like-
ness of the hayyot (" living creatures," Ezek. i. 13).
As man's distinction consists in a property which no other creature on earth
possesses, viz., intellectual perception, in the exercise of which he does not
employ his senses, nor move his hand or his foot, this perception has been
compared — though only apparently, not in truth — to the Divine perception,
which requires no corporeal organ. On this account, i.e., on account of the
Divine intellect with which man has been endowed, he is said to have been
made in the form and likeness of the Almighty, but far from it be the notion
that the Supreme Being is corporeal, having a material form.
CHAPTER II
Some years ago a learned man asked me a question of great importance ; the
problem and the solution which we gave in our reply deserve the closest atten-
tion. Before, however, entering upon this problem and its solution I must
premise that every Hebrew knows that the term Elohim is a homonym,
and denotes God, angels, judges, and the rulers of countries, and that On-
kelos the proselyte explained it in the true and correct manner by taking
Elohim in the sentence, " and ye shall be like Elohim " (Gen. iii. 5) in the last-
mentioned meaning, and rendering the sentence " and ye shall be like
princes." Having pointed out the homonymity of the term " Elohim " we
return to the question under consideration. " It would at first sight," said
the objector, " appear from Scripture that man was originally intended to be
perfectly equal to the rest of the animal creation, which is not endowed with
intellect, reason, or power of distinguishing between good and evil : but that
Adam's disobedience to the command of God procured him that great per-
ON GENESIS III. 5 15
fection which is the peculiarity of man, viz., the power of distinguishing be-
tween good and evil — the noblest of all the faculties of our nature, the essen-
tial characteristic of the human race. It thus appears strange that the
punishment for rebelliousness should be the means of elevating man to a
pinnacle of perfection to which he had not attained previously. This is
equivalent to saying that a certain man was rebellious and extremely wicked,
wherefore his nature was changed for the better, and he was made to shine
as a star in the heavens." Such was the purport and subject of the question,
though not in the exact words of the inquirer. Now mark our reply, which
was as follows : — " You appear to have studied the matter superficially, and
nevertheless you imagine that you can understand a book which has been the
guide of past and present generations, when you for a moment withdraw from
your lusts and appetites, and glance over its contents as if you were reading
a historical work or some poetical composition. Collect your thoughts and
examine the matter carefully, for it is not to be understood as you at first
sight think, but as you will find after due deliberation ; namely, the intellect
which was granted to man as the highest endowment, was bestowed on him
before his disobedience. With reference to this gift the Bible states that
" man was created in the form and likeness of God." On account of this gift
of intellect man was addressed by God, and received His commandments, as
it is said : " And the Lord God commanded Adam " (Gen. ii. 16) — for no
commandments are given to the brute creation or to those who are devoid of
understanding. Through the intellect man distinguishes between the true
and the false. This faculty Adam possessed perfectly and completely. The
right and the wrong are terms employed in the science of apparent truths
(morals), not in that of necessary truths, as, e.g., it is not correct to say, in
reference to the proposition " the heavens are spherical," it is " good " or to
declare the assertion that " the earth is flat " to be " bad " ; but we say of
the one it is true, of the other it is false. Similarly our language expresses
the idea of true and false by the terms emet and sheker, of the morally right
and the morally wrong, by tob and to'. Thus it is the function of the in-
tellect to discriminate between the true and the false — a distinction which is
applicable to all objects of intellectual perception. When Adam was yet in
a state of innocence, and was guided solely by reflection and reason — on
account of which it is said : " Thou hast made him (man) little lower than
the angels " (Ps. viii. 6) — he was not at all able to follow or to understand
the principles of apparent truths ; the most manifest impropriety, viz., to
appear in a state of nudity, was nothing unbecoming according to his idea: he
could not comprehend why it should be so. After man's disobedience, how-
ever, when he began to give way to desires which had their source in his
imagination and to the gratification of his bodily appetites, as it is said," And
the wife saw that the tree was good for food and delightful to the eyes "
(Gen. iii. 6), he was punished by the loss of part of that intellectual faculty
which he had previously possessed. He therefore transgressed a command
with which he had been charged on the score of his reason ; and having ob-
tained a knowledge of the apparent truths, he was wholly absorbed in the
study of what is proper and what improper. Then he fully understood the
magnitude of the loss he had sustained, what he had forfeited, and in what
situation he was thereby placed. Hence we read, " And ye shall be like
i6 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
elohim, knowing good and evil," and not " knowing " or " discerning the
true and the false " : while in necessary truths we can only apply the words
" true and false," not " good and evil." Further observe the passage, " And
the eyes of both were opened, and they knew they were naked " (Gen. iii. 7) :
it is not said, " And the eyes of both were opened, and they saw " ; for what
the man had seen previously and what he saw after this circumstance was
precisely the same ; there had been no blindness which was now removed,
but he received a new faculty whereby he found things wrong which previ-
ously he had not regarded as wrong. Besides, you must know that the He-
brew word pakah used in this passage is exclusively employed in the figurative
sense of receiving new sources of knowledge, not in that of regaining the
sense of sight. Comp., "God opened her eyes" (Gen. xxi. 19). "Then
shall the eyes of the blind be opened " (Isaiah xxxviii. 8). " Open ears, he
heareth not " (ibid. xlii. 20), similar in sense to the verse, " Which have eyes
to see, and see not " (Ezek. xii. 2). When, however. Scripture says of Adam,
" He changed his face (panav) and thou sentest him forth " (Job xiv. 20), it
must be understood in the following way : On account of the change of his
original aim he was sent away. For fatiim, the Hebrew equivalent of face,
is derived from the verb panah, " he turned," and signifies also " aim," be-
cause man generally turns his face towards the thing he desires. In accord-
ance with this interpretation, our text suggests that Adam, as he altered his
intention and directed his thoughts to the acquisition of what he was for-
bidden, he was banished from Paradise : this was his punishment ; it was
measure for measure. At first he had the privilege of tasting pleasure and
happiness, and of enjoying repose and security ; but as his appetites grew
stronger, and he followed his desires and impulses, (as we have already stated
above), and partook of the food he was forbidden to taste, he was deprived of
everything, was doomed to subsist on the meanest kind of food, such as he
never tasted before, and this even only after exertion and labour, as it is said,
" Thorns and thistles shall grow up for thee " (Gen. iii. 18), " By the sweat
of thy brow," etc., and in explanation of this the text continues, " And the
Lord God drove him from the Garden of Eden, to till the ground whence he
was taken." He was now with respect to food and many other requirements
brought to the level of the lower animals; comp., "Thou shalt eat the grass
of the field " (Gen. iii. 1 8). Reflecting on his condition, the Psalmist says,
" Adam unable to dwell in dignity, was brought to the level of the dumb
beast" (Ps. xlix. 13).
" May the Almighty be praised, whose design and wisdom cannot be
fathomed."
CHAPTER III
It might be thought that the Hebrew words temunah and tabnit have one
and the same meaning, but this is not the case. Tabnit, derived from the
verb banah (he built), signifies the build and construction of a thing — that is
to say, its figure, whether square, round, triangular, or of any other shape.
Comp. " the pattern [tabnit) of the Tabernacle and the pattern {tabnit)
of all its vessels " (Exod. xxv. 9) ; " according to the pattern (tabnit) which
thou wast shown upon the mount " (Exod. xxv. 40) ; " the form of any bird "
(Dcut. iv. 17) ; " the form (tabtiit) of a hand " (Ezek. viii. 3) ; " the pattern
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 17
(tabnit) of the porch" (l Chron. xxviii. ll). In all these quotations it is
the shape which is referred to. Therefore the Hebrew language never em-
ploys the word tabnit in speaking of the qualities of God Almighty.
The term temunah, on the other hand, is used in the Bible in three diflFerent
senses. It signifies, first, the outlines of things which are perceived by our
bodily senses, i.e., their shape and form ; as, e.g., " And ye make an image
the form (temunat) of some likeness " (Deut. iv. 16) ; " for ye saw no like-
ness " {temunah) (Deut. iv. 15). Secondly, the forms of our imagination, i.e.,
the impressions retained in imagination when the objects have ceased to
affect our senses. In this sense it is used in the passage which begins " In
thoughts from the visions of the night" (Job iv. 13), and which concludes
" it remained but I could not recognize its sight, only an image — temunah —
was before my eyes," i.e., an image which presented itself to my sight during
sleep. Thirdly, the true form of an object, which is perceived only by the
intellect : and it is in this third signification that the term is applied to God.
The words " And the similitude of the Lord shall he behold " (Num. xii. 'S)
therefore mean " he shall comprehend the true essence of the Lord."
CHAPTER IV
The three verbs raah, hibbit, and hazah, which denote " he perceived with
the eye," are also used figuratively in the sense of intellectual perception. As
regards the first of these verbs this is well known, e.g., " And he looked
(va-yar) and behold a well in the field " (Gen. xxix. 2) : here it signifies
ocular perception ; " yea, my heart has seen (raah) much of wisdom and
of knowledge " (Eccles. i. 16) ; in this passage it refers to the intellectual
perception.
In this figurative sense the verb is to be understood, when applied to God ;
e.g., " I saw (ra'i'tt) the Lord " (l Kings xxii. 19) ; " And the Lord ap-
peared (va-yera) unto him " (Gen. xviii. i) ; " And God saw (va-yar) that
it was good " (Gen. i. 10) ; " I beseech thee, show me (hareni) thy glory "
(Exod. xxxiii. 18) ; " And they saw {va-yirli) the God of Israel " (Exod. xxiv.
10). All these instances refer to intellectual perception, and by no means to
perception with the eye as in its literal meaning : for, on the one hand, the
eye can only perceive a corporeal object, and in connection with it certain
accidents, as colour, shape, etc. ; and, on the other hand, God does not
perceive by means of a corporeal organ, as will be explained.
In the same manner the Hebrew hibbit signifies "he viewed " with the eye;
comp. "Look (tabbit) not behind thee" (Gen. xix. 17); "But his wife
looked (va-tabbet) back from him " (Gen. xix. 26) ; " And if one look (ve-
nibbat) unto the land " (Isa. v. 30) ; and figuratively, " to view and observe "
with the intellect, " to contemplate " a thing till it be understood. In this
sense the verb is used in passages like the following : " He hath not beheld
{hibbit) iniquity in Jacob " (Num. xxiii. 21) ; for " iniquity " cannot be seen
with the eye. The words, " And they looked {ve-hibbitu) after Moses "
(Exod. xxxiii. 8) — in addition to the literal understanding of the phrase —
were explained by our Sages in a figurative sense. According to them, these
words mean that the Israelites examined and criticised the actions and sayings
of Moses. Compare also " Contemplate {habbet), I pray thee, the heaven"
i8 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
(Gen. XV. 5) ; for this took place in a prophetic vision. This verb, when
applied to God, is employed in this figurative sense ; e.g., " to look (me-
habbit) upon God " (Exod. iii. 6) ; " And the similitude of the Lord shall he
behold " iyabbit) (Num. xii. 8) ; " And thou canst not look {habbet) on ini-
quity " (Hab. i. 13).
The same explanation applies to haxah. It denotes to view with the eye,
as : " And let our eye look {ve-tahaz) upon Zion " (Mic. iv. ll) ; and also
figuratively, to perceive mentally : " which he saw Qpazah) concerning Judah
and Jerusalem " (Isa. i. i) ; " The word of the Lord came unto Abraham
in a vision " {mahazeh) (Gen. xv. l) : in this sense hazah is used in the
phrase, " Also they saw (va-yehezu) God " (Exod. xxiv. 1 1). Note this well.
CHAPTER V
When the chief of philosophers [Aristotle] was about to inquire into some
very profound subjects, and to establish his theory by proofs, he commenced
his treatise with an apology, and requested the reader to attribute the author's
inquiries not to presumption, vanity, egotism, or arrogance, as though he
were interfering with things of which he had no knowledge, but rather to his
zeal and his desire to discover and establish true doctrines, as far as lay in
human power. We take the same position, and think that a man, when he
commences to speculate, ought not to embark at once on a subject so vast
and important ; he should previously adapt himself to the study of the
several branches of science and knowledge, should most thoroughly refine
his moral character and subdue his passions and desires, the offspring of his
imagination ; when, in addition, he has obtained a knowledge of the true
fundamental propositions, a comprehension of the several methods of infer-
ence and proof, and the capacity of guarding against fallacies, then he
may approach the investigation of this subject. He must, however, not
decide any question by the first idea that suggests itself to his mind, or at
once direct his thoughts and force them to obtain a knowledge of the Creator,
but he must wait modestly and patiently, and advance step by step.
In this sense we must understand the words " And Moses hid his face, for
he was afraid to look upon God " (Exod. iii. 6), though retaining also the
literal meaning of the passage, that Moses was afraid to gaze at the light
which appeared to his eye ; but it must on no account be assumed that the
Being which is exalted far above every imperfection can be perceived by the
eye. This act of Moses was highly commended by God, who bestowed on
him a well deserved portion of His goodness, as it is said : " And the simili-
tude of the Lord shall he behold " (Num. xii. 8). This, say our Sages, was
the reward for having previously hidden his face, lest he should gaze at the
Eternal. {Talm. B. Berakot Fa.)
But " the nobles of the Children of Israel " were impetuous, and allowed
their thoughts to go unrestrained : what they perceived was but imperfect.
Therefore it is said of them, " And they saw the God of Israel, and there was
under his feet," etc. (Exod. xxiv. 10) ; and not merely, " and they saw the
God of Israel " ; the purpose of the whole passage is to criticize their act of
seeing and not to describe it. They are blamed for the nature of their per-
ception, which was to a certain extent corporeal — a result which necessarily
ON EXODUS XXIV. lo-ii 19
followed, from the fact that they ventured too far before being perfectly
prepared. They deserved to perish, but at the intercession of Moses this
fate was averted by God for the time. They were afterwards burnt at
Taberah, except Nadab and Abihu, who were burnt in the Tabernacle of
the congregation, according to what is stated by authentic tradition. {Mtdr.
Rabba ad locum.)
If such was the case with them, how much more is it incumbent on us who
are inferior, and on those who are below us, to persevere in perfecting our
knowledge of the elements, and in rightly understanding the preliminaries
which purify the mind from the defilement of error ; then we may enter the
holy and divine camp in order to gaze : as the Bible says, " And let the priests
also, which come near to the Lord, sanctify themselves, lest the Lord break
forth upon them " (Exod. xix. 22). Solomon, also, has cautioned all who
endeavour to attain this high degree of knowledge in the following figurative
terms, " Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God '' (Eccles. iv. 17).
I will now return to complete what I commenced to explain. The nobles
of the Children of Israel, besides erring in their perception, were, through
this cause, also misled in their actions ; for in consequence of their confused
perception, they gave way to bodily cravings. This is meant by the words,
" Also they saw God and did eat and drink " (Exod. xxiv. 1 1). The principal
part of that passage, viz., " And there was under his feet as it were a paved
work of a sapphire stone " (Exod. xxiv. lo), will be further explained in the
course of the present treatise (ch. xxviii.). All we here intend to say is, that
wherever in a similar connection any one of the three verbs mentioned above
occurs, it has reference to intellectual perception, not to the sensation of sight
by the eye ; for God is not a being to be perceived by the eye.
It will do no harm, however, if those who are unable to comprehend what
we here endeavour to explain should refer all the words in question to sen-
suous perception, to seeing lights created [for the purpose], angels, or similar
beings.
CHAPTER VI
The two Hebrew nouns ish and ishshah were originally employed to designate
the " male and female " of human beings, but were afterwards applied to the
" male and female " of the other species of the animal creation. For in-
stance, we read, " Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens,"
ish ve-ishto (Gen. vii. 2), in the same sense as ish ve-ishshah, " male and
female." The term zakar u-nekebah was afterwards applied to anything
designed and prepared for union with another object Thus we read,
" The five curtains shall be coupled together, one (ishshah) to the other "
(ahoiah) (Exod. xxvi. 3).
It will easily be seen that the Hebrew equivalents for " brother and sister "
are likewise treated as homonyms, and used, in a figurative sense, like ish and
ishshah.
CHAPTER VII
It is well known that the verb yalad means " to bear," " they have born
{ve-yaledu) him children " (Deut. xxi. 15). The word was next used in a
20 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
figurative sense with reference to various objects in nature, meaning, " to
create," e.g. " before the mountains were created " (yulladu) (Ps. xc. 2) ;
also, " to produce," in reference to that which the earth causes to come forth
as if by birth, e.g., " He will cause her to bear {holidah) and bring forth "
(Isa. Iv. 10). The verb further denotes, " to bring forth," said of changes in
the process of time, as though they were things which were born, e.g., " for
thou knowest not what a day may bring forth " (yelfd) (Prov. xxvii. l).
Another figurative use of the word is its application to the formation of
thoughts and ideas, or of opinions resulting from them ; comp. " and brought
forth {ve-yalad) falsehood " (Ps. vii. 14) ; also, " and they please themselves
in the children {yalde) of strangers " (Isa. ii. 6), i.e., " they delight in the
opinions of strangers." Jonathan the son of Uzziel paraphrases this passage,
" they walk in the customs of other nations."
A man who has instructed another in any subject, and has improved his
knowledge, may in like manner be regarded as the parent of the person taught,
because he is the author of that knowledge ; and thus the pupils of the pro-
phets are called " sons of the prophets," as I shall explain when treating of
the homonymity of ben (son). In this figurative sense, the verb yalad (to
bear) is employed when it is said of Adam, " And Adam lived an hundred and
thirty years, and begat (va-yoled) a son in his own likeness, in his form "
(Gen. V. 3). As regards the words, " the form of Adam, and his likeness,"
we have already stated (ch. i.) their meaning. Those sons of Adam who were
born before that time were not human in the true sense of the word, they had
not " the form of man." With reference to Seth who had been instructed,
enlightened and brought to human perfection, it could rightly be said, " he
(Adam) begat a son in his likeness, in his form." It is acknowledged that a
man who does not possess this " form " (the nature of which has just been
explained) is not human, but a mere animal in human shape and form. Yet
such a creature has the power of causing harm and injury : a power which
does not belong to other creatures. For those gifts of intelligence and judg-
ment with which he has been endowed for the purpose of acquiring perfec-
tion, but which he has failed to apply to their proper aim, are used by him
for wicked and mischievous ends ; he begets evil things, as though he merely
resembled man, or simulated his outward appearance. Such was the con-
dition of those sons of Adam who preceded Seth, In reference to this subject
the Midrash says : " During the 130 years when Adam was under rebuke he
begat spirits, i.e., demons ; when, however, he was again restored to divine
favour " he begat in his likeness, in his form." This is the sense of the pas-
sage, " Adam lived one hundred and thirty years, and he begat in his likeness,
in his form " (Gen. v. 3).
CHAPTER VIII
Originally the Hebrew term makom (place) applied both to a particular
spot and to space in general ; subsequently it received a wider signification
and denoted " position," or " degree," as regards the perfection of man in
certain things. We say, e.g., this man occupies a certain place in such and
such a subject. In this sense this term, as is well known, is frequently used
by authors, e.g., " He fills his ancestors' place {makom) in point of wisdom
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 21
and piety " ; " the dispute still remains in its place " {makom), i.e., in statu
quo [antf]. In the verse, " Blessed be the glory of the Lord from His place "
\mekomo) (Ezek. iii. 12), makom has this figurative meaning, and the verse may
be paraphrased " Blessed be the Lord according to the exalted nature of His
existence," and wherever makom is applied to God, it expresses the same idea,
namely, the distinguished position of His existence, to which nothing is equal
or comparable, as will be shown below (chap. Ivi.).
It should be observed that when we treat in this work of any homonym,
we do not desire you to confine yourself to that which is stated in that par-
ticular chapter ; but we open for you a portal and direct your attention to
those significations of the word which are suited to our purpose, though they
may not be complete from a philological point of view. You should examine
the prophetical books and other works composed by men of science, notice
the meaning of every word which occurs in them, and take homonyms in that
sense which is in harmony with the context. What I say in a particular
passage is a key for the comprehension of all similar passages. For example,
we have explained here makom in the sentence " Blessed be the glory of the
Lord from His place " (mekomo) ; but you must understand that the word
makom has the same signification in the passage " Behold, a place (makom) is
with me " (Exod. xxxiii. 26), viz., a certain degree of contemplation and in-
tellectual intuition (not of ocular inspection), in addition to its literal mean-
ling " a place," viz., the mountain which was pointed out to Moses for seclu-
sion and for the attainment of perfection.
CHAPTER IX
The original meaning of the word ktsse, " throne," requires no comment.
Since men of greatness and authority, as, e.g., kings, use the throne as a seat,
and " the throne " thus indicates the rank, dignity, and position of the person
for whom it is made, the Sanctuary has been styled " the throne," inasmuch
as it likewise indicates the superiority of Him who manifests Himself, and
causes His light and glory to dwell therein. Comp. " A glorious throne on
high from the beginning is the place of our sanctuary" (Jer. xvii.12). For
the same reason the heavens are called " throne," for to the mind of him who
observes them with intelligence they suggest the Omnipotence of the Being
which has called them into existence, regulates their motions, and governs
the sublunary world by their beneficial influence : as we read, " Thus saith
the Lord, The heavens are my throne and the earth my footstool " (Isa.
Ixvi. l) ; i.e., they testify to my Existence, my Essence, and my Omnipo-
tence, as the throne testifies to the greatness of him who is worthy to
occupy it.
This is the idea which true believers should entertain ; not, however, that
the Omnipotent, Supreme God is supported by any material object ; for
God is incorporeal, as we shall prove further on ; how, then, can He be said
to occupy any space, or rest on a body f The fact which I wish to point out
is this : every place distinguished by the Almighty, and chosen to receive
His light and splendour, as, for instance, the Sanctuary or the Heavens, is
termed " throne " ; and, taken in a wider sense, as in the passage " For my
hand is upon the throne of God " (Exod. xvii, 16), " the throne " denote3
22 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
here the Essence and Greatness of God. These, however (the Essence
and Greatness of God) need not be considered as something separate from
the God Himself or as part of the Creation, so that God would appear to
have existed both without the throne, and with the throne ; such a belief
would be undoubtedly heretical. It is distinctly stated, " Thou, O Lord,
remainest for ever ; Thy throne from generation to generation " (Lam.
V. 19). By " Thy throne " we must, therefore, understand something in-
separable from God. On that account, both here and in all similar passages,
the word " throne " denotes God's Greatness and Essence, which are in-
separable from His Being.
Our opinion will be further elucidated in the course of this Treatise.
CHAPTER X
We have already remarked that when we treat in this work of homonyms,
we have not the intention to exhaust the meanings of a word (for this is not a
philological treatise) ; we shall mention no other significations but those
which bear on our subject. We shall thus proceed in our treatment of the
terms 'alah and yarad.
These two words, 'alah, "he went up," and yarad, " he went down," are
Hebrew terms used in the sense of ascending and descending. When
a body moves from a higher to a lower place, the verb yarad, " to go
down," is used ; when it moves from a lower to a higher place, 'alah^
" to go up," is applied. These two verbs were afterwards employed
with regard to greatness and power. When a man falls from his high posi-
tion, we say " he has come down," and when he rises in station " he has gone
up." Thus the Almighty says, " The stranger that is within thee shall get
up above thee very high, and thou shalt come down very low " (Deut. xxviii.
43). Again, " The Lord thy God will set thee on high ('elyon) above all
nations of the earth " (Deut. xxviii. i) : " And the Lord magnified Solomon
exceedingly " (lema'alah) (l Chron. xxix. 25). The Sages often employ
these expressions, as : " In holy matters men must ascend (rna'alin) and not
descend {moridin)." The two words are also applied to intellectual pro-
cesses, namely, when we reflect on something beneath ourselves we are said
to go down, and when our attention is raised to a subject above us we are
said to rise.
Now, we occupy a lowly position, both in space and rank in comparison
with the heavenly sphere, and the Almighty is Most High not in space, but
with respect to absolute existence, greatness and power. When it pleased
the Almighty to grant to a human being a certain degree of wisdom or pro-
phetic inspiration, the divine communication thus made to the prophet and
the entrance of the Divine Presence into a certain place is termed {yeridah),
" descending," while the termination of the prophetic communication or the
departure of the divine glory from a place is called 'aliyah, " ascending."
The expressions " to go up " and " to go down," when used in reference to
God, must be interpreted in this sense. Again, when, in accordance with the
divine will, some misfortune befalls a nation or a region of the earth, and
when the biblical account of that misfortune is preceded by the statement
that the Almighty visited the actions of the people, and that He punished
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 23
them accordingly, then the prophetic author employs the term " to descend " :
for man is so low and insignificant that his actions would not be visited and
would not bring punishment on him, were it not for the divine will : as is
clearly stated in the Bible, with regard to tliis idea, " What is man that thou
shouldst remember him, and the son of man that thou shouldst visit him "
(Ps. viii. 5).
The design of the Deity to punish man is, therefore, introduced by the
verb " to descend " ; comp. " Go to, let us go down and there confound
their language " (Gen. xi. 7) ; " And the Lord came down to see " (Gen. xi.
5) ; "I will go down now and see " (Gen. xviii. 21). All these instances
convey the idea that man here below is going to be punished.
More numerous, however, are the instances of the first case, viz., in which
these verbs are used in connection with the revelation of the word and of the
glory of God, e.g., " And I will come down and talk with thee there " (Num.
xi. 17) ; " And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai " (Exod. xix. 20) ;
" The Lord will come down in the sight of all the people " (Exod. xix. 11) ;
" And God went up from him " (Gen. xxxv. 13) ; " And God went up from
Abraham " (Gen. xvii. 22). When, on the other hand, it says, " And Moses
went up unto God " (Exod. xix. 3), it must be taken in the third signification
of these verbs, in addition to its literal meaning that Moses also ascended to
the top of the mount, upon which a certain material light (the manifestation
of God's glory) was visible ; but we must not imagine that the Supreme
Being occupies a place to which we can ascend, or from which we can descend.
He is far from what the ignorant imagine.
CHAPTER XI
The primary meaning of the Hebrew yashab is " he was seated," as " Now
Eli the priest sat (yashab) upon a seat " (l Sam. i. 9) ; but, since a person can
best remain motionless and at rest when sitting, the term was applied to
everything that is permanent and unchanging ; thus, in the promise that
Jerusalem should remain constantly and permanently in an exalted condition,
it is stated, " She will rise and sit in her place " (Zech. xiv. 10) ; further,
" He maketh the woman who was childless to sit as a joyful mother of chil-
dren " (Ps. cxiii. 9) ; i.e.. He makes her happy condition to be permanent
and enduring.
Whei applied to God, the verb is to be taken in that latter sense:
" 1 hou O Lord, remainest {tesheb) for ever " (Lam. v. 19) ; " O thou
who sittest (ha-yoshebi) in the heavens " (Ps. cxxiii. l) ; " He who sitteth
in the heavens " (ii. 4), i.e.. He who is everlasting, constant, and in no
way subject to change ; immutable in His Essence, and as He consists of
nought but His Essence, He is mutable in no way whatever ; not mutable
in His relation to other things ; for there is no relation whatever existing
between Him and any other being, as will be explained below, and therefore
no change as regards such relations can take place in Him. Hence He is
immutable in every respect, as He expressly declares, " I, the Lord, do not
change '' (Mai. iii. 6) ; i.e., in Me there is not any change whatever. This
idea is expressed by the term yashab when referring to God.
24 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
The verb, when employed of God, is frequently complemented by " the
Heavens," inasmuch as the heavens are without change or mutation, that is
to say, they do not individually change, as the individual beings on earth,
bv transition from existence into non-existence.
The verb is also employed in descriptions of God's relation (the term " re-
lation " is here used as a homonym) to existing species of evanescent things ;
for those species are as constant, well organized, and unvarying as the indi-
viduals of the heavenly hosts. Thus we find, " Who sitteth over the circle
of the earth " (Isa. xl. 22), Who remains constantly and unremittingly over
the sphere of the earth ; that is to say, over the things that come into
existence within that sphere.
Again, " The Lord sitteth upon the flood " (Ps. xxix. 10), i.e., despite the
change and variation of earthly objects, no change takes place with respect
to God's relation (to the earth) : His relation to each of the things which
come into existence and perish again is stable and constant, for it concerns
only the existing species and not the individuals. It should therefore be
borne in mind, that whenever the term " sitting " is applied to God, it is
used in this sense.
CHAPTER Xn
The term kam (he rose) is a homonym. In one of its significations it is the
opposite of " to sit," as " He did not rise (kam) nor move for him " (Esth.
V. 9). It further denotes the confirmation and verification of a thing, e.g. :
" The Lord will verify {yakem) His promise " (l Sam. i. 23) ; " The
field of Ephron was made sure (va-yakom) as the property of Abra-
ham" (Gen. xiiii. 17). "The house that is in the walled city shall be
established {ve-kam) " (Lev. xxv. 30) ; " And the kingdom of Israel shall be
firmly established {ve-kamah) in thy hand " (l Sam. xxiv. 20). It is always
in this sense that the verb is employed with reference to the Almighty ; as
" Now shall I rise (akum), saith the Lord " (Ps. xii. 7), which is the same as
saying, " Now shall I verify my word and my dispensation for good or evil,"
" Thou shalt arise (takum) and have mercy upon Zion " (Ps. cii. 13), which
means : Thou wilt establish what thou hast promised, viz., that thou wouldst
pity Zion.
Generally a person who resolves to set about a matter, accompanies his
resolve by rising, hence the verb is employed to express " to resolve " to do
a certain thing ; as, " That my son hath stirred up my servant against me "
(l Sam. xxii. 8). The word is figuratively used to signify the execution of a
divine decree against a people sentenced to extermination, as " And I will
rise against the house of Jeroboam " (Amos vii. 9) ; " but he will arise against
the house of the evildoers " (Isa. xxxi. 2). Possibly in Psalm xii. 7 the verb
has this latter sense, as also in Psalm cii. 13, namely : Thou wilt rise up
against her enemies.
There arc many passages to be interpreted in this manner, but in no way
should it be understood tliat He rises or sits — far be such a notion ! Our
Sages expressed this idea in the formula, " In the world above there is neither
sitting nor standing {'umidah) " ; for the two verbs "■amad and kam are syn-
onyms [and what is said about the former is also applicable to the latter].
ON HOMONYMS IN I'FIE BIBLE 25
CHAPTER XIII
The term 'amad (he stood) is a homonym signifying in the first instance
" to stand upright," as " When he stood (be-'omdo) before Pharaoh " (Gen.
xH. 46) ; " 'fJiough Moses and Samuel stood (ya'amod) " (Jer. xv. i) ; " He
stood by them " (Gen. xviii. 8). It further denotes " cessation and inter-
ruption," as " but they stood still {'amedu) and answered no more " (Job
xxxii. 16) ; " and she ceased (va-ta'amod) to bear " (Gen. xxix. 35). Next it
signifies " to be enduring and lasting," as, " that they may continue (yo-
'amedu) many days " (Jer. xxxii. 14) ; " Then shalt thou be able to endure
{'amod) " (Exod. xviii. 23) ; " His taste remained {'amad) in him " (Jer.
xlviii. 11), i.e., it has continued and remained in existence without any
change ; " His righteousness standeth for ever " (Ps. cxi. 3), i.e., it is per-
manent and everlasting. The verb applied to God must be understood in
this latter sense, as in Zechariah xiv. 4, " And his feet shall stand {ve-'amedu)
in that day upon the Mount of Olives " (Zech. xiv. 4), " His causes, i.e., the
events of which He is the cause, will remain efficient," etc. This will be
further elucidated when we speak of the meaning of regel (foot). {Vide infra,
chap, xxviii.) In the same sense is this verb employed in Deuteronomy v.
28, " But as for thee, stand thou here by me," and Deuteronomy v. 5, " I
stood between the I,ord and you."
CHAPTER XIV
The homonymous term adam is in the first place the name of the first man,
being, as Scripture indicates, derived from adamah, "earth." Next, it means
" mankind," as " My spirit shall not strive with man {adam) " (Gen. vi. 3).
Again " Who knoweth the spirit of the children of man {adam) " (Eccles.
iii. 21) ; " so that a man {adam) has no pre-eminence above a beast " (Eccles.
iii. 19). Adam signifies also " the multitude," " the lower classes " as
opposed to those distinguished from the rest, as " Both low (bene adam) and
high {bene ish) " (Ps. xlix. 3).
It is in this third signification that it occurs in the verses, " The sons of the
higher order {Elohim) saw the daughters of the lower order {adam) " (Gen.
vi. 2) ; and " Forsooth ! as the humble man {adam) you shall die " (Ps.
Ixxxii. 7).
CHAPTER XV
Although the two roots nazab and yazab are distinct, yet their meaning is,
as you know, identical in all their various forms.
The verb has several meanings : in some instances it signifies " to stand "
or " to place oneself," as " And his sister stood {va-tetazzab) afar ofl[ " (Exod.
ii. 4) ; " The kings of the earth set themselves " {yityazzebu) (Ps. ii. 2) ;
" They came out and stood " {nizzabim) (Num. xvi. 27). In other instances
it denotes continuance and permanence, as, " Thy word is established {nizzab)
in Heaven " (Ps. cxix. 89), i.e., it remains for ever.
Whenever this term is applied to God it must be understood in the latter
sense, as, " And, behold, the Lord stood {nizzab) upon it " (Gen. xxviii. 13),
i.e., appeared as eternal and everlasting " upon it," namely, upon the ladder,
26 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
the upper end of which reached to heaven, while the lower end touched the
earth. This ladder all may cHmb up who wish to do so, and they must ulti-
mately attain to a knowledge of Him who is above the summit of the ladder,
because He remains upon it permanently. It must be well understood that
the term " upon it " is employed by me in harmony with this metaphor.
" Angels of God " who were going up represent the prophets. That the
term " angel " was applied to prophets may clearly be seen in the following
passages : " He sent an angel " (Num. xx. i6) ; " And an angel of the Lord
came up from Gilgal to Bochim" (Judges ii. l). How suggestive, too, is the
expression " ascending and descending on it " ! The ascent is mentioned
before the descent, inasmuch as the " ascending " and arriving at a certain
height of the ladder precedes the " descending," i.e., the application of the
knowledge acquired in the ascent for the training and instruction of mankind.
This application is termed " descent," in accordance with our explanation
of the term yarad (chapter x.).
To return to our subject. The phrase " stood upon it " indicates the
permanence and constancy of God, and does not imply the idea of physical
position. This is also the sense of the phrase " Thou shalt stand upon the
rock " (Exod. xxxiii. 21). It is therefore clear that nizzab and 'amad are
identical in this figurative signification. Comp. " Behold, I will stand
{'OTtied) before thee there upon the rock in Horeb " (Exod. xvii. 6) .
CHAPTER XVI
The word ztir (rock) is a homonym. First, it denotes " rock," as " And thou
shalt smite the rock " (zwr) (Exod. xvii. 6). Then, " hard stone," like the
flint, e.g., " Knives of stone " (zurini) (Josh. v. 2). It is next employed to
signify the quarry from which the stones are hewn ; comp. " Look unto the
rock (zur) whence ye are hewn" (Isa. li. i). From this latter meaning of the
term another figurative notion was subsequently derived, viz., " the root and
origin " of all things. It is on this account that after the words " Look to
the rock whence ye are hewn," the Prophet continues, " Look unto Abraham
your father," from which we evidently may infer that the words " Abraham
your father " serve to explain " the rock whence ye are hewn " ; and that the
Prophet meant to say, " Walk in his ways, put faith in his instruction, and
conduct yourselves according to the rule of his life ! for the properties con-
tained in the quarry should be found again in those things which are
formed and hewn out of it."
It is in the latter sense that the Almighty is called " rock," He being the
origin and the causa efficiens of all things besides Himself. Thus we read,
" He is the Rock, His work is perfect " (Deut. xxxii. 4) ; " Of the Rock that
begat thee thou art unmindful " (Deut. xxxii. 18) ; " Their Rock had sold
them " (xxxi. 30) ; " There is no rock like our God " (i Sam. ii. 2) : " The
Rock of Paternity " (Isa. xxvi. 4). Again, " And thou shalt stand upon the
Rock " (Exod. xxxiii. 21), i.e.. Be firm and steadfast in the conviction that
God is the source of all things, for this will lead you towards the knowledge
of the Divine Being. We have shown (chap, viii.) that the words " Behold,
a place is with me " (Exod. xxxiii. 21) contain the same idea.
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 27
CHAPTER XVII
Do not imagine tliat only Metaphysics should be taught with reserve to the
common people and to the uninitiated ; for the same is also the case with the
greater part of Natural Science. In this sense we have repeatedly made use
of the expression of the Sages, " Do not expound the chapter on the Creation
in the presence of two " [ciWi? Introd. page 2]. This principle was not
peculiar to our Sages ; ancient philosophers and scholars of other nations
were likewise wont to treat of the principia rerutn obscurely, and to use figura-
tive language in discussing such subjects. Thus Plato and his predecessors called
Substance the female, and Form the male. (You are aware that the principia
of all existing transient things are three, viz., Substance, Form, and Absence
of a particular form ; the last-named principle is always inherent in the sub-
stance, for otherwise the substance would be incapable of receiving a new
form ; and it is from this point of view that absence [of a particular form] is
included among the principia. As soon, then, as a substance has received a
certain form, the privation of that form, namely, of that which has just been
received, has ceased, and is replaced by the privation of another form, and
so on with all possible forms, as is explained in treatises on natural philosophy.)
— Now, if those philosophers who have nothing to fear from a lucid explana-
tion of these metaphysical subjects still were in the habit of discussing them
in figures and metaphors, how much more should we, having the interest of
religion at heart, refrain from elucidating to the mass any subject that is be-
yond their comprehension, or that might be taken in a sense directly opposite
to the one intended. This also deserves attention.
CHAPTER XVIII
The three words karab, " to come near," naga', " to touch," and nagash, "to
approach," sometimes signify " contact " or " nearness in space," sometimes
the approach of man's knowledge to an object, as if it resembled the physical
approach of one body to another. As to the use of karab in the first meaning,
viz., to draw near a certain spot, comp. " As he drew near (karab) the camp "
(Exod. xxxii. 19) ; " And Pharaoh drew near (hikrib) (Exod. xiv. 10). Naga',
in the first sense, viz., expressing the contact of two bodies, occurs in " And
she cast it (ya-tagga') at his feet " (Exod. iv. 25) ; " He caused it to touch
(va-yagga'-) my mouth " (Isa. vi. 7). And nagash in the first sense, viz., to
approach or move towards another person, is found, e.g., in " And Judah
drew near (va-yiggash) unto him " (Gen. xliv. l).
The second meaning of these three words is " approach by means of know-
ledge," or " contact by comprehension," not in reference to space. As to
naga' in this seecond sense, comp. " for her judgment reacheth (naga') unto
heaven " (Jer. li. 9). An instance of karab being used in this meaning is
contained in the following passage, " And the cause that is too hard for you,
bring (takribun) it unto me " (Deut. i. 17) ; this is equivalent to saying, " Ye
shall make it known unto me." The verb karab (in the Hiphil) is thus em-
ployed in the sense of giving information concerning a thing. The verb
nagash is used figuratively in the phrase, " And Abraham drew near (va-
yiggash), and said " (Gen. xviii. 23) ; this took place in a prophetic vision and
28 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
in a trance, as will be explained (Part I. chap, xxi., and Part II. chap, xli.;
also in " Forasmuch as this people draw near {niggash) me with their mouths
and with their lips " (Isa. xxix. 13). Wherever a word denoting approach
or contact is employed in the prophetic writings to describe a certain relation
between the Almighty and any created being, it has to be understood in this
latter sense [viz., to approach mentally]. For, as will be proved in this trea-
tise (II. chap, iv.), the Supreme is incorporeal, and consequently He does not
approach or draw near a thing, nor can aught approach or touch Him ; for
when a being is without corporeality, it cannot occupy space, and all idea
of approach, contact, distance, conjunction, separation, touch, or proximity
is inapplicable to such a being.
There can be no doubt respecting the verses " The Lord is nigh (karob)
unto all them that call upon him " (Ps. cxlv. 18) ; " They take delight in
approaching (kirbat) to God " (Isa. Iviii. 2) ; " The nearness {kirbat) of
God is pleasant to me " (Ps. Ixxiii. 28) ; all such phrases intimate a spiritual
approach, i.e., the attainment of some knowledge, not, however, approach
in space. Thus also " who hath God so nigh (kerobim) unto him " (Deut.
iv. 7) ; " Draw thou near (kerab) and hear " (Deut. v. 27) ; " And Moses
alone shall draw near {ve-niggash) the Lord ; but they shall not come nigh
(yiggashu) " (Exod. xxi v. 2).
If, however, you wish to take the words " And Moses shall draw near " to
mean that he shall draw near a certain place in the mountain, whereon the
Divine Light shone, or, in the words of the Bible, " where the glory of the
Lord abode," you may do so, provided you do not lose sight of the truth that
there is no difference whether a person stand at the centre of the earth or at
the highest point of the ninth sphere, if this were possible ; he is no further
away from God in the one case, or nearer to Him in the other ; those only
approach Him who obtain a knowledge of Him ; while those who remain
ignorant of Him recede from Him. In this approach towards, or recession
from God there are numerous grades one above the other, and I shall further
elucidate, in one of the subsequent chapters of the Treatise (I. chap. Ix., and
II. chap, xxxvi.) what constitutes the difference in our perception of God.
In the passage, " Touch (pa'-) the mountains, and they shall smoke "
(Ps. cxliv. 5), the verb " touch " is used in a figurative sense, viz., " Let thy
word touch them." So also the words, " Touch thou him himself " (Job
ii. 5). have the same meaning as " Bring thy infliction upon him." In a
similar manner must this verb, in whatever form it may be employed, be
interpreted in each place, according to the context ; for in some cases it
denotes contact of two material objects, in others knowledge and compre-
hension of a thing, as if he who now comprehends anything which he had not
comprehended previously had thereby approached a subject which had been
distant from him. This point is of considerable importance.
CHAPTER XIX
f
The term male is a homonym which denotes that one substance enters
another, and fills it, as " And she filled {va-temalle) her pitcher " (Gen. xxiv.
16) ; " An omer-fuU {melo) for each " (Exod. xvi. 32), and many other
instances. Next, it signifies the expiration or completion of a fixed period
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 29
of time, as " And when her days to be delivered were fulfilled (ya-yimleU) '
(Gen. ixv. 24) ; " And forty days were completed (ya-yimleU) for him '
(Gen, 1. 3). It further denotes attainment of the highest degree of excel-
lency, as " Full {male) with the blessing of the Lord " (Deut. xixiii. 23) .
" Them hath he filled {mille) with wisdom of heart " (Exod. xxiv. 35) ; " He
was filled {va-yimmale) with wisdom, and understanding, and cunning "
(l Kings vii. 14). In this sense it is said " The whole earth is full (meh) of
his glory " (Isa. vi. 4), " All the earth gives evidence of his perfection,"
i.e. leads to a knowledge of it. Thus also " The glory of the Lord filled
{male) the tabernacle " (Exod. xl. 34) ; and, in fact, every application of the
word to God must be interpreted in this manner ; and not that He has a
body occupying space. If, on the other hand, you prefer to think that in
this passage by " the glory of the Lord," a certain light created for the pur-
pose is to be understood, that such light is always termed " glory," and that
such light " filled the tabernacle," we have no objection.
CHAPTER XX
The word ram (high) is a homonym, denoting elevation in space, and elevation
in dignity, i.e., greatness, honour, and power. It has the first meaning in
" And the ark was lifted up (va-tarom) above the earth " (Gen vii. 17) ; and
the latter meaning in " I have exalted (harimoti) one chosen out of the
people " (Ps. Ixxxix. 20 ; " Forasmuch as I have exalted (harimoti) thee from
amongst the dust " (r Kings xvi. 2) ; " Forasmuch as I exalted {harimoti)
thee from among the people " (i Kings xiv. 7).
Whenever this term is employed in reference to God, it must be taken in
the second sense : " Be thou exalted {rumah), O God, above the heavens "
(Ps. Ivii. 12). In the same manner does the root nasa (to lift up) denote both
elevation in space and elevation in rank and dignity. In the former sense it occurs
in "And they lifted up {va-yisseli) their corn upon their asses" (Gen. xlii.
26) ; and there are many instances like this in which this verb has the mean-
ing " to carry," " to move " from place to place ; for this implies elevation
in space. In the second sense we have " And his kingdom shall be exalted "
{ve-tinnase) (Num. xxiv. 7) ; " And he bare them, and carried them "
{va-yenasseUm) (Isa. Ixiii. 9) ; " Wherefore do ye exalt yourselves " (titnasseu)
(Num. xvi. 3).
Every form of this verb when applied to God has this latter sense — e.g.,
" Lift up thyself {hittnase), thou judge of the earth " (Ps. xciv. 2) ; " Thus
saith the High {ram) and Ex.ilted {nis^a) One " (Isa. Ivii. 15) — denoting eleva-
tion in rank, quality, and power, and not elevation in space.
You may be surprised that I employ the expression, " elevation in rank,
quality, and power," and you may say, " How can you assert that several
distinct expressions denote the same thing ? " It will be explained later on
(chap. 1. seqq.) that those who possess a true knowledge of God do not con-
sider that He possesses many attributes, but believe that these various attri-
butes which describe His Might, Greatness, Power, Perfection, Goodness,
etc., are ir'cntical, denoting His Essence, and not anything extraneous to His
Essence. I shall devote special chapters to the Names and Attributes of
30 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
God ; our intention here is solely to show that " high and exalted " in the
passage quoted denote elevation in rank, not in space.
CHAPTER XXI
In its primary signification the Hebrew 'abar," to pass," refers to the motion
of a body in space, and is chiefly applied to living creatures moving at some
distance in a straight line, e.g., " And He passed over {'abar) before them "
(Gen. xxxiii. 3) ; " Pass ('abor) before the people " (Exod, xvii. 5). Instances
of this kind are numerous. The verb was next applied to the passage of
sound through air, as " And they caused a sound to pass {va-ya'abiru) through-
out the camp " (Exod. xxxvi. 6) ; " That I hear the Lord's people spreading
the report " (ma'abirim) (l Sam. ii. 24).
Figuratively it denoted the appearance of the Light and the Divine Pre-
sence (Shechinah) which the prophets perceived in their prophetic visions,
as it is said," And behold a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that passed
(^•abar) between those pieces " (Gen. xv. 17). This took place in a prophetic
vision, for the narrative commences, " And a deep sleep fell upon Abram."
The verb has this latter meaning in Exodus xii. 12, " And I shall pass (ve-
'aharti) through the land of Egypt " (denoting " I shall reveal myself," etc.),
and in all similar phrases.
The verb is next employed to express that a person has gone too far, and
transgressed the usual limit, in the performance of some act, as " And as a
man who is drinking wine has passed ('abarv) the proper limit " (Jer. xxiii, 9).
It is also used figuratively to denote : to abandon one aim, and turn
to a different aim and object, e.g., " He shot an arrow, causing it to
miss the aim {leha'abiro) " (l Sam. xx. 36). This is the sense, it appears
to me, of this verb in " And the Lord passed by (va-ya'abor) before his
face " (Exod. xxxiv. 6). I take " his face " to mean " the face of
God " ; our Teachers likewise interpreted " his face " as being identical with
" the face of God." And, although this is found in the midst of Agadic
interpretations which would be out of place in this our work, yet it is some
support of our view, that the pronoun " his " is employed in this passage as
a substitute for " God's " — and the whole passage could in my opinion be
explained as follows : Moses sought to attain to a certain perception which
is called " the perception of the Divine face," a term occurring in the
phrase " My face cannot be seen " ; but God vouchsafed to him a percep-
tion of a lower degree, viz., the one called, " the seeing of the back,"
in the words, " And thou shalt sec my back " (Exod. xxxiii. 23). We
have mentioned this subject in our work Mishneh Torah. Accordingly, it
is stated in the above-mentioned passage that the Lord withheld from Moses
that perception which is termed " the seeing of the Divine face," and sub-
stituted for it another gift, viz., the knowledge of the acts attributed to God,
which, as I shall explain (chap, liv.) are considered to be different and
separate attributes of the Supreme. In asserting that God withheld from
Moses (the higher knowledge) I mean to say that this knowledge was un-
attainable, that by its nature it was inaccessible to Moses ; for man, whilst
able^'.to gain perfection by applying his reasoning faculties to the attainment
of what is within the reach of his intellect, either weakens his reason or loses
ON EXODUS XXIV. 6 31
it altogether as soon as he ventures to seek a higher degree of knowledge —
as I shall elucidate in one of the chapters of this work — unless he be granted
a special aid from heaven, as is described in the words, " And I will cover
thee with my hand until I pass by " (Exod. xxxiii. 23).
Onkelos, in translating this verse, adopts the same method which he applies
to the explanation of similar passages, viz., every expression implying cor-
poreality or corporal properties, when referring to God, he explains by
assuming an ellipsis of a nomen regens before " God," thus connecting the
expression (of corporeality) with another word which is supplied, and which
governs the genitive " God " ; e.g., " And behold the Lord stood upon it "
(Gen. xxviii. 13), he explains, " The glory of the Lord stood arrayed above
it." Again, " The Lord watch between me and thee " (Gen. xxxi. 49), he
paraphrases," The word of the Lord shall watch." This is his ordinary method
in explaining Scripture. He applies it also to Exod. xxxiv. 6, which he para-
phrases, " The Lord caused his Presence to pass before his face and called."
According to this rendering the thing which passed was unquestionably
some physical object, the pronoun " his " refers to Moses, and the phrase
'al fanav is identical with lefanav, " before him." Comp. " So went the
present over before him " {^al panav) (Gen. xxxii. 22). This is likewise an
appropriate and satisfactory explanation ; and I can adduce still further
support for the opinion of Onkelos from the words " while my glory passeth
by " (ba-'abor) (Exod. xxxiii. 22), which expressly state that the passing object
was something ascribed to God, not God Himself ; and of this Divine glory
it is also said, " until I pass by," and " And the Lord passed by before him."
Should it, however, be considered necessary to assume here an ellipsis,
according to the method of Onkelos, who supplies in some instances the term
" the Glory," in others " the Word," and in others " the Divine Presence,"
as the context may require in each particular case, we may also supply here
the word " voice," and explain the passage, " And a voice from the Lord
passed before him and called." We have already shown that the verb 'abar,
" he passed," can be applied to the voice, as in " And they caused a voice to
pass through the camp " (Exod. xxxvi. 6). According to this explanation,
it was the voice which called. No objection can be raised to applying the
verb kara (he called) to kol (voice), for a similar phrase occurs in the Bible
in reference to God's commands to Moses, " He heard the voice speaking
unto him " ; and, in the same manner as it can be said " the voice spoke,"
we may also say " the voice called " ; indeed, we can even support this appli-
cation of the verbs " to say," and " to call," to " the voice," by parallel
passages, as " A voice saith ' Cry,' and it says ' What shall I cry ? ' " (Isa. xl. 6).
According to this view, the meaning of the passage under discussion would
be : "A voice of God passed before him and called, ' Eternal, Eternal, All-
powerful, iiMl-merciful, and All-gracious ! ' " (The word Eternal is repeated ;
it is in the vocative, for the Eternal is the one who is called. Comp. Moses,
Moses ! Abraham, Abraham !) This, again, is a very appropriate explana-
tion of the text.
You will surely not find it strange that this subject, so profound and diffi-
cult, should bear various interpretations ; for it will not impair the force of
the argument with which we arc here concerned. Either explanation may
be adopted ; you may take that grand scene altogether as a prophetic vision.
32 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
and the whole occurrence as a mental operation, and consider that what
Moses sought, what was withheld from him, and what he attained, were
things perceived by the intellect without the use of the senses (as we have
explained above) : or you may assume that in addition there was a certain
ocular perception of a material object, the sight of which would assist intel-
lectual perception. The latter is the view of Onkelos, unless he assumes that
in this instance the ocular perception was likewise a prophetic vision, as was
the case with " a smoking furnace and a burning lamp that passed between
those pieces " (Gen. xv. 17), mentioned in the history of Abraham. You
may also assume that in addition there was a perception of sound, and that
there was a voice which passed before him, and was undoubtedly something
material. You may choose either of these opinions, for our sole intention
and purpose is to guard you against the belief that the phrase " and the Lord
passed," is analogous to " pass before the people " (Exod. xvii. 5), for God,
being incorporeal, cannot be said to move, and consequently the verb " to
pass " cannot with propriety be applied to Him in its primary signification.
CHAPTER XXn
In Hebrew, the verb bo signifies " to come " as applied to a living being, i.e.,
its arrival at a certain place, or approach to a certain person, as " Thy brother
came (ba) with subtilty " (Gen. xxvii. 35). It next denotes (with regard to
a living being) " to enter " a certain place, e.g., " And when Joseph came
(va-yabo) into the house " (Gen. xliii. 26) ; " When ye come (ta-bou) into
the land " (Exod. xii. 25). The term was also employed metaphorically in
the sense of " to come " applied to a certain event, that is, to something in-
corporeal, as " When thy sayings come to pass (yabo) " (Judg. xiii. 17) ; " Of
that which will come (yabou) over thee" (Isa. xlvii. 13). Nay, it is even
applied to privatives, e.g., " Yet evil came {va-yabo) " (Job iii. 26) ; " And
darkness came {va-yabo) " Now, since the word has been applied to incor-
poreal things, it has also been used in reference to God — to the fulfilment of
His word, or to the manifestation of His Presence (the Shechinah). In this
figurative sense it is said, " Lo, I come {ba) unto thee in a thick cloud "
(Exod. xix. 9) ; " For the Lord the God of Israel cometh {ha) through it "
(Ezek. xliv. 2). In these and all similar passages, the coming of the Sliechinah
is meant, but the words, " And the Lord my God shall come {u-ba) " (Zech.
xiv. 5) are identical with " His word will come," that is to say, the promises
which He made through the Prophets will be fulfilled ; therefore Scripture
adds " all the holy ones that are with thee," that is to say, " The word of the
Lord my God will be performed, which has been spoken by pU the holy ones
who are with thee, who address the Israelites."
•
CHAPTER XXIII
Taxa (" he came out ") is the opposite of ba (" he came in "). The term yaza
is applied to the motion of a body from a place in which it had previously
rested, to another place (whether the body be a living being or not), e.g.,
" And when they were gone out {yazeli) of the city " (Gen. xliv. 4) ; " If
fire break out {teze) " (Exod. xxil. s)- It was then figuratively employed to
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 33
denote the appearance of something incorporeal, as, " The word went out
(yd?;a) of the king's mouth " (Esth. vii. 8) ; " When this deed of the queen
shall come abroad (yeze) unto all women " (Esth. i. 17), that is to say, " the
report will spread." Again, " For out of Zion shall go forth {teze) the Law "
(Isa. ii. 3) ; further, " The sun had risen {yaza) upon the earth " (Gen. xix,
23), i.e., its light became visible.
In this figurative sense we must take every expression of coming out when
applied to the Almighty, e.g., " Behold, the Lord cometh out (yoz.e) of his
place " (Isa. xxvi. 21), i.e., " The word of God, which until now has been in
secret, cometh out, and will become manifest," i.e., something will come into
being which had not existed before ; for everything new emanating from
God is ascribed to His word. Comp. " By the word of the Lord were the
heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth " (Ps.
ixxiii. 6). This is a simile taken from the conduct of kings, who employ the
word as the means of carrying their will into effect. God, however, requires
no instrument wherewith to operate in order to perform anything ; the effect
is produced solely by His will alone. He does not employ any kind of speech,
as will be explained further on (chap. Iv.).
The verb " to come out " is thus employed to designate the manifestation
of a certain work of God, as we noticed in our interpretation of the phrase,
" Behold, the Lord cometh out of his place." In a similar manner the term
shub, " to return," has been figuratively employed to denote the discontinu-
ance of a certain act according to the will of God, as in " I will go and return
to my place " (Hosea v. 15) ; that is to say, the Divine presence (Shechinah)
which had been in our midst departed from us, the consequence of which has
been the absence of Divine protection from amongst us. Thus the Prophet
foretelling misfortune says, " And I will hide my face from them, and they
shall be devoured " (Deut. xxxi. 17) ; for, when man is deprived of Divine
protection he is exposed to all dangers, and becomes the butt of all fortuitous
circumstances ; his fortune and misfortune then depend on chance. Alas !
how terrible a threat ! — This is the idea contained in the words, " I will go
and return to my place " (Hos. v, 15).
CHAPTER XXIV
The term halak is likewise one of the words which denote movements per-
formed by living beings, as in " And Jacob went {halak) on his way " (Gen.
xxxii. i), and in many other instances. The verb " to go " was next em-
ployed in describing movements of objects less solid than the bodies of living
beings, comp. " And the waters were going on {halok) decreasing " (Gen.
viii. 5) ; " And the fire went along (va-tihalak) upon the ground " (Exod.
ix. 23). Then it was employed to express the spreading and manifestation
of something incorporeal, comp. " The voice thereof shall go like a serpent "
(Jer. xlvi. 22) ; again, " The voice of the Lord God walking in the garden "
(Gen. iii. 8). It is " the voice " that is qualified by " walking."
Whenever the word " to go " is used in reference to God, it must be taken
in this figurative sense, i.e., it applies to incorporeal things, and signifies
either the manifestation of something incorporeal, or the withdrawal of the
Divine protection, an act corresponding in lifeless beings to the removal of
34 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
a thing, in living beings to the departure of a living being, " vpalking." The
withdrawal of God's protection is called in the Bible " the hiding of God's
countenance, as in Deuteronomy xxxi. 1 8, " As for me, I will hide my coun-
tenance." On the same ground it has been designated " going away," or
moving away from a thing, comp. " I will depart and return to my place "
(Hos. V. 15). But in the passage, " And the anger of the Lord was kindled
against them, and he went " (Num. xii. 9), the two meanings of the verb are
combined, viz., the withdrawal of the Divine protection, expressed by " and
he went," and the revelation, manifestation, and appearance of something
namely, of the anger which went forth and reached them, in consequence of
which Miriam became " leprous, white as snow." The expression " to
walk " was further applied to conduct, which concerns only the inner life,
and which requires no bodily motion, as in the following passages, " And thou
shalt walk in his ways " (Deut. xxviii. 9) ; " Ye shall walk after the Lord your
God " (Deut. xiii. 5) ; " Come ye, and let us walk in the light of the Lord."
(Isa. ii. 5).
CHAPTER XXV
The Hebrew shakan, as is well known, signifies "to dwell," as, "And he
was dwelHng {shaken) in the plains of Mam re " (Gen. xiv. 13); "And it
came to pass, when Israel dwelt {biskekon) " (Gen. xxxv. 22). This is the
most common meaning of the word. But " dwelling in a place " consists in
the continued stay in a place, general or special ; when a living being dwells
long in a place, we say that it stays in that place, although it unquestionably
moves about in it, comp. " And he was staying in the plains of Mamre"
(Gen. xiv. 13), and, "And it came to pass, when Israel stayed" (Gen.
xxxv. 22).
The term was next applied metaphorically to inanimate objects, i.e., to
everything which has settled and remains fixed on one object, although the
object on which the thing remains is not a place, and the thing itself is not a
living being ; for instance, " Let a cloud dwell upon it [the day] " (Job iii.
5) ; there is no doubt that the cloud is not a living being, and that the day
is not a corporeal thing, but a division of time.
In this sense the term is employed in reference to God, that is to say, to
denote the continuance of His Divine Presence (Shechinah) or of His Provi-
dence in some place where the Divine Presence manifested itself constantly,
or in some object which was constantly protected by Providence. Comp.
" And the glory of the Lord abode " (Exod. xxiv. 16) ; " And I will dwell
among the children of Israel " (Exod. xxix. 45) ; " And for the goodwill of
him that dwelt in the bush " (Deut. xxxiii. 16). Whenever the term is
applied to the Almighty, it must be taken consistently with the context in
the sense either as referring to the Presence of His Shechinah (i.e., of His light
that was created for the purpose) in a certain place, or of the continuance of
His Providence protecting a certain object.
CHAPTER XXVI
You, no doubt, know the Talmudical saying, which includes in itself all the
various kinds of interprctntion connected with our subject. It runs thus :
ONKELOS' VERSION OF GENHSIS XLVL 4 35
" The Torah speaks according to the language of man," that is to say, ex-
pressions, which can easily be comprehended and understood by all, are
applied to the Creator. Hence the description of God by attributes imply-
ing corporeality, in order to express His existence ; because the multitude of
people do not easily conceive existence unless in connection with a body, and
that which is not a body nor connected with a body has for them no exist-
ence. Whatever we regard as a state of perfection, is likewise attributed
to God, as expressing that He is perfect in every respect, and that no imper-
fection or deficiency whatever is found in Him. But there is not attributed
to God anything which the multitude consider a defect or want ; thus He
is never represented as eating, drinking, sleeping, being ill, using violence,
and the like. Whatever, on the other hand, is commonly regarded as a state
of perfection is attributed to Him, although it is only a state of perfection in
relation to ourselves ; for in relation to God, what we consider to be a state
of perfection, is in truth the highest degree of imperfection. If, however,
men were to think that those human perfections were absent in God, they
would consider Him as imperfect.
You are aware that locomotion is one of the distinguishing characteristics
of living beings, and is indispensable for them in their progress towards per-
fection. As they require food and drink to supply animal waste, so they
require locomotion, in order to approach that which is good for them and in
harmony with their nature, and to escape from what is injurious and contrary
to their nature. It makes, in fact, no difference whether we ascribe to God
eating and drinking or locomotion ; but according to human modes of ex-
pression, that is to say, according to common notions, eating and drinking
would be an imperfection in God, while motion would not, in spite of the
fact that the necessity of locomotion is the result of some want. Further-
more, it has been clearly proved, that everything which moves is corporeal
and divisible ; it will be shown below that God is incorporeal and that He
can have no locomotion ; nor can rest be ascribed to Him ; for rest can only
be applied to that which also moves. AH expressions, however, which imply
the various modes of movement in living beings, are employed with regard
to God in the manner we have described and in the same way as life is ascribed
to Him ; although motion is an accident pertaining to living beings, and
there is no doubt that, without corporeality, expressions like the following
could not be imagined : " to descend, to ascend, to walk, to place, to stand,
to surround, to sit, to dwell, to depart, to enter, to pass, etc.
It would have been superfluous thus to dilate on this subject, were it not
for the mass of the people, who are accustomed to such ideas. It has been
necessary to expatiate on the subject, as we have attempted, for the benefit
of those who are anxious to acquire perfection, to remove from them such
notions as have grown up with them from the days of youth.
CHAPTER XXVII
Onkelos the Proselyte, who was thoroughly acquainted with the Hebrew
and Chaldaic languages, made it his task to oppose the belief in God's cor-
poreality. Accordingly, any expression employed in the Pentateuch in
reference to God, and in any way implying corporeality, he paraphrases in
36 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
consonance with the context. All expressions denoting any mode of motion,
are explained by Him to mean the appearance or manifestation of a certain
light that had been created [for the occasion], i.e., the Shekhinah (Divine
Presence), or Providence. Thus he paraphrases " the Lord will come down "
(Exod. xix. 1 1), " The Lord will manifest Himself " ; "And God came down "
(xvi. 20), " And God manifested Himself" ; and does not say " And God
came down " ; "I will go down now and see " (Gen. xviii. 21), he para-
phrases, " I will manifest myself now and see." This is his rendering [of the
verb yarad, " he went down," when used in reference to God] throughout
his version, with the exception of the following passage, " I will go down
(ered) with thee into Egypt " (Gen. xlvi. 4), which he renders literally. A
remarkable proof of this great man's talents, the excellence of his version,
and the correctness of his interpretation ! By this version he discloses to us
an important principle as regards prophecy.
This narrative begins : " And God spake unto Israel in the visions of the
night, and said, Jacob, Jacob, etc. And He said, I am God, etc., I will go
down with thee into Egypt " (Gen. xlvi. 2, 3). Seeing that the whole narra-
tive is introduced as a vision of the night, Onkelos did not hesitate to translate
literally the words addressed to Jacob in the nocturnal vision, and thus gave
a faithful account of the occurrence. For the passage in question contains a
statement of what Jacob was told, not what actually took place, as is the case
in the words, " And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai " (Exod. xix.
20). Here we have an account of what actually occurred in the physical
world ; the verb yarad is therefore paraphrased " He manifested Himself,"
and entirely detached from the idea of motion. Accounts of what happened
in the imagination of man, I mean of what he was told, are not altered. A
most remarkable distinction !
Hence you may infer that there is a great difference between a communi-
cation, designated as having been made in a dream, or a vision of the night,
and a vision or a manifestation simply introduced with phrases like " And the
word of the Lord came unto me, saying " ; " And the Lord spake unto me,
saying."
According to my opinion, it is also possible that Onkelos understood Elohitn
in the above passage to signify " angel," and that for this reason he did not
hesitate to translate literally, " I will go down with thee to Egypt." Do not
think it strange that Onkelos should have believed the Elohim, who said to
Jacob, " I am God, the God of thy father " (ib. 3), to be an angel, for this
sentence can, in the same form, also have been spoken by an angel. Thus
Jacob says, " And the angel of God spake unto me in a dream, saying, Jacob.
And I said, Here am I, " etc. (Gen. xxxi. ll) ; and concludes the report of
the angel's words to him in the following way, " I am the God of Bethel,
where thou anointedst the pillar, and where thou vowedst a vow unto me "
{ib. 13), although there is no doubt that Jacob vowed to God, not to the
angel. It is the usual practice of prophets to relate words addressed to them
by an angel in the name of God, as though God Himself had spoken to them.
Such passages arc all to be explained by supplying the nomen regens, and by
considering them as identical with " I am the messenger of the God of thy
father," " I am the messenger of God who appeared to thee in Bethel," and
the like. Prophecy with its various degrees, and the nature of angels, will be
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 37
fully discussed in the sequel, in accordance with the object of this treatise
(II. chap. xiv.).
CHAPTER XXVIII
The term regel is homonymous, signifying, in the first place, the foot of a
living being ; comp. " Foot for foot " (Exod. xxi. 24). Next it denotes an
object which follows another ; comp. " And all the people that follow thee "
(lit. that are at thy feet) {ib. xi. 18). Another signification of the word is
" cause " ; comp. " And the Lord hath blessed thee, I being the cause "
{leragli) (Gen. xxx. 30), i.e., for my sake ; for that which exists for the sake
of another thing has the latter for its final cause. Examples of the term used
in this sense are numerous. It has that meaning in Genesis xxxiii. 14, " Be-
cause {leregel) of the cattle that goeth before me, and because (leregel) of
the children."
Consequently, the Hebrew text, of which the literal rendering is : " And
his feet shall stand in that day upon the Mount of Olives " (Zech. xiv. 4)
can be explained in the following way : " And the things caused by him
(raglav) on that day upon the Mount of Olives, that is to say, the wonders
which will then be seen, and of which God will be the Cause or the Maker,
will remain permanently." To this explanation does Jonathan son of Uziel
incline in paraphrasing the passage, " And he will appear in his might on
that day upon the Mount of Olives. He generally expresses terms denoting
those parts of the body by which contact and motion are eflfected, by " his
might" [when referring to God], because all such expressions denote acts
done by His Will.
In the passage (Exod. xxiv. lo, lit., " And there was under his feet, like the
action of the whiteness of a sapphire stone "), Onkelos, as you know, in his
version, considers the word (raglav) " his feet " as a figurative expression
and a substitute for " throne " ; the words " under his feet " he therefore
paraphrases, " And under the throne of his glory." Consider this well, and
you will observe with wonder how Onkelos keeps free from the idea of the cor-
poreality of God, and from everything that leads thereto, even in the remotest
degree. For he does not say, " and under His throne " ; the direct relation
of the throne to God, implied in the literal sense of the phrase " His throne,"
would necessarily suggest the idea that God is supported by a material object,
and thus lead directly to the corporeality of God ; he therefore refers the
throne to His glory, i.e., to the Shekhinah, which is a light created for the
purpose.
Similarly he paraphrases the words, " For my hand I lift up to the throne
of God " (Exod. xvii. 16), " An oath has been uttered by God, whose She-
khinah is upon the throne of his glory." This principle found also expression
in the popular phrase, " the Throne of the Glory."
We have already gone too far away from the subject of this chapter, and
touched upon things which will be discussed in other chapters ; we will now
return to our present theme. You are acquainted with the version of
Onkelos [of the passage quoted]. He contents himself with excluding from
his version all expressions of corporeality in reference to God, and does not
jhow U3 what they (the nobles of the children of Israel Exod. xxiv. 10) per-
38 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
ceived, or what is meant by that figure. In all similar instances Onkelos also
abstains from entering into such questions, and only endeavours to exclude
every expression implying corporeality ; for the incorporeality of God is a
demonstrative truth and an indispensable element in our faith ; he could
decidedly state all that was necessary in that respect. The interpretation of
a simile is a doubtful thing ; it may possibly have that meaning, but it may
also refer to something else. It contains besides very profound matter, the
understanding of which is not a fundamental element in our faith, and the
comprehension of which is not easy for the common people. Onkelos, there-
fore, did not enter at all into this subject.
We, however, remaining faithful to our task in this treatise, find ourselves
compelled to give our explanation. According to our opinion " under his
feet " (raglav) denotes " under that of which He is the cause," " that which
exists through Him," as we have already stated. They (the nobles of the
children of Israel) therefore comprehended the real nature of the materia
■prima, which emanated from Him, and of whose existence He is the only
cause. Consider well the phrase, " like the action of the whiteness of the
sapphire stone." If the colour were the point of comparison, the words,
" as the whiteness of the sapphire stone " would have sufficed ; but the
addition of " like the action " was necessary, because matter, as such, is, as
you are well aware, always receptive and passive, active only by some acci-
dent. On the other hand, form, as such, is always active, and only passive
by some accident, as is explained in works on Physics. This explains the
addition of " like the action " in reference to the materia prima. The ex-
pression " the whiteness of the sapphire " refers to the transparency, not to
the white colour ; for " the whiteness " of the sapphire is not a white colour,
but the property of being transparent. Things, however, which are trans-
parent, have no colour of their own, as is proved in works on Physics ; for if
they had a colour they would not permit all the colours to pass through them
nor would they receive colours ; it is only when the transparent object is
totally colourless, that it is able to receive successively all the colours. In
this respect it (the whiteness of the sapphire) is like the materia prima, which
as such is entirely formless, and thus receives all the forms one after the other.
What they (the nobles of the children of Israel) perceived was therefore the
materia prima, whose relation to God is distinctly mentioned, because it is
the source of those of his creatures which are subject to genesis and destruc-
tion, and has been created by him. This subject also will be treated later
on more fully.
Observe that you must have recourse to an explanation of this kind, even
when adopting the rendering of Onkelos, " And under the throne of His
glory " ; for in fact the materia prima is also under the heavens, which are called
*' throne of God," as we have remarked above. I should not have thought
of this unusual interpretation, or hit on this argument were it not for an utter-
ance of R. Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, which will be discussed in one of the parts
of this treatise (II. chap. xxvi.). The primary object of every intelligent
person must be to deny the corporeality of God, and to believe that all those
perceptions (described in the above passage) were of a spiritual not of a
material character. Note this and consider it well.
ON HOMONYMS IN THE BIBLE 39
CHAPTER XXIX
The term 'ezeb is homonymous, denoting, in the first place, pain and tremb-
ling; comp. "In sorrow (^^-'^Zi?^) thou shalt bring forth children " (Gen. iii.
16). Next it denotes anger ; comp. " And his father had not made him
angry {'azaho) at any time " (l Kings i. 6) ; " for he was angry {ne^ezali) for
the sake of David " (l Sam. xx. 34). The term signifies also provocation ;
comp. " They rebelled, and vexed {'izzebu) his holy spirit " (Isa. Ixiii. 10) ;
" and provoked (ya'azihahu) him in the desert " (Ps. Ixxviii. 40) ; " If there
be any way of provocation {^ozeb) in me " {ib. cxxxix. 24) ; " Every day they
rebel (ye'azzcbu) against my words " {ib. Ivi. 6).
In Genesis vi. 6 the word has either the second or the third signification.
In the first case, the sense of the Hebrew va-yitazzeb el libbo is " God was
angry with them on account of the wickedness of their deeds " ; as to the
words " to his heart " used here, and also in the history of Noah {ib. viii. 21)
I will here explain what they mean. With regard to man, we use the ex-
pression " he said to himself," or " he said in his heart," in reference to a
subject which he did not utter or communicate to any other person. Simi-
larly the phrase " And God said in his heart," is used in reference to an act
which God decreed without mentioning it to any prophet at the time the
event took place according to the will of God. And a figure of this
kind is admissible, since '' the Torah speaketh in accordance with the
language of man " {supra c. xxvi.). This is plain and clear. In the Pen-
tateuch no distinct mention is made of a message sent to the wicked gener-
ation of the flood, cautioning or threatening them with death ; therefore,
it is said concerning them, that God was angry with them in His heart ;
likewise when He decreed that no flood should happen again. He did not tell
a prophet to communicate it to others, and for that reason the words " in
his heart " are added.
Taking the verb in the third signification, we explain the passage thus :
" And man rebelled against God's will concerning him " ; for leb (heart)
also signifies " will," as we shall explain when treating of the homonymity
of leb (heart).
CHAPTER XXX
In its primary meaning akal (to eat) is used in the sense of taking food by
animals ; this needs no illustration. It was afterwards observed that eating
includes two processes — (i) the loss of the food, i.e., the destruction of its
form, which first takes place ; (2) the growth of animals, the preservation
of their strength and their existence, and the support of all the forces of their
body, caused by the food they take.
The consideration of the first process led to the figurative use of the verb,
in the sense of " consuming," " destroying " ; hence it includes all modes
of depriving a thing of its form ; comp. " And the land of your enemies shall
destroy (lit. eat) you " (Lev. xxvi. 38) ; " A land that destroyeth (lit. eateth)
the inhabitants thereof " (Num. xiii. 32) ; " Ye shall be destroyed (lit. eaten)
with the sword " (Isa. i. 6) ; " Shall the sword destroy (lit. eat) " (2 Sam.
ii. 26) ; " And the fire of the Lord burnt among them, and destroyed (lit.
ate) them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp " (Num. xi. i) ;
40 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
" (God) is a destroying (lit. eating) fire " (Deut. iv. 24), that is, He destroys
those who rebel against Him, as the fire destroys everything that comes
within its reach. Instances of this kind are very frequent.
With reference to the second effect of the act of eating, the verb " to eat "
is figuratively used in the sense of " acquiring wisdom," " learning " ; in
short, for all intellectual perceptions. These preserve the human form
(intellect) constantly in the most perfect manner, in the same way as food
preserves the body in its best condition. Comp. " Come ye, buy and eat "
(Isa. Iv. l) ; " Hearken diligently unto me, and eat ye that which is good "
(ib. 2) ; " It is not good to eat much honey " (Prov. xxv. 27) ; " My son,
eat thou honey, because it is good, and the honeycomb, which is sweet to thy
taste ; so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul " (ib. xxiv. 13, 14).
This figurative use of the verb " to eat " in the sense of " acquiring wis-
dom " is frequently met with in the Talmud, e.g., " Come, eat fat meat at
Raba's (Baba Bathra 22^) ; comp. "All expressions of ' eating ' and ' drinking '
found in this book (of Proverbs) refer to wisdom," or, according to another
reading, " to the Law " (Koh. rabba on Eccl. iii. 13). Wisdom has also been
frequently called " water," e.g., " Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to
the waters " (Isa. Iv. i).
The figurative meaning of these expressions has been so general and
common, that it was almost considered as its primitive signification, and led
to the employment " of hunger " and " thirst " in the sense of " absence of
wisdom and intelligence " ; comp. " I will send a famine in the land, not a
famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words of the Lord " ;
" My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God " (Ps. xlii. 3). Instances of
this kind occur frequently. The words, "-With joy shall ye draw water out
of the wells of salvation " (Isa. xii. 3), are paraphrased by Jonathan son of
Uzziel thus : " You will joyfully receive new instruction from the chosen of
the righteous." Consider how he explains " water " to indicate " the wis-
dom which wiU then spread," and " the wells " (ma'ayene) as being identical
with " the eyes of the congregation " (Num. xv. 24), in the sense of " the
chiefs," or " the wise." By the phrase, " from the chosen of the righteous,"
he expresses his belief that righteousness is true salvation. You now see how
he gives to every word in this verse some signification referring to wisdom
and study. This should be well considered.
CHAPTER XXXI
Know that for the human mind there are certain objects of perception which
are within thcscopeof its nature and capacity ; on the other hand, there are,
amongst things which actually exist, certain objects which the mind can in
no way and by no means grasp : the gates of perception are closed against it.
Further, there are things of which the mind understands one part, but
remains ignorant of the other ; and when man is able to comprehend certain
things, it does not follow that he must be able to comprehend everything.
This also applies to the senses : they are able to perceive things, but not at
every distance ; and all other powers of the body are limited in a similar way.
A man can, e.g., carry two kikkar, but he cannot carry ten kikkar. How
individuals of the same species surpass each other in these sensations and in
ON THE STUDY OF METAPHYSICS 41
other bodily faculties is universally known, but there is a limit to them, and
their power cannot extend to every distance or to every degree.
All this is applicable to the intellectual faculties of man. There is a con-
siderable difference between one person and another as regards these facul-
ties, as is well known to philosophers. While one man can discover a certain
thing by himself, another is never able to understand it, even if taught by
means of all possible expressions and metaphors, and during a long period ;
his mind can in no way grasp it, his capacity is insufficient for it. This dis-
tinction is not unlimited. A boundary is undoubtedly set to the human
mind which it cannot pass. There are things (beyond that boundary) which
are acknowledged to be inaccessible to human understanding, and man does
not show any desire to comprehend them, being aware that such knowledge
is impossible, and that there are no means of overcoming the difficulty ;
e.g., we do not know the number of stars in heaven, whether the number is
even or odd ; we do not know the number of animals, minerals, or plants,
and the like. There are other things, however, which man very much desires
to know, and strenuous efforts to examine and to investigate them have been
made by thinkers of all classes, and at all times. They differ and disagree,
and constantly raise new doubts with regard to them, because their minds are
bent on comprehending such things, that is to say, they are moved by desire ;
and every one of them believes that he has discovered the way leading to a
true knowledge of the thing, although human reason is entirely unable to
demonstrate the fact by convincing evidence. — For a proposition which can
be proved by evidence is not subject to dispute, denial, or rejection ; none
but the ignorant would contradict it, and such contradiction is called " denial
of a demonstrated proof." Thus you find men who deny the spherical form
of the earth, or the circular form of the line in which the stars move, and the
like ; such men are not considered in this treatise. This confusion prevails
mostly in metaphysical subjects, less in problems relating to physics, and is
entirely absent from the exact sciences. Alexander Aphrodisius said that
there are three causes which prevent men from discovering the exact truth :
first, arrogance and vainglory ; secondly, the subtlety, depth, and difficult)'
of any subject which is being examined ; thirdly, ignorance and want of
capacity to comprehend what might be comprehended. These causes are
enumerated by Alexander. At the present time there is a fourth cause not
mentioned by him, because it did not then prevail, namely, habit and train-
ing. We naturally like what we have been accustomed to, and are attracted
towards it. This may be observed amongst villagers ; though they rarely
enjoy the benefit of a douche or bath, and have few enjoyments, and pass a
life of privation, they dislike town life and do not desire its pleasures, pre-
ferring the inferior things to which they are accustomed, to the better things
to which they are strangers ; it would give them no satisfaction to live in
palaces, to be clothed in silk, and to indulge in baths, ointments, and perfumes.
The same is the case with those opinions of man to which he has been
accustomed from his youth ; he likes them, defends them, and shuns the
opposite views. This is likewise one of the causes which prevent men from
finding truth, and which make them cling to their habitual opinions. Such
is, e.g., the case with the vulgar notions with respect to the corporeality of
God, and many other metaphysical questions, as we shall explain. It is the
42 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
result of long familiarity with passages of the Bible, which they are accus-
tomed to respect and to receive as true, and the literal sense of which implies
the corporeality of God and other false notions ; in truth, however, these
words were employed as figures and metaphors for reasons to be mentioned
below. Do not imagine that what we have said of the insufficiency of our
understanding and of its limited extent is an assertion founded only on the
Bible ; for philosophers likewise assert the same, and perfectly understand
it, without having regard to any religion or opinion. It is a fact which is
only doubted by those who ignore things fully proved. This chapter is in-
tended as an introduction to the next.
CHAPTER XXXII
You must consider, when reading this treatise, that mental perception,
because connected with matter, is subject to conditions similar to those to
which physical perception is subject. That is to say, if your eye looks around,
you can perceive all that is within the range of your vision ; if, however, you
overstrain your eye, exerting it too much by attempting to see an object
which is too distant for your eye, or to examine writings or engravings too
small for your sight, and forcing it to obtain a correct perception of them,
you will not only weaken your sight with regard to that special object, but
also for those things which you otherwise are able to perceive : your eye will
have become too weak to perceive what you were able to see before you ex-
erted yourself and exceeded the limits of your vision.
The same is the case with the speculative faculties of one who devotes
himself to the study of any science. If a person studies too much and ex-
hausts his reflective powers, he will be confused, and will not be able to
apprehend even that which had been within the power of his apprehension.
For the powers of the body are all alike in this respect.
The mental perceptions are not exempt from a similar condition. If you
admit the doubt, and do not persuade yourself to believe that there is a proof
for things which cannot be demonstrated, or to try at once to reject and
positively to deny an assertion the opposite of which has never been proved, or
attempt to perceive things which are beyond your perception, then you have
attained the highest degree of human perfection, then you are like R. Akibha,
who " in peace entered [the study of these theological problems], and came
out in peace." If, on the other hand, you attempt to exceed the limit of
your intellectual power, or at once to reject things as impossible which have
never been proved to be impossible, or which are in fact possible, though
their possibility be very remote, then you will be like Elisha Aher ; you will
not only fail to become perfect, but you will become exceedingly imperfect.
Ideas founded on mere imagination will prevail over you, you will incline
toward defects, and toward base and degraded habits, on account of the
confusion which troubles the mind, and of the dimness of its light, just as
weakness of sight causes invalids to sec many kinds of unreal images, especially
when they have looked for a long time at dazzling or at very minute objects.
Respecting this it has been said, " Hast thou found honey ? eat so much as
is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it " (Prov. xxv.
i6). Our Sages also applied this verse to Elisha Aher.
ON THE STUDY OF METAPHYSICS 43
How excellent is this simile ! In comparing knowledge to food (as we
observed in chap, xxx.), the author of Proverbs mentions the sweetest food,
namely, honey, which has the further property of irritating the stomach, and
of causing sickness. He thus fully describes the nature of knowledge.
Though great, excellent, noble and perfect, it is injurious if not kept within
bounds or not guarded properly ; it is like honey which gives nourishment
and is pleasant, when eaten in moderation, but is totally thrown away when
eaten immoderately. Therefore, it is not said " lest thou be filled and loathe
it," but " lest thou vomit it." The same idea is expressed in the words,
"'it is not good to eat much honey" (Prov. xxv. 27); and in the words,
" Neither make thyself over-wise ; why shouldst thou destroy thyself ? "
(Eccles. vii. l6) ; comp. " Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of
God " (ibid. V. i). The same subject is alluded to in the words of David,
" Neither do I exercise myself in great matters, or in things too high for me "
(Ps. cxxxi. 2), and in the sayings of our Sages : " Do not inquire into things
which are too difficult for thee, do not search what is hidden from thee ;
study what you are allowed to study, and do not occupy thyself with mys-
teries." They meant to say. Let thy mind only attempt things which are
within human perception ; for the study of things which lie beyond man's
comprehension is extremely injurious, as has been already stated. This
lesson is also contained in the Talmudical passage, which begins, " He who
considers four things," etc., and concludes, " He who does not regard the
honour of his Creator " ; here also is given the advice which we have already
mentioned, viz., that man should not rashly engage in speculation with false
conceptions, and when he is in doubt about anything, or unable to find a
proof for the object of his inquiry, he must not at once abandon, reject
and deny it ; he must modestly keep back, and from regard to the honour
of his Creator, hesitate [from uttering an opinion] and pause. This has
already been explained.
It was not the object of the Prophets and our Sages in these utterances to
close the gate of investigation entirely, and to prevent the mind from com-
prehending what is within its reach, as is imagined by simple and idle people,
whom it suits better to put forth their ignorance and incapacity as wisdom
and perfection, and to regard the distinction and wisdom of others as irre-
ligion and imperfection, thus taking darkness for light and light for darkness.
The whole object of the Prophets and the Sages was to declare that a limit
is set to human reason where it must halt. Do not criticise the words used
in this chapter and in others in reference to the mind, for we only intended
to give some idea of the subject in view, not to describe the essence of the
intellect ; for other chapters have been dedicated to this subject.
CHAPTER XXXIII
You must know that it is very injurious to begin vnth this branch of philo-
sophy, viz.. Metaphysics ; or to explain [at first] the sense of the similes
occurring in prophecies, and interpret the metaphors which are em-
ployed in historical accounts and which abound in the writings of the
Prophets. On the contrary, it is necessary to initiate the young and to in-
struct the less intelligent according to their comprehension ; those who
44 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
appear to be talented and to have capacity for the higher method of studjr,
i.e., that based on proof and on true logical argument, should be gradually ad-
vanced towards perfection, either by tuition or by self-instruction. He, how-
ever, who begins with Metaphysics, will not only become confused in matters
of religion, but will fall into complete infidelity. I compare such a person to
an infant fed with wheaten bread, meat and wine ; it will undoubtedly die,
not because such food is naturally unfit for the human body, but because of
the weakness of the child, who is unable to digest the food, and cannot derive
benefit from it. The same is the case with the true principles of science.
They were presented in enigmas, clad in riddles, and taught by all wise men
in the most mysterious way that could be devised, not because they contain
some secret evil, or are contrary to the fundamental principles of the Law
(as fools think who are only philosophers in their own eyes), but because of
the incapacity of man to comprehend them at the beginning of his studies :
only slight allusions have been made to them to serve for the guidance of
those who are capable of understanding them. These sciences were, there-
fore, called Mysteries (sodoth), and Secrets of the Law (sitre torah), as we
shall explain.
This also is the reason why " the Torah speaks the language of man," as
we have explained, for it is the object of the Torah to serve as a guide for the
instruction of the young, of women, and of the common people ; and as all
of them are incapable to comprehend the true sense of the words, tradition
was considered sufficient to convey all truths which were to be established ;
and as regards ideals, only such remarks were made as would lead towards a
knowledge of their existence, though not to a comprehension of their true
essence. When a man attains to perfection, and arrives at a knowledge of
the " Secrets of the Law," either through the assistance of a teacher or by
self-instruction, being led by the understanding of one part to the study of
the other, he will belong to those who faithfully believe in the true principles,
either because of conclusive proof, where proof is possible, or by forcible
arguments, where argument is admissible ; he will have a true notion of
those things which he previously received in similes and metaphors, and he
will fully understand their sense. We have frequently mentioned in this
treatise the principle of our Sages " not to discuss the Ma^aseh Mercabah
even in the presence of one pupil, except he be wise and intelligent ; and
then only the headings of the chapters are to be given to him." We must,
therefore, begin with teaching these subjects according to the capacity of
the pupil, and on two conditions, first, that he be wise, i.e., that he should
have successfully gone through the preliminary studies, and secondly that
he be intelligent, talented, clear-headed, and of quick perception, that is,
" have a mind of his own " {mebin midda'ato)^ as our Sages termed it.
I will now proceed to explain the reasons why we should not instruct the
multitude in pure metaphysics, or begin with describing to them the true
essence of things, or with showing them that a thing must be as it is, and
cannot be otherwise. This wSll form the subject of the next chapter ; and
I proceed to say —
CHAPTER XXXIV
There are five reasons why instruction should not begin with Metaphysics,
ON THE STUDY OF METAPHYSICS 45
but should at first be restricted to pointing out what is fitted for notice and
what may be made manifest to the multitude.
First Reason. — The subject itself is difficult, subtle and profound, " Far
off and exceeding deep, who can find it out ? " (Eccles. vii. 24). The following
words of Job may be applied to it : " Whence then comcth wisdom ? and
where is the place of understanding ? " (Job xxviii. 20). Instruction should
not begin with abstruse and difficult subjects. In one of the similes contained
in the Bible, wisdom is compared to water, and amongst other interpretations
given by our Sages of this simile, occurs the following : He who can swim
may bring up pearls from the depth of the sea, he who is unable to swim will
be drowned, therefore only such persons as have had proper instruction should
expose themselves to the risk.
Second Reason. — The intelligence of man is at first insufficient ; for he is not
endowed with perfection at the beginning, but at first possesses perfection
only in potentia, not in fact. Thus it is said, " And man is born a wild ass "
(Job xi. 12). If a man possesses a certain faculty in potentia, it does not
follow that it must become in him a reality. He may possibly remain defi-
cient either on account of some obstacle, or from want of training in prac-
tices which would turn the possibility into a reality. Thus it is distinctly
stated in the Bible, " Not many are wise " {ib., xxxii. 9) ; also our Sages say,
" I noticed how few were those who attained to a higher degree of perfec-
tion " (B. T. Succah 45(j). There are many things which obstruct the
path to perfection, and which keep man away from it. Where can he find
sufficient preparation and leisure to learn all that is necessary in order to
develop that perfection which he has in potentia ?
Third Reason. — The preparatory studies are of long duration, and man, in
his natural desire to reach the goal, finds them frequently too wearisome, and
does not wish to be troubled by them. Be convinced that, if man were able
to reach the end without preparatory studies, such studies would not be
preparatory but tiresome and utterly superfluous. Suppose you awaken any
person, even the most simple, as if from sleep, and you say to him, Do you
not desire to know what the heavens are, what is their number and their form ;
what beings are contained in them ; what the angels are ; how the creation
of the whole world took place ; what is its purpose, and what is the relation
of its various parts to each other ; what is the nature of the soul ; how it
enters the body ; whether it has an independent existence, and if so, how it
can exist independently of the body ; by what means and to what purpose,
and similar problems. He would undoubtedly say " Yes," and show a
natural desire for the true knowledge of these things ; but he will wish to
satisfy that desire and to attain to that knowledge by listening to a few words
from you. Ask him to interrupt his usual pursuits for a week, till he learn
all this, he would not do it, and would be satisfied and contented with
imaginary and misleading notions ; he would refuse to believe that there is
anything which requires preparatory studies and persevering research.
You, however, know how all these subjects are connected together ; for there
is nothing else in existence but God and His works, the latter including all
existing things besides Him ; we can only obtain a knowledge of Him through
His works ; His works give evidence of His existence, and show what must
be assumed concerning Him, that is to say, what must be attributed to Him
46 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
either affirmatively or negatively. It is thus necessary to examine all things
according to their essence, to infer from every species such true and well
established propositions as may assist us in the solution of metaphysical prob-
lems. Again, many propositions based on the nature of numbers and the
properties of geometrical figures, are useful in examining things which must
be negatived in reference to God, and these negations will lead us to further
inferences. You \vill certainly not doubt the necessity of studying astronomy
and physics, if you are desirous of comprehending the relation between the
world and Providence as it is in reality, and not according to imagination.
There are also many subjects of speculation, which, though not preparing the
way for metaphysics, help to train the reasoning power, enabling it to under-
stand the nature of a proof, and to test truth by characteristics essential to
it. They remove the confusion arising in the minds of most thinkers, who
confound accidental with essential properties, and likewise the wrong
opinions resulting therefrom. We may add, that although they do not form
the basis for metaphysical research, they assist in forming a correct notion of
these things, and are certainly useful in many other things connected with
that discipline. Consequently he who wishes to attain to human perfection,
must therefore first study Logic, next the various branches of Mathematics
in their proper order, then Physics, and lastly Metaphysics. We find that
many who have advanced to a certain point in the study of these disciplines
become weary, and stop ; that others, who are endowed with sufficient
capacity, are interrupted in their studies by degth, which surprises them
while still engaged with the preliminary course. Now, if no knowledge what-
ever had been given] to us by means of tradition, and if we had not been
brought to the belief in a thing through the medium of similes, we would
have been bound to form a perfect notion of things with their essential
characteristics, and to believe only what we could prove : a goal which could
only be attained by long preparation. In such a case most people would die,
without having known whether there was a God or not, much less that cer-
tain things must be asserted about Him, and other things denied as defects.
From such a fate not even " one of a city or two of a family " (Jer. iii. 14)
would have escaped.
As regards the privileged few, " the rentnant whom the Lord calls " (Joel
iii. 5), they only attain the perfection at which they aim after due preparatory
labour. The necessity of such a preparation and the need of such a training
for the acquisition of real knowledge, has been plainly stated by King Solo-
mon in the following words : " If the iron be blunt, and he do not whet the
edge, then must he put to more strength ; and it is profitable to prepare for
wisdom " (Eccles. x. 10) ; " Hear counsel, and receive instruction, that thou
mayest be wise in thy latter end " (Prov. xix. 20).
There is still another urgent reason why the preliminary disciplines should
be studied and understood. During the study many doubts present them-
selves, and the difficulties, or the objections raised against certain assertions,
are soon understood, just as the demoHtion of a building is easier than its
erection ; while, on the other hand, it is impossible to prove an assertion, or to
remove any doubts, without having recourse to several propositions taken from
these preliminary studies. Pie who approaches metaphysical problems without
proper preparation is like a person who journeys towards a certain place, and
ON THE STUDY OF METAPHYSICS 47
on the road falls into a deep pit, out of which he cannot rise, and he must
perish there ; if he had not gone forth, but had remained at home, it would
have been better for him.
Solomon has expatiated in the book of Proverbs on sluggards and their
indolence, by which he figuratively refers to indolence in the search after
wisdom. He thus speaks of a man who desires to know the final results, but
does not exert himself to understand the preliminary disciplines which lead
to them, doing nothing else but desire. " The desire of the slothful killeth
him ; for his hands refuse to labour. He coveteth greedily all the day long ;
but the righteous giveth, and spareth not " (Prov. xxi. 25, 26) ; that is to
say, if the desire killeth the slothful, it is because he neglects to seek the thing
which might satisfy his desire, he does nothing but desire, and hopes to obtain
a thing without using the means to reach it. It would be better for him were
he without that desire. Observe how the end of the simile throws light on
its beginning. It concludes with the words " but the righteous giveth, and
spareth not " ; the antithesis of " righteous " and " slothful " can only be
justified on the basis of our interpretation. Solomon thus indicates that
only such a man is righteous who gives to everything its due portion ; that
is to say, who gives to the study of a thing the whole time required for it,
and docs not devote any part of that time to another purpose. The passage
may therefore be paraphrased thus : And the righteous man devotes his ways
to wisdom, and does not withhold any of them." Comp. " Give not thy
strength unto women " (Prov. xxxi. 3).
The majority of scholars, that is to say, the most famous in science, are
afflicted with this failing, viz., that of hurrying at once to the final results,
and of speaking about them, without treating of the preliminary disciplines.
Led by folly or ambition to disregard those preparatory studies, for the
attainment of which they are either incapable or too idle, some scholars en-
deavour to prove that these are injurious or superfluous. On reflection the
truth will become obvious.
The Fourth Reason is taken from the physical constitution of man. It
has been proved that moral conduct is a preparation for intellectual progress,
and that only a man whose character is pure, calm and steadfast, can
attain to intellectual perfection ; that is, acquire correct conceptions.
Many men are naturally so constituted that all perfection is impossible ;
e.g., he whose heart is very warm and is himself very powerful, is sure to be
passionate, though he tries to counteract that disposition by training ; he
whose testicles are warm, humid, and vigorous, and the organs connected
therewith are surcharged, will not easily refrain from sin, even if he makes
great efforts to restrain himself. You also find persons of great levity and
rashness, whose excited manners and wild gestures prove that their constitut-
tion is in disorder, and their temperament so bad that it cannot be cured.
Such persons can never attain to perfection ; it is utterly useless to occupy
oneself with them on such a subject [as Metaphysics]. For this science is, as
you know, different from the science of Medicine and of Geometrv, and,
from the reason already mentioned, it is not every person who is capable of
approaching it. It is impossible for a man to study it successfully without
moral preparation ; he must acquire the highest degree of uprightness and
integrity, " for the froward is an abomination to the Lord, but His secret is
48 GVIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED
with the righteous " (Prov. iii. 32). Therefore it was considered inadvisable
to teach it to young men ; nay, it is impossible for them to comprehend it,
on account of the heat of their blood and the flame of youth, which confuses
their minds ; that heat, which causes all the disorder, must first disappear;
they must have become moderate and settled, humble in their hearts, and
subdued in their temperament ; only then will they be able to arrive at the
highest degree of the perception of God, i.e., the study of Metaphysics, which
is called Ma^aseh Mercabah Comp. " The Lord is nigh unto them that
are of a broken heart " (Ps. xxxiv. 18) ; "I dwell in the high and lofty place,
with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit ; to revive the spirit of
the humble, and to revive the heart of the contrite ones " (Isa. Ivii. 15).
Therefore the rule, " the headings of the sections may be confided to him,"
is further restricted in the Talmud, in the following way : The headings of
the sections must only be handed down to an Ab-bet-din (President of the
Court), whose heart is full of care, i.e., in whom wisdom is united with
humility, meekness, and a great dread of sin. It is further stated there :
" The secrets of the Law can only be communicated to a counsellor, scholar,
and good orator." These qualities can only be acquired if the physical con-
stitution of the student favour their development. You certainly know that
some persons, though exceedingly able, are very we
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