← Volver a la ficha del textoCharleston
Buddhist
Fellowship
An Introductory
Grammar of the
Pali Language
Prepared by
Allan R. Bomhard
Pa}i
Language
Series
An Introductory
Grammar of the
Pali Language
PREPARED BY
Allan R. Bomhard
Charleston Buddhist Fellowship
Charleston, SC USA
2012 (2556)
The doctrinal positions expressed in this book are those of Theravadin Buddhism.
The Charleston Buddhist Fellowship edition of this work is intended exclusively for use
in private study and is not intended for publication or resale. It is printed for free
distribution and may be copied or reprinted for free distribution, in total or in part,
without written permission.
Table of Contents
Preface v
References vii
1. Phonology 1
1.1. Alphabets 1
1.2. Phonological System 1
1.3. Pronunciation 2
1.4. Vowels 3
1.5. Consonants 3
1.6. Sandhi 4
1.7. Accent 7
2. Declension 9
2.1. Introduction 9
2.2. Vowels Stems 10
2.2.1. Case Endings — First Declension 10
2.2.2. Masculines and Neuters in -a 11
2.2.3. Feminines in -a 13
2.2.4. Adjectives in -a 13
2.2.5. Case Endings — Second Declension 14
2.2.6. Masculines and Neuters in -i 15
2.2.7. Masculines in -F 16
2.2.8. Feminines in -i 17
2.2.9. Feminines in -F 18
2.2.10. Adjectives in -/ and -F 18
2.2. 1 1 . Case Endings — Third Declension 20
2.2. 12. Masculines and Neuters in -u and -u 21
2.2. 13. Feminines in -u and -u 22
2.2.14. Adjectives in -u and -u 23
2.2.15. Special Nouns 25
2.3. Consonant Stems 26
2.3.1. Stems Ending in Nasals 26
2.3.2. Stems in -ant 29
ii An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2.3.3. Adjectives in -at and -out 29
2.3.4. Stems in -r 32
2.3.5. Stems in -s 33
2.4. Comparison of Adjectives 34
2.5. Word Formation 35
3. Pronouns 37
3.1. First and Second Person Personal Pronouns 37
3.2. Demonstrative Pronouns 38
3.3. Relative Pronoun 40
3.4. Interrogative Pronouns 40
3.5. Indefinite Pronouns 41
3.6. Other Pronouns 42
3.7. Pronominals 42
3.8. Adverbial Derivatives 44
4. Numerals 47
4.1. Cardinals 47
4.2. Ordinals 50
5. Conjugation 53
5.1. Structure of the Pali Verb 53
5.1.1. General Structure 53
5.1.2. The Present System 56
5.1.3. The Remaining Systems 59
5.2. Personal Endings 59
5.2.1. Endings of the Present System 59
5.2.2. Endgins of the Aorist System 61
5.2.3. Endings of the Perfect System 61
5.2.4. Endings of the Future System 62
5.2.5. Non-F ini te Forms 63
5.3. Conjugational Paradigms 63
5.4. Defective Verbs 70
5.5. Secondary Verbs 73
5.6. Compound Verbs 76
5.7. Past Passive Participle 76
5.7.1. Past Passive Participle -ta
77
Table of Contents iii
5.7.2. Past Passive Participle -na 79
5.7.3. Two Forms of the Past Passive Participle 80
5.8. Perfect Participle Active 81
5.9. Infinitives 81
5.9.1. The Suffix -turn 81
5.9.2. The Suffixes -tave, -tuye, -taye 82
5.10. Gerunds 83
5.10.1. The Suffixes -t\>a, -tvana, -tuna 83
5.10.2. The Suffixes -ya and -tya 83
5.11. Participle of Necessity 84
5.11.1. The Suffix -tabba 85
5.11.2. The Suffix -ya 86
5.11.3. The Suffix -aniya 87
5.12. Denominative Verbs 87
5.13. Verbal Prefixes 89
6. Indeclinables 93
6.1. Introduction 93
6.2. Adverbs 93
6.3. Prepositions and Postpositions 97
6.4. Conjunctions 98
6.5. Interjections 99
7. Compounds 101
7.1. Introduction 101
7.2. Dvanda Compounds (Copulative Compounds) 101
7.3. Tappurisa Compounds (Detenninative Compounds) 102
7.4. Upapada Compounds 105
7.5. Kammadharaya Compounds (Descriptive Compounds) 105
7.6. Digu Compounds (Numeral Compounds) 108
7.7. Abyayibhava Compounds (Adverbial Compounds) 109
7.8. Bahubblhi Compounds (Relative, or Possessive, Compounds) 110
7.9. Anomalous Compounds 112
7.10. Complex Compounds 112
7.11. Changes of Certain Words in Compounds 113
7.12. Verbal Compounds 115
iv An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
8. Syntax 117
8.1. Definition of Terms 117
8.2. The Syntax of Nouns 118
8.2.1. Nominative Case 118
8.2.2. Vocative Case 119
8.2.3. Accusative Case 119
8.2.4. Genitive Case 119
8.2.5. Dative Case 120
8.2.6. Instrumental Case 121
8.2.7. Ablative Case 122
8.2.8. Locative Case 122
8.2.9. The Genitive and Locative Absolute 123
8.3. The Syntax of Adjectives 124
8.4. The Syntax of Pronouns 124
8.4.1. Personal Pronouns 125
8.4.2. Demonstrative Pronouns 125
8.4.3. Relative Pronoun 125
8.4.4. Interrogative Pronoun 126
8.4.5. Indefinite Pronoun 126
8.5. Repetition 126
8.6. The Syntax of Verbs 127
8.6.1. Active Voice 127
8.6.2. Reflexive Voice 127
8.6.3. Present Tense 127
8.6.4. Imperfect Tense 128
8.6.5. Aorist Tense 128
8.6.6. Perfect Tense 128
8.6.7. Future Tense 128
8.6.8. Optative 129
8.6.9. Conditional 129
8.6.10. Imperative 129
8.6.11. Participles 130
8.6.12. Infinitive 130
8.6.13. Gerund 130
8.6.14. Participle of Necessity 131
8.7. The Syntax of Indeclinables 131
Preface
This book is intended to be an introduction to the grammatical structure of the
Pali language for those who have no prior knowledge of subject. As such, it has been
designed to make the study of Pali grammar as easy as possible, by presenting the basic
principles of the language and its inflections in a clear and systematic fonnat.
Large portions of this book are based upon the third revised edition of A Practical
Grammar of the Pah Language (1997) by Charles Duroiselle. There are far too many
typographical errors in that work, however, and I have endeavored to correct them in the
current book, without, I hope, adding errors of my own. Moreover, many of the English
translations given by Duroiselle are outdated, and I have tried to bring them into line with
current interpretations.
Though Chapter 1 gives only basic information about the various changes that the
sounds of Pali can undergo, enough has been included so that the most common of these
changes can be easily recognized when they are encountered in reading the texts. Several
of the works consulted in preparing this book contained numerous references to Sanskrit
in an effort to explain and illustrate the pennutations that have occurred in Pali. In this
book, references to Sanskrit have been kept to an absolute minimum.
Chapter 2, Declension, and Chapter 5, Conjugation, begin with a definition of
terms before the discussion of Pali noun morphology and verb morphology, respectively.
These definitions provide the basis for understanding the grammatical structure of Pali
from a theoretical point of view. The definitions are followed by paradigms illustrating
the actual forms found in Pali. Chapter 6, Indeclinables, also begins with a definition of
tenns, as do Chapter 7, Compounds, and Chapter 8, Syntax. In general, technical jargon
has been avoided.
Throughout the book, additional material is included in notes.
Allan R. Bomhard
Charleston, South Carolina
References
Anderson, Dines
1901 A Pah Reader, with Notes and Glossary. London: Luzac & Co. and Leipzig:
Otto Harrassowitz. (Available as a free download from Google Books.)
Childers, Robert Caesar
1875 A Dictionary of the Pali Language. London: Triibner & Co. (Available as a
free download from Google Books.)
Cone, Margaret
2001 — A Dictionary of Pali. Oxford: The Pali Text Society.
Duroiselle, Charles
1915 A Practical Grammar of the Pali Language. Second edition. Rangoon:
British Burma Press. (Available as a free download from Google Books.)
[1997] [Third edition by U. Dhamminda.] (Available as a free download from
Buddhanet.)
Elizarenkova, T. Y., and V. N. Toporov
1976 The Pali Language. Moscow: Nauka.
Frankfurter, Oscar
1883 Handbook of Pah: An Elementary Grammar, A Chrestornathy, and A
Glossary. London: Williams & Northgate. (Available as a free download
from Google Books.)
Franke, Otto
1902 Pali und Sanskrit: In ihrern historischen und geographischen Verhdltnis auf
Grund der Inschriften und Munzen [Pali and Sanskrit: In Their Historical
and Geographical Relationship on the Basis of Inscriptions and Coins] .
Strassburg: Karl J. Triibner. (Available as a free download from Google
Books.)
Geiger, Wilhelm
1916 Pali Literatur und Sprache [Pali Literature and Language] . Strassburg: Karl
J. Triibner. (Available as a free download from Google Books.)
Henry, Victor
1904 Precis de grammaire palie, accompagne d’un choix de textes gradues [A
Manual of Pali Grammar, Accompanied by a Selection of Graduated Texts] .
Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. (Available as a free download from Google
Books.)
Hiniiber, Oskar von
2000 Handbook of Pah Literature. Berlin and New York, NY : Walter De Gruyter.
Johanson, Rune E. A.
1981 Pali Buddhist Texts Explained to the Beginner. 3rd edition. London and
Mahno: Curzon Press, Ltd.
Kuhn, Ernst W. A.
1875 Beitrage zur Pali Grammatik [Contributions to Pali Grammar], Berlin:
Ferd. Dummlers Verlagsbuchhandlung. (Available as a free download from
Google Books.)
Mayrhofer, Manfred
1951 Handbuch des Pah. Mit Texten und Glossar [A Manual of Pah. With Texts
and Glossary]. 2 vols. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Muller, E.
1884 A Simplified Grammar of the Pah Language. London: Triibner & Co.
(Available as a free download from Google Books.)
Oberbes, Thomas
2001 Paji: A Grammar of the Language of the Theravada Tipitaka. Berlin and
New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter.
Perniola, Vito
1997 PaU Grammar. Oxford: Pali Text Society.
Pischel, Richard
1900 Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen [Grammar of the Prakrit Languages],
Reprinted 1973. Hildesheim: Georg Olms.
Rhys Davids, T. W., and William Stede
1921 — 1925 The PaU Text Society’s PaU-English Dictionary. Reprinted 1986. London:
Pali Text Society.
Sefcik, Ondrej
2012 “The Relation between Phones and Phonemes on Examples from Pali”,
Linguistica Brunensia 60.1/2:37 — 47.
Tilbe, Henry H.
1899 PaU Grammar. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press. (Available as a
free download from Google Books.)
1902 PaU First Lessons. Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press. (Available as
a free download from Google Books.)
Warder, A. K.
1974
Introduction to PaU. 2nd edition. London: Pali Text Society. ■
Phonology
1.1. The Alphabets
Pali does not have its own alphabet. The Pali manuscripts are written in the following
alphabets: (1) Sinhalese; (2) Bunnese; (3) Thai; and (4) Cambodian. They are all derived from
the alphabet used in the ancient Indian inscriptions composed during the reign of the Emperor
Asoka (Sanskrit Asoka). The Devanagarl alphabet, which is used to write Sanskrit, is never used
in Pali manuscripts. In this book, only the standard Roman transliteration of Pali is used.
1.2. Phonological System
Pali has the following sounds:
A. Vowels: a
i
u
e
0
a
I
u
B. Consonants:
Voiceless
Voiceless
Voiced
Voiced
Nasal
Aspirated
Aspirated
Gutturals:
k
kh
g
gh
n
Palatals:
c
ch
j
Jh
n
Cerebrals:
t
th
d
dh
n
Dentals:
t
th
d
dh
n
Labials:
P
ph
b
bh
m
Liquids:
r
1
1
Semivowels:
y
V
Sibilant:
s
Aspirate:
h
Niggahita:
m
Note: The niggahita (m) is always used: (1) medially before a sibilant, thus: samsara ‘round of
rebirths; cyclic existence’; and (2) at the end of words, thus ( Dhammapada , verse 67): na tam
2 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
kammarh katarh sadhu yam katva anutappati yassa assumukho rodarh vipakam patisevati “That
deed is poorly done if one feels remorse for having done it and if it brings suffering in its wake.”
Before other consonants, the nasal of the corresponding class (column 5 above) may be used
instead, thus: samkhara = sahkhara ‘formation’. The niggahita is sometimes also transliterated
as m.
1.3. Pronunciation
The vowels a, i, u are short, and a, f, u are long; e and o are long in open syllables, that is,
before a single consonant. In closed syllables, that is, before two consonants, they are short, a is
pronounced like the a in English sofa, i like the i in English sit, and u like the u in English put. a
is pronounced like the a in English father, I like the ee in English feed, and u like the a in English
rude, e is pronounced like the ei in English eight, and o like the o in English hole.
Aspiration is very frequent in Pali. Both voiceless and voiced aspirates occur. The
voiceless aspirates are pronounced like the corresponding plain voiceless consonants except that
they are followed by a slightly forceful puff of air. Thus, th is never pronounced like the th in
English thin. Rather, it is pronounced like the th in English hothouse. Similarly, ph is never
pronounced like the ph in English philosophy. Instead, it is pronounced like the ph in English
loophole, kh is pronounced like the kli in English sinkhole. The voiced aspirates are pronounced
like the corresponding plain voiced consonants except that they are followed by a slightly
forceful puff of air. Thus, dh is pronounced like the dh in English bloodhound, bh like the bh in
English abhor, and gh like the gli in English jughead.
The sound transliterated as c has the same pronunciation as c in Italian ciao ‘hello!, hi!;
farewell!, good-bye!’ (borrowed in English, with the same pronunciation as Italian), while ch is
pronounced like the second ch in the English family name Churchill, j is pronounced like the j
in English joy or the g in gesture, while jli is pronounced like the dgeh in English hedgehog, s is
pronounced like the s in English son.
The gutturals are formed in the throat, the palatals with the tongue placed against the
front palate, the dentals with the tip of the tongue placed against the back of the upper teeth, and
the labials with the lips. Among the liquids, / is cerebral (retroflex), and / is dental.
It is often difficult for Westerners to pronounce the cerebrals correctly. They are formed
by bending the tip of the tongue upwards and backwards so that it makes contact with the roof of
the mouth just behind the alveolar ridge. Hence, these sounds are often referred to as “retroflex”.
The nasals are pronounced in accordance with the class to which they belong. The
guttural nasal never occurs alone, but is always followed by a corresponding consonant of its
class, thus: hk, hg, hkh, hgh. Hence, it is often transliterated simply as n without the overdot. It
is pronounced like the n in English sink or single. The palatal nasal h is pronounced like ny in
English canyon or banyan. It sometimes occurs written double (nil) when assimilation has taken
place. “Assimilation” means that it has replaced another sound, that is, the other sound has been
made similar to the h. The dental nasal n is pronounced like n in English net. The labial nasal m
is pronounced like m in English mother. Finally, the niggahita (hi) is pronounced, in accordance
with the Sinhalese tradition, like ng in English king.
When preceded by a consonant, v is pronounced like the w in English wick. For example,
in dvi, dva ‘two’, the dv is pronounced like the dw in English dwell. Elsewhere, v is pronounced
like the v in English vine.
1 . Phonology 3
Double consonants (“geminates”) must be strictly pronounced as such, like the nn in
English unnecessary.
1.4. Vowels
The vowels found in Pali are the same as those found in Sanskrit, with the exception of r
and the diphthongs ai and an. Sanskrit r is mostly represented in Pali by one of the other vowels,
while the Sanskrit diphthongs ai and au become e and o, respectively, in Pali.
Long vowels before a double consonant are generally shortened. This rule, however, is
not always followed in the manuscripts, where we often find a long vowel before a double
consonant, especially when the long vowel is the result of a contraction.
Lengthening of vowels occurs mainly in prepositions. There are, however, some other
instances of vowel lengthening, typically due to metrical considerations.
A vowel in the middle of a word may be dropped as in agra = agara ‘house, hut’, used
only in compounds.
1.5. Consonants
Pali has one sound belonging to the cerebral class which does not exist in Classical
Sanskrit, though it is found in the dialect of the Vedas, namely, cerebral /. It is very difficult to
give exact rules for the use of this /, since the manuscripts are rather inconsistent in this regard.
Generally speaking, / or Ih between two vowels represent Sanskrit d, dh, but it is also often used
in place of the dentals d, dh.
The sound d is often changed to / and r, even sometimes /, as in: dasa = rasa, lasa, lasa
‘ten’; ekadasa = ekarasa ‘eleven’; tedasa = terasa, telasa ‘thirteen’; pahcadasa = pannarasa,
pannarasa ‘fifteen’; etc.
The sequence dv sometimes becomes b as in: dvarasa = barasa ‘twelve’.
Only vowels and nasals can occur at the end of Pali words. Consequently, every nasal is
changed into niggahTta ( m ), and a preceding long vowel is shortened. Very often, niggahTta is
dropped altogether, especially in verse when a short syllable is required by the meter.
Before a word beginning with a consonant, the niggahTta can be changed into the nasal of
the corresponding class, as in hirin tarantam. Before a word beginning with a vowel, the
niggahTta may be changed into m, as in caram atandito.
The ending -as generally becomes -o no matter what consonant occurs at the beginning of
the next word, as in the nominative singular of a-stems, almost regularly. There are a few
apparent exceptions to this rule, and these are considered to be Magadhisms by most scholars.
Another Magadhism is the use of -e in the nominative singular of neuter nouns. Also, the
vocative singular in -e, as in bhante ‘Venerable Sir’ and bhikkhave ‘Monk’, are taken over
directly from Magadhi. In addition to these nominatives in -e, there are several adverbs that end
in -e, such as suve ‘tomorrow’, tadahe ‘on that day’ (also tadahu), atippage ‘too early’ (also
atippago).
The final -s is dropped, and the -a- alone remains in okamokata ‘from the water’, tava-
timsa ‘thirty-three’. The final -as is changed to -it through an intennediate -o in tadahu ‘on that
day’, mithu ‘mutually’.
4 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Other consonants at the end of a word are simply dropped, and the remaining vowel
generally is not changed. There are, however, some cases where it is lengthened, shortened, or a
nasal added. Lengthened: dhi ‘fie’, braha ‘mighty’, parisa ‘assembly’. Shortened: kayira for
kayira. Nasal added: sanam ‘always’, visum ‘separately’, manam ‘nearly’.
Consonant clusters are normally assimilated. The assimilation is generally progressive,
so that the first consonant is assimilated to the second. Sometimes, the assimilation is avoided
by inserting a vowel. Examples: -kt- becomes -tt-, as in mutt a ‘released’; -kth- becomes -tth-, as
in satthi ‘thigh’; -gdh- becomes -ddh-, as in duddha ‘milk’; -gbh- becomes -bbh-, as in pabbhara
‘a cave’; -dg- becomes -gg-, as in khagga ‘a sword’; -dg- becomes -gg-, as in puggala ‘person,
individual’; -pt- becomes -tt-, as in vutta ‘shaven’; -bdh- becomes -ddh-, as in laddha ‘taken’;
etc.
The assimilation is generally retrogressive when a nasal is the second member of the
cluster, or it is avoided by the insertion of a vowel. Examples: -kn- becomes -kk- in sakkoti or
sakkunati ‘to be able’, kukkusa ‘grain’; -gn- becomes -gg- in aggi or aggini ‘fire’; -dm- becomes
-dd-, as in chadda ‘roof; etc. Examples of vowel insertion: paduma ‘lotus’; idhuma ‘fire-
wood’; supina (also soppa) ‘sleep’; papima ‘sinful’; etc.
Consonant clusters containing y generally assimilate the y to the other consonant. If,
however, the first consonant is a dental ( t , th, d, dh ), the whole group passes into the palatal
class. In many cases, the assimilation is avoided by the insertion of an i. Examples (gutturals):
ussukka ‘zeal’; (palatals) vuccati ‘said, spoke’; (cerebrals) kudda ‘a wall’; (dentals) ahacca
‘having told’, ekacca ‘a certain’; (labials) tappati ‘shone, brightened’; etc.
When an r stands before another consonant, it is always assimilated. Examples:
sakkhara ‘sugar’; vagga ‘class’; kanna ‘ear’; gabbha ‘comb’; dassana ‘sight’; etc. When an r
follows another consonant, it is also generally assimilated, but there are several examples where
the r is retained or a vowel is inserted.
After gutturals, palatals, and cerebrals, v is assimilated. Examples: pakka ‘ripe’; kathati
‘boils’; jalati ‘blazes’; kinna ‘yeast’. After dentals, v is also usually assimilated. Examples:
cattaro ‘four’; taco ‘bark, skin’. However, it remains unchanged in the suffixes -tvd and -tvana,
as in ititvija ‘the officiating priest’. Likewise in the pronoun of the second person tv am ‘you’,
which also occurs as tuvarh and turn. The cluster -tv- is changed to -cc- in caccara ‘court’.
Though dv is typically assimilated as well, it sometimes remains unchanged, as in dve ‘two’ and
dvara ‘door’. The cluster -nv- is changed to -mm-, as in dhammantari ‘moving in a curve’ (=
Sanskrit dhanvantari). After a sibiliant, -v- is generally assimilated, as in assa ‘horse’.
A sibilant preceding or following an explosive is assimilated by the same and generally
produces aspiration of the group. Examples: cakkhu ‘eye’; vaccha ‘a tree’; khudda ‘small’; etc.
The rules regarding clusters involving three or more consonants are, on the whole, the
same as those involving two consonants. When assimilation takes place, an explosive prevails
over the other consonants.
The preceding discussion represents but a small sampling of the modifications that have
taken place regarding consonants. For details, more advanced grammars should be consulted.
1.6. Sandhi
The Sanskrit word “ sandhi ” is used to describe the modification of grammatical forms
when they come together in a sentence. It may be translated as ‘junction’. The rules concerning
1 . Phonology 5
sandhi in Pali may be divided into rules of vowel sandhi and rules on mixed sandhi, involving a
vowel and a consonant. Consonantal sandhi does not occur in Pali. All of the following rules
deal exclusively with so-called “external sandhi”. Here, only the sandhi involving words will be
discussed — the sandhi of compounds will be discussed in the chapter on stem fonnation.
Word sandhi is not as strict in Pali as it is in Sanskrit; it only takes place in certain cases,
and the manuscripts vary greatly concerning its use. In prose, it is almost always confined to
indeclinables and pronouns, in juxtaposition or in connection with a verb or a noun, as, for
instance, in my ayam = me ayam; van muna - yad muna; tasseva = tassa eva. The particles that
are most often found in sandhi are ca, iti ( ti ), api (pi), and eva, as in: kathah ca = katham ca;
kihcid eva = kind eva; tathapi = tatha api', etc. The negative na, when followed by a vowel, is
generally contracted to n ’ as in: n ’atthi; n ’eva; etc.
The other cases of word sandhi in prose, without any indeclinable or pronoun, are divided
into three categories: (1) a vocative beginning with a vowel is preceded by a word ending in a
vowel, as in gacch’avuso; pancah’Upali; etc.; (2) a verb is preceded or followed by a noun in
grammatical relation to it, as in asana vutthaya; upajjhayass ’arocesum; etc.; (3) two nouns are in
grammatical relation, as in dukkhass ’antarh; dvih ’akarehi.
In verse, word sandhi is much more frequent than is prose, under the influence of
metrical requirements. In later texts, it is not uncommon for whole syllables to be lost in sandhi
when it is required by the meter, as in chahgula = chadahgula, etc.
A. Vowel Sandhi:
The rules regarding vowel sandhi are as follows:
1. a + a or a becomes a when followed by a single consonant, as in nahosi = na + ahosi;
nasakkhi = na + asakkhi. When followed by a double consonant, an apostrophe is generally
put after the ending consonant of the first word to show that a vowel has been dropped, as in
n ’atthi = na + atthi; pan ’annam = panna + ahham. In a few cases, a is also found before a
double consonant, as in nassa = na + ass a. A short a is also found before a single consonant
in a few instances, such as in c ’aham = ca + aham; n ’ahosi = na + ahosi.
2. a or a + /' or T becomes e, as in neresi = na + iresi. An exception is iti ‘thus’, which always
becomes ati when preceded by a, as in Tissati = Tissa + iti. However, i is elided by a
preceding a in vena ’me = vena + ime; pana ’me = pana + ime. Finally, a + i sometimes
becomes T, as in seyyathldam = seyyatha + idam.
3. a or a + u or u becomes o, as in nopeti = na + upeti; pakkhanditodadhim = pakkhandita +
udadhim. In rare cases, u occurs instead, as in cubhayam = ca + ubhayam.
4. a is frequently lost when followed by i or it, as in passath ’imam = passatha + imam; yass ’
indriyani = yassa + indriyani.
5. a is generally lost before e and o, as in ganhath ’etarii = ganhatha + eta hr, iv’otatam = iva +
otatarn.
6. i, u, or e are sometimes lost after a, as in disva’panissayam = disva + upanissayam; sutva’va
= sutva + eva. In general, a is lost before or a long vowel or before a short vowel followed
by a double consonant, as in tath ’eva = tatha + eva; tay ’ajja = taya + ajja; in rare cases, a is
also lost before a short vowel followed by a single consonant, as in muhcitv 'aham = muhcitva
+ aham.
6 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
7. i is generally lost before a following vowel, whether short or long, as in gaccham ’a ham =
gacchami + ahath ; idan ’ime = idani + ime ; dasah ’upagata = dasahi + upagata; etc. Some-
times, i remains, and the following vowel is lost, as in phalanti ’saniyo = phalanti + asaniyo;
idani ’ssa = idani + assa. i + a occasionally becomes a, as in kincapi = kind + api ; pa hath =
pi + a hath.
8. i is seldom lost. There are, however, a few cases of loss, such as: tunh ’assa = tunhl + assa;
dass ahath = dasi + ahath.
9. i + i becomes f, as in palujjTti = palujji + iti. i preceded by t (or //) and followed by another
vowel may become y, as in jivanty el aka = jivanti + elaka; gutty atha = gutti + atha. In
general, however, the cluster ty is changed to cc, especially when the first word is iti, as in
iccevath < ity evath = iti + evath. api followed by a vowel may become app, as in app eva =
api + eva.
10. u is lost before a vowel, as in samet’dyasmd = sametu + ayastna; tas’eva = tasa + eva. In
rare cases, a following vowel is lost, as in nu ’ttha = nu + attha; kinnu ’ma = kinnu + itnd. u +
i sometimes becomes u, as in sadhiiti = sadhu + iti. Before a or e, u can be changed to v, as
in vatthv ettha = vatthu + ettha; sesesv ayath = sesesu + ayath.
11. e may be lost before a long vowel or before a short vowel following a consonant cluster, as in
m ’asi = me + asi; sac ’assa = sace + assa. Sometimes, a following vowel is lost, as in te ’me
= te + ime; sace’jja = sace + ajja. Occasionally, e + a becomes a, as in sacayath = sace +
ayath. e can also be turned into v and a following a lengthened when a single consonant
follows, as in tyahatii = te + ahath; mydyath + me + ayath; tyassa = te + assa — an exception
is ty ajja = te + ajja.
12. o is lost before a long or short vowel followed by a double consonant, as in kut ’ettha = kuto +
ettha; tay’assu = tayo + assu; tat’uddharh = tato + uddhath. A following vowel is sometimes
lost, as in so ’hath = so + ahath; cattaro ’me = cattaro + ime, etc. o + a becomes a, as in
dukkhayath = dukkho + ayath. o can also be turned into v and a following a lengthened when
a single consonant follows, as in yvahath = yo + ahath; svassu = so + assu; khvassa = kho +
assa — exceptions include khvassa (with short a) = kho + assa; yveva =yo + eva.
13. y and v are often inserted when two vowels come together to avoid a hiatus, y is inserted
between a word ending in a or a when followed by idath or any of the oblique cases of this
pronoun which begin with i, as in na yidath = na + idath; tnayime = ma + ime; yatha yidath =
yatha + idath (with shortening of the final a). The same process takes place with eva and iva,
the latter of which, however, is changed to viva by metathesis. When a or a is followed by a
or u, v may be inserted, as in bhanta vudikkhati = bhanta + udikkhati.
14. Sometimes, an m is inserted between two vowels, as in pariganiya-m-asesath = pariganiya +
asesath; idha-m-ahu = idha + ahu. On the other hand, an r is inserted if the following word
is iva, as in aragge-r-iva = aragge + iva; sasapo-r-iva = sasapo + iva; sikhd-r-iva = sikha +
iva. A preceding final a is shortened before this r myatha-r-iva = yatha + eva; tatha-r-iva =
tatha + eva.
15. In a great many cases, a lost consonant is restored in order to avoid a hiatus, as in yastnad
apeti; etc.
1 . Phonology 7
B. Mixed Sandhi:
Original double consonants simplified through assimilation at the beginning of a word
can once again be doubled after a word ending in a vowel, as in yatra tthitam = yatra + thitam
(Sanskrit yathra sthitam ). This is often done in verse when a long syllable is required.
In a few cases, a lost final consonant is restored before another consonant, as in yavan
c ’idam = yava + ca + idam ; etc.
Sometimes, niggahTta (m) replaces another consonant, and, when standing before a
vowel, the original consonant can be restored, as in tad for tarn, yad for yam, sakid for sakim, etc.
In verse, when a short syllable is required by the meter, niggahTta (hi) can be lost before a
consonant, as in no ce muhceyya ’candimam = no ce muhceyyam + candimam, or the whole
syllable may be dropped, as in piyan ’adassanam for piyanam ; papan ’akaranam for papanam ;
etc. When the niggahTta is dropped, the remaining a can be contracted with a following a,
becoming a, as in labheyyaham = labheyyam + aham ; idaham = idam + aham.
In late texts only, a vowel following niggahTta can be lost, as in cTrassam’dhuna for
adhuna.
1.7. Accent
No doubt, Pali had a distinctive system of accentuation, but this is no longer known.
Consequently, the recitation of the texts, and even the pronunciation of individual letters, can
differ considerably from region to region.
In reading or reciting the texts, it is now customary to emphasize all long syllables. ■
Declension
2.1. Introduction
In Pali, as in Sanskrit, a distinction is made between stems ending in vowels and stems
ending in consonants. The whole declension of nouns and adjectives is arranged according to
this division. It must, however, be remarked that the vowel stems have expanded at the expense
of the consonantal stems and that, therefore, only fragments of the consonantal declension
remain. Root-nouns, especially, which are frequent in Sanskrit, have almost entirely disappeared
from Pali and have been replaced by dissyllabic stems ending in a vowel. A careful investigation
of the old texts has yielded only the following examples of root-nouns: taco (pi.) ‘skin’; pada
(instr.) ‘foot’; vaca (instr.) ‘speech’; pamudi (loc.) ‘joy’; and parisati(m) (loc.) ‘assembly’.
There are two ways in which the consonantal stems have been turned into vowel stems:
(1) the final consonant has been dropped and (2) the stem has been augmented by the addition of
an -a, and the word is now inflected as an o-stem, masculine, feminine, or neuter, in accordance
with the gender of the original noun.
There are only a very few vestiges of the dual in Pali. Examples include: to idh ’agato
‘these two having come’; ubho ‘both’; matapitu ‘father and mother’. In general, the plural has
replaced the dual, even in such cases as jayampati and tudampati ‘man and wife’, where the
meaning clearly points to duality.
Pali has three genders: (1) masculine, (2) feminine, and (3) neuter. Pali does not follow
the natural division of male and female in assigning gender to nouns, but, rather, has so-called
“grammatical gender”. Originally, Pali had three numbers: (1) singular, (2) dual, and (3) plural.
However, as pointed out above, there are only a very few remnants of the dual. Thus, for all
practical purposes, Pali has only two numbers: (1) singular and (2) plural.
There are eight cases in Pali:
1. Nominative: subject;
2. Vocative: used in addressing persons;
3. Accusative: direct object;
4. Genitive: indicates possession;
5. Dative: indirect object; indicates the object or person to or for whom something is given
or done;
6. Instrumental: indicates the object or person with or by whom something is perfonned;
7. Ablative: generally indicates separation, expressed by ‘from’;
8. Locative: indicates place (‘in, on, at, upon, etc.’).
10 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2.2. Vowel Stems
There are three declensions for nouns ending in vowels:
1 . First declension: nouns ending in -a or -a;
2. Second declension: nouns ending in -i or -T;
3. Third declension: nouns ending in -u or -u.
2.2.1. Case Endings — First Declension
The following are the case endings, which, joined to their bases, make up the forms of the
first declension:
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
-0
-a
-aril
Vocative
-a
-a
-a
-a
-a
-e
Accusative
-am
-aril
-aril
Genitive
-assa
-aya
-assa
Dative
-assa
-aya
-assa
-aya
-aya
Instrumental
-ena
-aya
-ena
Ablative
-a
-aya
-a
-asma
-asma
-amha
-amha
-ato
-ato
Locative
-e
-aya
-e
-asmim
-ayam
-asmim
-amhi
-amhi
PLURAL
Nominative
-a
-a
-a
-ayo
-ani
Vocative
-a
-a
-a
-ayo
-ani
Accusative
-e
-a
-e
-ayo
-ani
Genitive
-anam
-anam
-anam
Dative
-anam
-anam
-anam
Instrumental
-ehi
-ahi
-ehi
-ebhi
-abhi
-ebhi
2. Declension 1 1
Ablative
-ehi
-ahi
-ehi
-ebhi
-abhi
-ebhi
Locative
-esu
-asu
-esu
Notes:
1 . The case ending -bhi is mostly used in poetry.
2. A very old masculine plural nominative ending -ase also occurs.
2.2.2. Masculines and Neuters in -a
dhamma (m.) ‘teaching, doctrine’
Singular Plural
Nom.
dhammo
dhamma, dhammase
Voc.
dhamma, dhamma
dhamma
Ace.
dhammam
dhamme
Gen.
dhammassa
dhammanam
Dat.
dhammassa ( dhammaya )
dhammanam
Instr.
dhammena
dhammebhi, dhammehi
Abl.
dhamma, dhammasma,
dhammamha
dhammebhi, dhammehi
Loc.
dhamme, dhammasmim,
dhammamhi
dhammesu
rupa (n.) ‘form’
Singular
Plural
Nom.-Voc.
rupath
rupdni, rupa
Ace.
rupam
rupani, riipe
Gen.
rupassa
rupanam
Dat.
rupassa (riipdya)
riipanam
Instr.
rupena
rupebhi, r up ehi
Abl.
rupa, rupasma, rupamha
rupebhi, r up ehi
Loc.
riipe, rupasmim, rupamhi
ritpesu
rajja (n.) ‘kingship, royalty; kingdom, empire’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
rajjam
rajjani, rajja
Voc.
rajja
rajjani, rajja
Ace.
rajjam
rajjani, rajje
Gen.
rajjassa
rajjanam
12 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Dat.
rajjassa ( rajjaya )
rajjanam
Instr.
rajjena
rajjebhi, rajjehi
Abl.
rajja, rajjasma, rajjamha
rajjebhi, rajjehi
Loc.
rajje, rajjasmim, rupamhi
rajjesu
Notes:
1 . The form given in the tables as “dative” is, properly speaking, a “genitive”, which has taken
up the functions of dative in Pali. The old dative in -aya, which is shown in parentheses in
the above tables, is only used to denote the intention, and is almost synonymous with an
infinitive; there are only a few instances in which the dative has a terminative meaning, as in
Dhammapada, v. 174, saggaya gacchati ‘goes to (finds one’s way to) the world of the gods’
and Dhammapada, v. 311, nirayaya upakaddhati ‘can send one on the downward course’.
2. The dative atthava is frequently used in the meaning ‘for the good of, for the sake of, as in
Buddhassa atthaya jivitam pariccajami ‘I will lay down my life for the sake of the Buddha’.
There is also an abbreviated dative form attha used in the same sense, as in bhojanattha ‘for
the sake of food’. Other examples of this abbreviated dative include esana = esanaya ‘in
search of; anapuccha = anapucchaya ‘without asking leave’; labha in such sentences as
labha vata no ‘this is for our advantage’; etc.
3. The ablative represents the instrumental in java ‘speedily’ and ahimsa ‘without harm, harm-
lessness’.
4. The ending -sa is often used to indicate an instrumental, as in vahasa ‘on account of; talasa
‘by the sole of the foot’; rasasa ‘by taste’; balasa ‘by force’.
5. The ablative endings -asma and -amhd are taken from the pronominal inflection.
6. There are two other endings for the ablative, -to and -so, which are found mostly in later
texts, though a few examples also occur in the Jataka and Dhammapada. Examples with -to:
gananato ‘by number’; capato ‘from the bow’; devato ‘from a celestial being’; mettato ‘from
friendship’; orato par am gacchati, parato or am agacchati ‘goes from this end of the field to
the further end and back again from the far end to this’. Examples with -so: bhagaso ‘by
portion’; parivattaso ‘by turns’; tini yojanaso ‘three yojanas wide’ (a yojana is a measure of
length equivalent to the distance that can be traveled with one yoke [of oxen], that is, a
distance of about seven miles).
7. In the locative, the forms in -e and in -smith or -mhi occur with almost equal frequency, even
in the earlier texts.
8. Besides the instrumental plural endings -ebhi and -ehi given in the above tables, there is also
an instrumental ending -e, which is found in older texts.
9. In the plural of the neuter, in addition to the regular ending -ani for the nominative and
accusative, the endings -a for the nominative and -e for the accusative also occur, both of
which have been taken from the masculine declension. Thus: satte dukkha pamocayi ‘he
released the beings from suffering’; pane vihimsati = panani himsati ‘he hurts living
creatures’.
2. Declension 13
2.2.3. Feminines in -a
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Notes:
kanna (f.) ‘a young (unmarried) woman, maiden, girl’
Singular
kanna
kahhe
kannam
kannaya
kannaya
kannaya
kannaya,
kahhayam, kannaya
Plural
kanna, kanndyo
kanna, kanndyo
kanna, kanndyo
kannanam
kannanam
kannabhi, kannahi
kannabhi, kannahi
kahhasu
amma (f.) ‘mother’
Singular
amma
amma, amma, amme
ammam
ammaya
ammaya
ammaya
ammaya,
ammdyam, ammaya
Plural
amma, ammayo
amma, ammayo
amma, ammayo
ammanam
ammanam
ammabhi, ammahi
ammabhi, ammahi
ammasu
1. The ending -a is used to denote the vocative in: amma, anna, amba, tata, all meaning
‘mother’. Besides amma, a vocative form amma (with short -a) is also found, especially in
the Dhammapada .
2. The locative kannaya is taken from the genitive.
2.2.4. Adjectives in -a
bala (adj.) ‘ignorant, foolish, lacking in reason; immature, childish’
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative halo bala balam
Vocative bala, bala bala, bala, bale bala
Accusative balam balam balam
14 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Genitive
balassa
balaya
balassa
Dative
balassa ( baldya )
balaya
balassa ( balaya )
Instrumental
balena
balaya
balena
Ablative
bald , balasma,
balamha, balato
balaya
bala, balasma,
balamha, balato
Locative
bale, balasmim,
balamhi
balaya, balayam
bale, balasmim,
balamhi
PLURAL
Nominative
bala
bala, balayo
bala, balani
Vocative
bala
bala, balayo
bala, balani
Accusative
bale
bala, balayo
bale, balani
Genitive
balanam
balanam
balanam
Dative
balanam
balanam
balanam
Instrumental
balehi, balebhi
balahi, balabhi
balehi, balebhi
Ablative
balehi, balebhi
balahi, balabhi
balehi, balebhi
Locative
balesu
balasu
balesu
Notes:
1. Adjectives ending in -a — a ~ am are entirely regular throughout the paradigm — all are
declined by adding the appropriate endings of the first declension.
2. The masculine and neuter stems end in -a, and the feminine ends in -a.
2.2.5. Case Endings — Second Declension
The following are the case endings, which, joined to their bases, make up the forms of the
second declension:
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
-i -l
-i -l
-i
-im
Vocative
-i -T
-i -I
-i
Accusative
-irrt -irrt
-im
-im
-inarh
Genitive
-issa
-iya
-issa
-ino
-ino
Dative
-issa
-iya
-issa
-ino
-ino
Instrumental
-ina
-iya
-ina
Ablative
-ina
-iya
-ina
-isma
-isma
2. Declension 15
Locative
-imha
-ismim
-iya
-imha
-ismim
-imhi
-iyam
-imhi
PLURAL
Nominative
-i -T
-l
-l
-iyo -ino
-iyo
-Tni
Vocative
-ayo
-i -I
-T
-T
-iyo -ino
-iyo
-Tni
Accusative
-ayo
-I -T
-T
-T
-iyo -ino
-iyo
-Tni
Genitive
-ayo
-mam
-Tnarh
-Tnarh
Dative
-mam
-Tnarh
-Tnarh
Instrumental
-Thi
-Thi
-Thi
-Tbhi
-Tbhi
-Tbhi
Ablative
-Thi
-Thi
-Thi
-Tbhi
-Tbhi
-Tbhi
Locative
-Tsu
-Tsu
-Tsu
Notes:
1 . Where two sets of endings are given, the first set belongs to stems in -i, the second to stems
in -I; where only one set is given, it belongs equally to stems in -i and to those in -f.
2. When feminine endings follow a dental stop, they may drop i before y, which can then either
remain as a consonant cluster or assimilate according to the regular rules (see Chapter 1).
2.2.6. Masculines and Netuers in -i
aggi (m.) ‘fire, flame, conflagration’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
aggi
aggayo, aggi
Voc.
aggi
aggavo, aggi
Ace.
aggim
aggi, aggayo
Gen.
aggino, aggissa
agginam
Dat.
aggino, aggissa
agginam
Instr.
aggina
aggibhi, aggi hi
Abl.
aggina, aggisma, aggimha
aggibhi, aggihi
Loc.
aggismim, aggimhi
aggisu
16 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
akkhi (n.) ‘eye’
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Notes:
Singular
Plural
akkhi, akkhirh
akkhi
akkhirh
akkhino, akkhissa
akkhino, akkhissa
akkhina
akkhina, akkhisma, akkhimha
akkhismim, akkhimhi
akkhini, akkhi
akkhini, akkhi
akkhini, akkhi
akkhinam
akkhinam
akkhibhi, akkhihi
akkhibhi, akkhihi
akkhisu
Singular
atthi (n.) ‘bone’
Plural
atthi, atthim.
atthi
atthim
atthino, atthissa
atthino, atthissa
atthina
atthina, atthisma, atthhimha
atthim, atthismim, atthimhi
atthini, atthi
atthini, atthi
atthini, atthi
atthinam
atthinam
atthibhi, atthihi
atthibhi, atthihi
atthisu
1 . Beside the regular nominative plural aggayo, the form aggino is also found.
2. In the oblique cases of the plural, a short i is occasionally found in poetry, as in hatihi ‘a
relation, a relative’; patisanthavaruttinam; etc.
3. Examples of the nominative-accusative singular neuter ending -m, formed after the analogy
of the a-stems, are not very frequent, but numerous enough to show that the form really
exists.
2.2.7. Masculines in -i
senam (m.) ‘a general’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
senam
senam, senanino
Voc.
senam
senani, senanino
Ace.
senanim
senani, senanino
Gen.
senanissa, senanino
senaninam
Dat.
senanissa, senanino
senaninam
2. Declension 17
Instr.
senanina
senanfbhi, senamhi
Abl.
sendnisma, senanimha
senambhi, senamhi
Loc.
senanismim, senanimhi
senamsu
Feminines in
-i
ratti (f.) ‘night’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
ratti
rattiyo, ratti
Voc.
ratti
rattiyo, ratti
Ace.
rattim
ratti, rattiyo
Gen.
rattiya
rattinam
Dat.
rattiya
rattinam
Instr.
rattiya
rattibhi, rattihi
Abl.
rattiya
rattibhi, rattihi
Loc.
rattiyam, rattiya
rattisu
jati (f.) ‘birth’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
jati
jati, jatiyo , jatyo , jacco
Voc.
jati
jati,jatiyo,jatyo,jacco
Ace.
jatim
jati , jatiyo, jatyo, jacco
Gen.
jatiya, jatya, jacca
jatinam
Dat.
jatiya, jatya, jacca
jdtinam
Instr.
jatiya, jatya, jacca
jatibhijatihi
Abl.
jatiya, jatya, jacca
jatibhi,jatihi
Loc.
jatiya, jatya, jacca,
jatisu
jatiyam , ja tyam , jaccam
Notes:
1. The nominative plural ratti is fonned exactly like the corresponding form of the masculine
stems, as in aggi cited above, most probably after the analogy of the a-stems.
2. In the genitive singular, the form kasino (f.) ‘agriculture’ also occurs, like aggino.
3. There is also a locative singular in -o, ratto; the locative singular rattiya is, properly
speaking, a genitive. Confusion between these two cases has taken place, as also in kannaya,
genitive and also locative singular of kahiia.
4. In place of the sequence -iy-, simple -y- is also found, and, when combined with a preceding
dental, this may yield -cc-, as in nikacca (with shortened final -a) ‘fraud, deceit, cheating’
from nikatya; jacca for jatiya ‘birth’; sammucca for sammutiya ‘consent, permission’; ratya
for rattiya ‘night’; etc.
1 8 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2.2.9. Feminines in -F
The declension of stems ending in -T is similar to the stems ending in
nadi (f.) ‘river’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
nadi
nadi, nadiyo, nadvo, najjo
Voc.
nadi
nadi, nadiyo, nadvo, najjo
Ace.
nadim
nadi, nadiyo, najjo
Gen.
nadiya, nadya, najja
nadinam
Dat.
nadiya, nadya, najja
nadinam
Instr.
nadiya, nadya, najja
nadibhi, nadihi
Abl.
nadiya, nadya, najja
nadibhi, nadihi
Loc.
nadiya, nadya, najja,
nadiyam, nadyam, najjam
nadisu
Notes:
1. In the ablative singular, there is a contracted form pesi for pesiya ‘a lump, a mass of flesh’.
2. An ablative in -to also exists, as in sirito from sin ‘splendor, beauty’.
3. From dabbi ‘spoon’, there is the genitive davya.
4. There is also a rare enlarged form of the genitive plural in -iyanam, as in bhagimyanam
‘sister’; tevisatiyanam ‘twenty- three’; caturasltiyanam ‘eighty-four’.
5. In general, the declension of itthl or thi ‘woman’ is identical to that of nadi. However, in the
accusative singular, there is an additional form itthiyam; in the genitive singular, thiyam; and,
in the locative singular, itthiya.
2.2.10. Adjectives in -i and -F
hari (adj.) ‘green, tawny’
Masculine
SINGULAR
Nominative
hari
Vocative
hari
Accusative
harim
Genitive
harissa, harino
Dative
harissa, harino
Instrumental
harina
Ablative
harind, harisma.
harimha
Locative
harismim, harimhi
Feminine
Neuter
harim
hari
harim
hari
harinim
harim
hariniya
harissa, harino
hariniya
harissa, harino
hariniya
harind
hariniya
harind, harisma,
harimha
hariniya, hariniydm
harismim, harimhi
2. Declension 19
PLURAL
Nominative
hari, hariyo, harayo
harini, hariniyo
hari, harini
Vocative
hari, hariyo, harayo
harini, hariniyo
hari, harini
Accusative
hari, hariyo, harayo
harini, hariniyo
hari, harini
Genitive
harinam
harininam
harinam
Dative
harinam
harininam
harinam
Instrumental
harihi, haribhi
harinihi, harinibhi
harihi, haribhi
Ablative
harihi, haribhi
harinihi, harinibhi
harihi, haribhi
Locative
harisu
harinisu
harisu
vadi ( vadin ) (adj.) ‘speaking (of), asserting, talking’
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
vadi
vadini
vadi
Vocative
vadi
vadini
vadi
Accusative
vddirh, vadin am
vadinim
vadihi
Genitive
vadissa, vadino
vadiniya
vadissa, vadino
Dative
vadissa, vadino
vadiniya
vadissa, vadino
Instrumental
vadina
vadiniya
vadina
Ablative
vadina, vadisma,
vadiniya
vadina, vadisma,
vadimha
vadimha
Locative
vadini, vadismim,
vadiniya,
vadini, vadismim,
vadimhi
vadiniyam
vadimhi
PLURAL
Nominative
vadi, vadino
vadini, vadiniyo
vadi, vadini
Vocative
vadi
vadini
vadi
Accusative
vadi, vadino
vadini, vadiniyo
vadi, vadini
Genitive
vadinam
vadininam
vadinam
Dative
vadinam
vadininam
vadinam
Instrumental
vadihi, vadibhi
vadinihi, vadinibhi
vadihi, vadribhi
Ablative
vadihi, vadibhi
vadinihi, vadinibhi
vadihi, vadibhi
Locative
vadisu
vadinisu
vadisu
Notes:
1. Adjectives ending in -i have masculine and neuter stems in -i and are regularly declined by
adding the appropriate case endings of the second declension.
2. The feminine is formed from the masculine stem by adding -ni. The feminine is declined
with the case endings of the second declension.
20 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
3. Adjectives ending in -F really belong to the consonantal declension, having masculine and
neuter stems in -in-. The feminine is formed from the masculine by adding -F and is declined
with the case endings of the second declension.
2.2.11. Case Endings — Third Declension
The following are the case endings, which, joined to their bases, make up the forms of the
third declension:
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
-u -u
-u -u
-u
-um
Vocative
-u -u
-u -u
-u
Accusative
-urn
-urn
-um
Genitive
-ussa
-uya
-ussa
-uno
-uno
Dative
-ussa
-uya
-ussa
-uno
-uno
Instrumental
-una
-uya
-una
Ablative
-una
-uya
-una
-usma
-usma
-umha
-umha
Locative
-usmim
-uya
-usmim
-umhi
-uyam
-umhi
PLURAL
Nominative
-u -u
-u
-u
-avo -uvo
-uyo
-uni
Vocative
-u -u
-u
-u
-avo -uvo
-uyo
-uni
Accusative
-u -u
-u
-u
-avo -uvo
-uyo
-uni
Genitive
-unam
-unam
-unam
Dative
-unam
-unam
-unam
Instrumental
-uhi
-uhi
-uhi
-ubhi
-ubhi
-ubhi
Ablative
-uhi
-uhi
-uhi
-ubhi
-ubhi
-ubhi
Locative
-usu
-usu
-usu
2. Declension 21
2.2.12. Masculines and Neuters in -u and -u
bhikkhu (m.) ‘Mo nk ’
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Singular
bhikkhu
bhikkhu
bhikkhum
bhikkhuno, bhikkhussa
bhikkhuno, bhikkhussa
bhikkhuna
bh ikkh una, bh ikkh usma,
bhikkhumha
bhikkhusmim, bhikkhumhi
Plural
bhikkhavo, bhikkhu
bhikkhavo, bhikkhu
bhikkhu, bhikkhavo
bhikkhunam
bhikkhunam
bh ikkh ubhi, bh ikkh uh i
bhikkhubhi, bhikkhuhi
bhikkhusu
cakkhu (n.) ‘eye (as organ of sense)’
Singular
cakkhu, cakkhum
cakkhu
cakkhum
cakkhuno, cakkhussa
cakkhuno, cakkhussa
cakkhuna
cakkhuna, cakkhusma,
cakkhumha
cakkh usm im , cakkh um h i
Plural
cakkhuni, cakkhu
cakkhiini, cakkhu
cakkhuni, cakkhu
cakkhunam
cakkhunam
cakkhubhi, cakkhuhi
cakkhubhi, cakkhuhi
cakkhusu
pabhu (m.) ‘lord, master, ruler, owner’
Singular
pabhu
pabhii
pabhum
pabhuno, pabhhussa
pabhhuno, pabhussa
pabhuna
pabhuna, pabhusma,
pabhumha
pabhusmim, pabhumhi
Plural
pabhuvo, pabhu
pabhuvo, pabhu
pabhu, pabhuvo
pabhunam
pabhunam
pabhubhi, pabhuhi
pabhubhi, pabhuhi
pabhiisu
22 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Notes:
1. In the vocative singular, the ending -o is also found, as in Sutano ‘O Sutanu’.
2. A remnant of the old genitive singular ending -os is found in hetu (= hetos ) ‘cause’s,
reason’s, condition’s’.
3. The -u- found in the oblique cases of the plural is occasionally shortened to -u- in poetry, as
in jantuhi (instr.-abl. pi.), jantunam (dat.-gen. pi.) ‘creatures, living beings, persons’;
bhikkhusu (loc. pi.) ‘Monks’; etc.
4. Irregular forms of the nominative plural include jantuno, jantuyo ‘creatures, living beings,
persons’; mittaduno ‘those who injure or betray their friends’; hetuyo ‘causes, conditions’.
5. Masculine nouns ending in -u keep the long vowel in the nominative singular but shorten it in
the remaining cases, as in abhibhu (nom. sg.) ‘one who has power over another or others; a
lord or master’. The nominative plural is abhibhu or abhibhuvo; from sabbahhu ‘omni-
science’, the nominative plural is sabbahhu or sabbahhuno; from sahabhu ‘arising together
with’, the nominative plural is sahabhu, sahabhuvo, or sahabhuno.
6. The neuters in -u form the nominative-vocative-accusative plural either in -u or -uni, as in
(nom. pi.) madhu, madhuni ‘honey’. The nominative-accusative singular can take -hi, like
the corresponding forms of the /-stems.
2.2.13. Feminines in -u and -u
dhenu (f.) ‘a milch cow’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
dhenu
dhenu
dhenu, dhenuyo, dhenuvo
dhenu, dhenuyo, dhenuvo
dhenu, dhenuyo
dhenunam
dhenunam
dhenubhi, dhenuhi
dhenubhi, dhenuhi
dhenusu
dhenuhi
dhenuyd
dhenuyd
dhenuyd
dhenuyd
dhenuyam, dhenuya
vadhu (f.) ‘daughter-in-law’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
vadhu
vadhu
vadhu, vadhuyo
vadhu, vadhuyo
vadhu, vadhuyo
vadhunam
vadhunam
vadhubhi, vadhuhi
vadhubhi, vadhuhi
vadhusu
vadhuhi
vadhuya
vadhuya
vadhuya
vadhuya
vadhuyarii, vadhuya
2. Declension 23
Notes:
1. The locative singular of bhu ‘earth’ is bhuvi.
2. Though neuter rather than feminine, the genitive singular of massu ‘beard’ is massuya, in
agreement with the feminine genitive singular.
3. There is also an ablative singular ending -to, as in nathuto ‘from the nos e’;jambuto ‘from the
rose-apple tree’; etc.
4. From dhatu ‘element’, there is a locative singular dhatuya.
5. The feminines ending in -u follow the declension of dhenu except that the nominative
singular may end in -u, as in vadhu ‘son’s wife, daughter-in-law’, though vadhu is also
found; sarabhu (the name of a river, that is, ‘the Sarabhu River’); camu ‘a kind of small
army’; padii ‘shoe’; sassu ‘mother-in-law’ (also sassu).
2.2.14. Adjectives in -u and -«
garu (adj.)
Masculine
SINGULAR
Nominative
garu
Vocative
garu
Accusative
garuth
Genitive
garussa, garuno
Dative
garussa, garuno
Instrumental
garuna
Ablative
garuna, garusma,
garumha
Locative
garusmim, garumhi
PLURAL
Nominative
garu, garavo
Vocative
garu, garavo
Accusative
garu, garavo
Genitive
garunam
Dative
garunam
Instrumental
garu hi, garubhi
Ablative
garuhi, garubhi
Locative
gariisu
heavy’
Feminine
Neuter
garuni
garu
garuni
garu
garunim
garuni
garuniya
garussa, garuno
garuniya
garussa, garuno
garuniya
garuna
garuniya
garuna, garusma,
garumha
garuniya,
garuniyam
garusmim, garumhi
garuni, garuniyo
garu, garuni
garuni, garuniyo
garu, garuni
garuni, garuniyo
garu, garuni
garuninam
garunam
garuninam
garumhi, garunibhi
garunihi, garunibhi
garunam
garuhi, garubhi
garuhi, garubhi
gar unis u
gariisu
24 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
abhibhu (adj.) ‘overcoming, conquering, vanquishing, having power over’
Masculine
SINGULAR
Nominative
abhibhii
Vocative
abhibhu
Accusative
abhibhum
Genitive
abhibhussa,
abhibhuno
Dative
abhibhussa,
abhibhuno
Instrumental
abhibhund
Ablative
abhibhund,
abhibhusma,
abhibhumha
Locative
abhibhusmim,
abhibhumhi
PLURAL
Nominative
abhibhu,
abhibhuvo
Vocative
abhibhu,
abhibhuvo
Accusative
abhibhu,
abhibhuvo
Genitive
abhibhunam
Dative
abhibhunam
Instrumental
abhibhuhi,
abhibhubhi
Ablative
abhibhuhi,
abhibhubhi
Locative
abhibhusu
Feminine
Neuter
abhibhum
abhibhu
abhibhum
abhibhu
abhibhunim
abhibhum
abhibhuniya
abhibhussa,
abhibhuno
abhibhuniya
abhibhussa,
abhibhuno
abhibhuniya
abhibhund
abhibhuniya
abhibhund,
abhibhusma,
abhibhumha
abhibhuniya.
abhibhusmim
abhibhuniyam
abhibhumhi
abhibhum.
abhibhu.
abhibhuniyo
abhibhuni
abhibhum,
abhibhu,
abhibhuniyo
abhibhuni
abhibhum,
abhibhu,
abhibhuniyo
abhibhuni
abhibhumnam
abhibhunam
abhibhumnam
abhibhunam
abhibhumhi,
abhibhuhi.
abhibhumbhi
abhibhubhi
abhibhumhi,
abhibhuhi.
abhibhumbhi
abhibhubhi
abhibhumsu
abhibhusu
Notes:
4. Adjectives ending in -u and -u have masculine and neuter stems in -u and -u and are regularly
declined by adding the appropriate case endings of the third declension.
5. The feminine is formed from the masculine stem by adding -ni, before which -it- is always
shortened. The feminine is declined with the case endings of the second declension.
2. Declension 25
2.2.15. Special Nouns
go (m.-f.) ‘cow, ox, bull; (pi.) cattle’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
go
gave, gavo
Voc.
go
gavo, gavo
Ace.
gam, gava tit, gavarh, gavum
gavo, gavo
Gen.
gavassa, gavassa
gavarh, gonarh, gunnam
Dat.
gavassa, gavassa
gavarh, gonarh, gunnam
Instr.
gavena, gavena
gobhi, gohi
Abl.
gava, gava, gavasma, gavasma,
gavamha, gavamha
gob hi, gohi
Loc.
gave, gave, gavasmim , gavasmim,
gavamhi, gavamhi
gosu, gavesu, gavesu
Notes:
1 . A variant stem, gava or gava, which is inflected like a masculine a-stem, appears throughout
the paradigm.
2. The nominative plural form gava is also found.
3. The nominative plural of the feminine stem gavT ‘cow’ is gaviyo.
4. All of the other old diphthong stems found in Sanskrit have disappeared in Pali: nau ‘boat,
ship’ has been replaced by nava, which follows the declension of the feminine d-stems; dyu
‘day’ has become diva , which follows the declension of the neuter a-stems, with the only
exception being the instrumental singular diva ‘by day’, which is used like an adverb in Pali.
sakhi (m.) ‘friend’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
sakha
sakhayo, sakhano, sakhino
Voc.
sakha, sakha, sakhi, sakhi, sakhe
sakhayo, sakhano, sakhino
Ace.
sakhanarii, sakhath, sakharam
sakhi, sakhayo, sakhano, sakhino
Gen.
sakhino, sakhissa
sakharanam, sakhmarh
Dat.
sakhino, sakhissa
sakharanam, sakhmarh
Instr.
sakhina
sakharebhi, sakharehi, sakhebhi,
sakhehi
Abl.
sakhina
sakharebhi, sakharehi, sakhebhi,
sakhehi
Loc.
sakhe
sakharesu, sakhesu
Notes:
1 . The ablative singular forms sakharasma and sakhito also occur.
26 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2.3. Consonant Stems
Except for adjectives in -ma and -va and stems in -mant and -vant, there are relatively
few words belonging to the consonantal declension. Moreover, most of these take the endings of
the vowel declensions in most of their forms, having special endings in only a few forms.
2.3.1. Stems Ending in Nasals
attan (m.) ‘self
Singular
Plural
Nom.
atta
attano
Voc.
atta, atta
attano
Ace.
attanam, attanam, attain
attano, attano
Gen.
attano
attanam, attanam
Dat.
attano
attanam, attanam
Instr.
attana [at ten a]
attanebhi, attanehi
Abl.
attana, attasma, attamha
attanebhi, attanehi
Loc.
attain, attasmim, attamhi
attanesu
Notes:
1. Stems ending in nasals are considered by the native grammarians to belong to the vowel-
stems.
2. A parallel form is atuman ‘self, with the same inflection.
brahman (n.) ‘Brahma; a
state like that of Brahma’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
brahma
brahmano
Voc.
brahme
brahmano
Ace.
brahmanam, brahmam
brahmano
Gen.
brahmuno, [ brahmassa \
brahmanam, brahmunam
Dat.
brahmuno, [ brahmassa ]
brahmanam, brahmunam
Instr.
brahmana, brahmuna
brahm ebhi, brahm eh i
Abl.
brahmana, brahmuna,
brahmasma
brahmebhi , brahmehi
Loc.
brahmani, brahmuni,
brahmasmim
brahmesu
Notes:
1. The vocative singular brahme ‘O Brahma’ is formed after the analogy of the d-stems.
2. Declension 27
raj an (m.) ‘king’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
raja
raj an o
Voc.
raja, raja
raj an o
Ace.
raj an am, raj am
raj an o
Gen.
ranno, rajino, [ rajassa ]
rannam, rajunam, rajanam
Dat.
ranno, rajino, [ rajassa ]
rannam, rajunam, rajanam
Instr.
ranna, rajena
rajubhi, rajuhi, rajebhi, rajehi
Abl.
ranna, rajasma
rajubhi, rajuhi, rajebhi, rajehi
Loc.
ramie, ranni, rdjini
rdju.su, rajesu
Notes:
1 . The oblique cases in the plural are derived from a stem rajn-.
2. There is also an instrumental singular muddhana from (m. nom. sg.) muddha ‘head’ and a
locative singular muddhani. This stem exhibits a mixture of -a- and -an- forms.
yuvan (m.) ‘a youth, a young man’
Notes:
Singular
Plural
Nom.
yuva
yuvano, yuvana
Voc.
yuva, yuva, yuvana, yuvana
yuvano, yuvana
Ace.
vuvanam, yuvam
vuvane, yuve
Gen.
yuvanassa, yuvassa
yuvananam, yuvanam
Dat.
yuvanassa, yuvassa
vuvananam, yuvanam
Instr.
yuvana, yuvanena, yuvena
yuvanebhi, yuvanehi, yuvebhi, yuvehi
Abl.
yuvana, yuvanasma, yuvanamha
yuvanebhi, yuvanehi, yuvebhi, yuvehi
Loc.
yuvane, yuve, yuvanasmim,
yuvanamhi, yuvasmim , yuvamhi
yuvanesu, yuvasu, yuvesu
>st of the cases are built from a stem yuvana.
san (m.) ‘dog’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
sa
sa, [sano]
Voc.
sa
sa
Ace.
sam, [sanam\
se
Gen.
sassa
sanarh
Dat.
say a, sassa
sanath
28 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Instr.
sena
sabhi, sahi
Abl.
sa, sasma, samha
sabhi, sahi
Loc.
se, sasmim, samhi
sasu
Notes:
1. The following nominative singular forms also occur: sano, svano, suvano, sono, and sit no.
2. Several nouns form only some cases according to the nasal declension, while the other cases
are formed according to another declension, as in kamma (n.) ‘action, deed’, which has the
following cases: (instrumental singular) kammuna, kammana, kammena; (genitive singular)
kammuno and kammassa; (ablative singular) kamma', (locative singular) kammani. Likewise,
thama (n.) ‘strength’ forms part of its cases according to the nasal declension, such as (instru-
mental singular) thamuna, but generally follows the ^-declension. Other examples include
addhan (m.) ‘road, way’ and bhasma(n) (n.) ‘ashes’.
puman (m.) ‘a male, a man’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
puma
pumano
Voc.
puma, pumam
puman o
Ace.
pumarh , pumanam
pumano
Gen.
pumuno, pumassa
pumanam
Dat.
pumuno, pumassa
pumanam
Instr.
pumana, pumuna, pumena
pumanebhi, pumanehi
Abl.
pumuna
pumanebhi, pumanehi
Loc.
pumane, pume, pumasmim,
pumamhi
pumd.su, pumesu
Notes:
1. There is also a nominative singular pumo.
dandin (m.) ‘a Brahmin; a type of ascetic’
Nom.
dandT
dandi, dandino
Voc.
dandi
dandi, dandino
Ace.
dandim, dandin am
dandi, dandino
Gen.
dandissa, dandino
dandinam
Dat.
dandissa, dandino
dandinam
Instr.
dandina
dandibhi, dandihi
Abl.
dandina, dandisma, dandimha
dandibhi, dandihi
Loc.
dandi
dandisu
2. Declension 29
Notes:
1. The accusative plural of brahmacarin ‘leading the holy life, chaste, pious’ is brahmacariye.
2. The nominative plural of dipin ‘panther, leopard, tiger’ is dipivo.
3. The oblique cases of the plural have a short i only in poetry.
4. A nominative singular with short i occurs in setthi ‘a treasurer, banker; a wealthy merchant’.
5. Examples of enlarged stems are nominative singular sdramatino from sarin ‘wandering’;
locative plural verinesu from verin ‘hostile, inimical’.
2.3.2. Stems in -ant
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Notes:
bhavant (m.) ‘Venerable Sir, Lord’
Plural
Singular
bhavarh
bho, bhonto
bhavantam, bhotam
bhavato, bhoto, bhavantassa
bhavato, bhoto, bhavantassa
bhavata, bhota, bhavantena
bhavata, bhota
bhavanto, bhonto, bhavanta
bhavanto, bhonto, bhante
bhavante, bhonte
1. The feminine singular forms are bhavantT, bhavati, bhoti; plural bhotiyo.
2.3.3. Adjectives in -at and -ant
gunavat, gunavant (adj.) ‘virtuous’
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
gunava,
gunavati.
gunavam.
gunavanto
gunavant T
gunavantam
Vocative
gunavam, gunava,
gunavati.
gunava, gunava.
gunava
gunavanti
gunavam
Accusative
gunavantam.
gunavatim.
gunavam,
gunavam
gunavantim
gunavantam
Genitive
gunavato.
gunavatiya,
gunavato,
gunavantassa
gunavantiya
gunavantassa
Dative
gunavato,
gunavatiya,
gunavato,
gunavantassa
gunavantiya
gunavantassa
Instrumental
gunavata,
gunavatiya,
gunavata,
30 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
gunavantena
gunavantiya
gunavantena
Ablative
gunavata.
gunavatiya.
gunavata,
gunavantasma,
gunavantamha
gunavantiya
gunavantama,
gunavantamha
Locative
gunavati,
gunavatiya.
gunavati,
gunavantasmim,
gunavatiyam,
gunavantasmim,
gunavantamhi
gunavantiya,
gunavantiyam
gunavantamhi
PLURAL
Nominative
gunavanta,
gunavati,
gunavanta,
gunavanto
gunavavatiyo,
gunavanti,
gunavantivo
gunavantani
Vocative
gunavanta,
gunavati,
gunavanta,
gunavanto
gunavavatiyo,
gunavanti,
gunavantivo
gunavantani
Accusative
gunavante
gunavati,
gunavavatiyo,
gunavanti,
gunavantivo
gunavanta,
gunavantani
Genitive
gunavatam,
gun avatin aril,
gunavatam,
gunavantanam
gunavantinam
gunavantanam
Dative
gunavatam,
gunavatinam,
gunavatam,
gunavantanam
gunavantinam
gunavantanam
Instrumental
gunavantebhi,
gunavatibhi.
gunavantebhi.
gunavantehi
gunavatihi,
gunavantibhi
gunavantihi
gunavantehi
Ablative
gunavantebhi,
gunavatibhi,
gunavantebhi,
gunavantehi
gunavatihi,
gunavantibhi
gunavantihi
gunavantehi
Locative
gunavantesu gunavatisu,
gunavantisu
mahat, mahant (adj.) ‘great, large’
gunavantesu
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
maha.
mahati,
maharii,
mahanto
mahanti
mahant aril
2. Declension 31
Vocative
maha, maha,
maham
Accusative
mahantam.
Genitive
mahato,
mahantassa
Dative
mahato,
mahantassa
Instrumental
mahata,
mahantena
Ablative
mahata,
mahantasma,
mahantamha
Locative
mahati,
mahante,
mahantasmim,
mahantamhi
PLURAL
Nominative
mahanta,
mahanto
Vocative
mahanta,
mahanto
Accusative
mahanta,
mahanto
Genitive
mahatam,
mahantanam
Dative
mahatam,
mahantanam
Instrumental
mahantebhi,
mahantehi
Ablative
mahantebhi,
mahantehi
Locative
mahantesu
mahati, mahanti
maha, maha,
maham
mahatim, mahantim
maham, mahantam
mahatiya.
mahato,
mahantiya
mahantassa
mahatiya.
mahato,
mahantiya
mahantassa
mahatiya.
mahata,
mahantiya
mahantena
mahatiya.
mahata,
mahantiya
mahantama,
mahantamha
mahatiya.
mahati,
mahatiyam.
mahante.
mahantiya,
mahantasmim,
mahantiyam
mahantamhi
mahati.
mahanta.
mahatiyo, mahanti.
mahantani
mahanti vo
mahati,
gunavanta,
mahatiyo, mahanti.
gunavantani
mahanti vo
mahati,
mahanta,
mahatiyo, mahanti.
mahantani
mahantiyo
mahatinam.
mahatam,
mahantinam
mahantanam
mahatinam.
mahatam,
mahantinam
mahantanam
mahatibhi,
mahantebhi.
mahatihi.
mahantehi
mahantibhi
mahantihi
mahatibhi,
mahantebhi.
mahatihi,
mahantehi
mahantibhi
mahantihi
mahatisu.
mahantesu
mahantisu
32 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Notes:
1 . Participles in -ant follow this declension except for the nominative singular, which appears as
-am or -anto, as in gaccham, gacchanto ‘going’.
2. A nominative from the weak fonn is found in jivato for jivanto ‘living’ and, in the
accusative, in vajatam ‘going, proceeding’.
3. From the root kar- ‘to act, to perform, to make, to do’, a participle nominative plural
masculine karonta ‘acting, doing’ is found, as well as nominative singular feminine karonti
and genitive singular masculine karoto.
4. The nominative singular forms of arahant ‘Arahat’ are araham and araha, the former being
the regular form. In the nominative plural, arahanto and araha are found.
5. The regular nominative singular maha ‘great, extensive, big, important, venerable’ occurs
separately and in compounds. There is a single instance of a nominative singular maham.
6. The following forms occur in the neuter nominative singular: braha ‘very great, lofty, high’;
madhuva ‘honeyed’; asahi ‘being’.
2.3.4. Stems in -r
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
pitar (m.) ‘father’
Singular
Plural
pita
pita, pita
pitaram, pitum
pitu, pituno, pitussa
pitu, pituno, pitussa
pitara, pituna
pitara, pitu
pitari
pi taro
pi taro
pi taro, pit are
pitaranam, pitanam, pitiinam,
pitunnam
pitaranam, pitanam, pitiinam,
pitunnam
pitarebhi, pitarehi, pitubhi, pituhi
pitarebhi, pitarehi, pitubhi, pituhi
pitaresu, pitusu
matar (f.) ‘mother’
Singular
Plural
mata
mata, mata
mataram
matu, matuya, matya
matu, matuya, matya
matara, matuya, matya
mataro
mataro
mataro, matare
matar anam, matanam, matunam,
matunnam
matar anam, matanam, matunam,
matunnam
matarebhi, matarehi, matubhi,
matuhi
2. Declension 33
Abl.
matara, matuya, matya
mdtarebhi, matarehi, matubhi,
matuhi
Loc.
matari, matuyam, matyam,
matuya, matya
mataresu, matusu
Notes:
1 . The ablative singular forms pitito and matito also occur.
2. The declension of dhTtar ‘daughter’ is, on the whole, the same as that of matar, except for
vocative singular dhlte and accusative plural dhTta. In composition, the following forms are
found: dhlti-, as in dhititthana, and dhitu-, as in dhTtuhetu.
satthar (m.) ‘teacher, instructor’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
sattha
sattharo
Voc.
sattha, sattha
satthd.ro
Ace.
satthar am, satthar am
sattharo, satthar e
Gen.
satthu, satthussa
satthanam, sattharanam
Dat.
satthu, satthussa
satthanam, sattharanam
Instr.
satthara, satthara, satthuna
sattharebhi, sattharehi
Abl.
satthara, satthara
sattharebhi, sattharehi
Loc.
satthari
sattharesu
Notes:
1. Here also, some stems have been converted to the a-declension, as in sallakatta ‘a physician,
a surgeon’, literally, ‘one who works on the poisoned arrow’; nahapita ‘a barber’; theta
‘firm, reliable, trustworthy, true’; etc.
2. In composition, the stem generally ends in -u, as in sotu = sotar ‘hearer’; bhattu = bhattar
‘husband’; etc.
3. A genitive plural ending -unam is found in sotiinam ‘of the hearers’.
4. An instrumental singular satthava ‘by the teacher’ also occurs.
2.3.5. Stems in -s
manas (n.) ‘the mind’
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Singular
mano, manarn
mano, manam
mano, manam
manaso, manassa
manaso, manassa
34 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Instr. manasa, manena
Abl. manasa, manasma, manamha
Loc. manasi, mane, manasmim, manamhi
Notes:
1 . The plural of manas is not in use. Other 5-stems form the plural after the ^/-declension.
2. Comparatives in -yo, -iyyo follow the declension of manas, as in seyyo ‘better’; etc.
ayus (n.) ‘life’
Singular
Plural
Nom.
ayu, ayum
ayuni, ayu
Voc.
ayu, ayum
ayuni, ayu
Acc.
ayu, ayum
ayuni, ayu
Gen.
ayussa, ayuno
dyunam, ayus am
Dat.
ayussa, ayuno
dyunam, ayus am
Instr.
ayusa, ayuna
ayubhi, ayuhi
Abl.
ayusa, ayuna
ayubhi, ayuhi
Loc.
ayusi, ayuni
ayusu
2.4. Comparison of Adjectives
In Pali, as in Sanskrit, adjectives agree in case, gender, and number with the nouns they
qualify. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison:
1 . Positive: expresses the simple quality;
2. Comparative: expresses a higher or lower degree of the quality;
3. Superlative: expresses the highest or lowest degree of the quality.
Adjectives ending in a vowel form their comparison as follows:
1. The comparative is formed from the positive by adding the suffixes -tarn or -iya. They are
regularly declined with the case endings of the first declension.
2. The superlative is formed from the positive by adding the suffixes -tama, -ittha, or -issaka.
They are regularly declined with the case endings of the first declension.
Thus, the comparative of papa ‘evil, bad, wicked, sinful’ can be either papatara or
papiyo ‘more evil’, while the superlative can be either papatama or papittha ‘most evil’.
Moreover, the first comparative may be combined with the second superlative, yielding
papitthatara. The second comparative may be augmented by the addition of the suffix -ika,
yielding papiyyaskia, as in tassa-papiyyasikd-kammam karoti ‘to carry our proceedings against
someone guilty of a certain legal offense’ and, with contraction, papissika.
2. Declension 35
Adjectives ending in -mant, -vant, and -vin drop these suffixes before the comparative
and superlative suffixes, as, for example, positive gunavant ‘possessed of good qualities,
virtuous’, comparative guniyo, superlative gunittha; positive medhavin ‘intelligent, wise’,
comparative medhiyo, superlative medhittha.
Some adjectives form their comparative and superlative from entirely different bases:
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
antika ‘near’
nediva
nedittha
bcilha ‘strong’
sadhiya
sadhittha
vuddha (also vuddha ) ‘old’
jeyya
jettha
appa ‘small’ i
yuvan ‘young’
kaniya
kanittha
pasattha (also pasattha) ‘excellent’
seyva
settha
2.5. Word Formation
In Pali, almost every declinable stem can be traced back to a primary element called a
“root”. A “root” may be defined as the base fonn of a word. It carries the basic meaning, and it
cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. A “stem”, on the other hand, may be defined
as an inflectional base.
Declinable stems are divided into two broad categories: (1) primary ( kita ) stems and (2)
secondary ( taddhita ) stems.
Primary stems are formed from the root by some modification — either by an internal
change in the root itself or by the addition of a suffix to the root; in some cases, both by internal
change and the addition of a suffix. Sometimes, a connecting vowel is inserted between the root
and the suffix. The connecting vowel is generally, though not always, The bare root itself
can also be used as a primary stem. Primary stems may be either simple or compounded (see
Chapter 7 for details).
A secondary stem is developed from a primary stem by the addition of a new suffix or by
the replacement of an existing suffix, with or without change in the root element. ■
3
Pronouns
3.1. First and Second Person Personal Pronouns
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
Notes:
First Person: ‘I, me; we, us’
Singular
Plural
aham
mam, mamam
mama, mamam, mayham, amham
mama, mamam, mayham, amham
maya
maya
mayi
vayath, may am, amhe
asme, amhe, amhakam
amhakam, amham
amhakam, amham
amhebhi, amhehi
amhebhi, amhehi
amhesu
Second Person: ‘you’
Singular
Plural
tvam, tuvarn
tv am, tuvarn, tarn, tavam
tava, tavam, tuyham, tumham
tava, tavam, tuyham, tumham
tvaya, taya
tv ay a, taya
tvayi, tayi
tumhe
tumhe, tumhakam
tumhakam, tumham
tumhakam , tumham
tumhebhi, tumhehi
tumhebhi, tumhehi
tumhesu
1. In addition to the above, the following enclitic forms are found: (first person) me and
(second person) te for the instrumental, dative, and genitive singular; (first person) no and
(second person) vo for the accusative, dative, and genitive plural.
2. The accusative plural fonns (first person) amhakam and (second person) tumhakam are
borrowed from the genitive plural.
3. The enclitic fonns no and vo may also be used for the nominative plural.
38 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
3.2. Demonstrative Pronouns
ta ‘this’
Masculine and Neuter Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
so, sa;
tam ( tad)
sa
Acc.
tam ;
tam ( tad)
tam
Gen.
tassa
tassa, t as say a, tissa, tissaya, taya
Dat.
tassa
tassa, t as say a, tissa, tissaya, taya
Instr.
tena
taya
Abl.
tasma, tarnha
taya
Loc.
tasmirh, tamhi
t ass am, tasarii, tissarh, tayarh
PLURAL
Nom.
te;
tani
ta, tayo
Acc.
te;
tani
ta, tayo
Gen.
tesam, tesanam
tasarii, tasanam
Dat.
tesam, tesanam
tasarii, tasanam
Instr.
tebhi, tehi
tabhi, tahi
Abl.
tebhi, tehi
tabhi, tahi
Loc.
tesu
tasu
Notes:
1. The stems na ‘this’, ena ‘this’, and eta ‘him, this one, the same’ are inflected like ta.
ima, ayam ‘this’
Masculine and Neuter Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
ayam;
idarh, imam
ayam
Acc.
imam;
idarh, imam
imam
Gen.
imassa, assa
irnissa, imissaya, imaya, assa, asaya
Dat.
imassa, assa
imissa, imissaya, imaya, assa, asaya
Instr.
imina, anena
imaya
Abl.
irnasma, imarnha, asma
imaya
Loc.
imasmim, irnamhi, asmirh
imissarh, imasarh, imayarh, assath
3. Pronouns 39
PLURAL
Nom.
ime;
imani
ima, imayo
Ace.
ime;
imani
ima, imayo
Gen.
imesam, imesdnam,
esam, esanam
imasam, imasanam
Dat.
imesam, imesdnam,
esam, esanam
imasam, imasanam
Instr.
imebhi, imehi, ebhi, ehi
imabhi, imahi
Abl.
imebhi, imehi, ebhi, ehi
imabhi, imahi
Loc.
imesu
amu, asu ‘that’
imasu
Masculine and Neuter
Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
asu;
adum
asu
Ace.
amum;
adurh
amum
Gen.
amussa
amussa, amuya
Dat.
amussa
amussa, amuya
Instr.
amuna
amuya
Abl.
amusma, amumha
amuya
Loc.
amusmim, amumhi
amussam, amuyam
PLURAL
Nom.
amu, amuyo
amu, amuni
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Abl.
Loc.
amu, amuyo
amusam , amusanam
amusam, amusanam
amubhi, amuhi
amubhi, amuhi
amusu
amu, amuni
Notes:
1 . New stems can be formed from the nominative asu and from the stem amu of this pronoun
by adding a suffix -ka. These stems are regularly declined with the case endings of the first
declension.
40 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
3.3. Relative Pronoun
ya ‘who, which, what’
Masculine and Neuter Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
yo;
yam (yad)
ya
Acc.
yam ;
yarn (yad)
yarn
Gen.
yassa
yassa, yaya
Dat.
yassa
yassa, yaya
Instr.
vena
yaya
Abl.
yarnha
yaya
Loc.
yasmirh, yamhi
y ass am, yayarii
PLURAL
Nom.
ye, yani
ya, yayo
Acc.
ye, yani
yd, yayo
Gen.
yesath
yasarii
Dat.
yesarh
yasaiii
Instr.
yebhi, yehi
yabhi, yahi
Abl.
yebhi, yehi
yabhi, yahi
Loc.
yesu
yasu
3.4. Interrogative Pronouns
ka ‘who?, which?, what?’
Masculine and Neuter Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
ko;
kith
ka, kayo
Acc.
kam;
kith
karri
Gen.
kassa, kiss a
kaya, kassa
Dat.
kassa, kiss a
kaya, kassa
Instr.
kena
kaya
Abl.
kastna, katnha
kaya
Loc.
kasmith, kamhi, kisrnim,
kimhi
kaya, kassa, kayatii, kassarh
3. Pronouns 41
PLURAL
Nom.
ke\
kani
ka, kayo
Ace.
kc,
kani
ka, kayo
Gen.
kesath, kesanam
kasam. kasanam
Dat.
kesath, kesanam
kasam. kasanam
Instr.
kebhi, kehi
kabhi, kahi
Abl.
kebhi, kehi
kabhi, kahi
Loc.
kesu
kasu
Notes:
1. The inflection of ka is like that of ya with the following exceptions: the nominative singular
neuter is him; the dative and genitive masculine and neuter singular are kassa, kissa; and the
locative is kasmim, kamhi, kismirh, kimhi.
3.5. Indefinite Pronouns
koci ‘whoever; anyone, anybody’
Masculine and Neuter
Feminine
SINGULAR
Nom.
koci',
kihci
kaci
Ace.
kahci;
kind
kahci
Gen.
kassaci, kissaci
kayaci, kassaci
Dat.
kassaci, kissaci
kayaci, kassaci
Instr.
kenaci
kayaci
Abl.
kasmaci, kamhaci
kayaci
Loc.
kasmihci, kamhici,
kismihci, kimhici
kassahci, kayaci
PLURAL
Nom.
keci;
kanici
kaci, kayoci
Ace.
keci;
kanici
kaci, kayoci
Gen.
kesahci
kasahci
Dat.
kesahci
kasahci
Instr.
kebhici, kehici
kabhici, kahici
Abl.
kebhici, kehici
kabhici, kahici
Loc.
kesuci
kasuci
42 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Notes:
1 . The indefinite pronouns are fonned by adding the suffixes -ci, -api, and -cana to the declined
forms of the interrogative pronoun ka ‘who?, which?, what?’, in accordance with the rules of
assimilation and sandhi.
2. The numeral eka ‘one’ also follows the pronominal declension (see Chapter 4).
3.6. Other Pronouns
atta ‘self, own, oneself is used much like a reflexive pronoun, as is atuma ‘self, own,
oneself, which is merely another fonn of atta, and is very rarely used, tuma, with the same
meaning, is even less frequently used. In composition, the bases are: atto, atuma, tuma.
Properly speaking, atta, atuma, tuma are nouns used pronominally.
say am ‘oneself, by oneself and samam ‘self, both indeclinable, are often used as
reflexive emphatic pronouns.
A few other nouns are also used pronominally. The following are the most common:
1. bhavarh ‘lord, sir’. This is a very respectful term of address, used in place of the second
person personal pronoun. The verb is put in the third person.
2. ayya ‘lord, master’. This is used chiefly in addressing Buddhist monks and is often used with
bhante. The feminine form ayya ‘lady, mistress’ is used in addressing Buddhist nuns.
3. avuso ‘friend, brother’. This is also sometimes used as a pronoun. It is used mostly by
senior monks when addressing junior monks, avuso is indeclinable.
3.7. Pronominals
There are also a number of words that, although not pronouns strictly speaking, still
follow the pronominal inflection. Among these are possessives like madly a, mamaka ‘mine’ and
amhadlya ‘our’, but, of these, only nominatives are found in the texts. Next, there are the
adjectives composed with -disa, as in madisa Tike me’; etadisa or etarisa or idisa Tike this’;
kldisa Tike what?’; cirassam ‘at last’; etc.
The pronominal adjectives katara ‘which one?’ and katama ‘which?, which one?’ are
formed by adding the suffixes -tara and -tuma to the interrogative stems, but these do not differ
much in meaning from the regular pronoun.
These words are called “pronominals”. Pronominals are adjectives that follow the
pronominal declension. Most of them are derived from pronouns by the addition of the
following suffixes:
-Tya, -aka: expression possession;
-disa, -di (-di), - risa : expressing likeness or similarity;
-ti: expressing the idea ‘many’;
-ka, -tara, -tama: these suffixes do not change the meaning of the pronoun.
The possessive pronouns include the following:
3. Pronouns 43
Base
Possessive Pronoun
mad-
madiya ‘mine; my; my own’
mam-
mamaka, mamaka ‘mine; my; my own’
amhad-
amhadiya ‘ours; our own’
tad-
tadiya (sg.) ‘yours; your; your own’
tava-
tavaka (sg.) ‘yours; your; your own’
Examples of the suffixes
-disa, -di (-di), -visa expressing likeness or similarity ;
Base
Adjective
ma-
mddi, madisa, marisa Tike me; such as I’
ta-
tadi, tadisa, tadisaka Tike him; like that; such as
amha-
amhadisa Tike us’
tumha-
tumhadisa Tike you’
i-
idi, idisa, Trisa, Tdisaka Tike this; such as this’
e-
edi, edisa, erisa Tike this; such as this’
eta-
etadisa, etarisa ‘such as this or that; such’
ki-
kidi, kidisa, kirisa Tike what?; of what kind?’
The suffix -dikkha has the same meaning as -clisa, -di (- di ), -visa, hence:
tadikkha = tadisa
kJdikkha = kidisa
edikkha = edisa
idikkha = idisa
Some adjectives take a rather irregular form, such as the following:
kittaka, kivataka ‘how much?, how many?, how great?’
ettaka, etavaka ‘so great, so much, so many’
tattaka, tavataka ‘as many, as great, as big or large’
yattaka,yavataka ‘however much; however big or large’
There is also a form etta = ettaka, which has dropped the final -ka. The adverb etto
‘thence, hence’ is probably contracted from etato (ablative of etam). In ettavata = etavat, the
consonant of the base is doubled.
Other adjectives inflected according to the pronominal inflection include sabba and vissa
‘all, every, entire’; anna ‘other’, with its derivatives annatara, anhatama ; itara ‘other’; uttara,
uttama ‘higher’; adhara ‘inferior’; apara, para ‘another’; dakkhina ‘right’; pubba ‘former’;
anuka and asuka ‘such a one, this or that’.
Prononimals whose stems end in -a follow the pronominal declension (see sabba below).
However those ending in -i follow the second declension, while those ending in -ti are only
found in the plural and have only the fonn in -ti in the nominative, accusative, and vocative.
44 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
sabba (adj.) ‘all, whole, entire’
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
sabbo
sabba
sabbarh
Accusative
sabbarh
sabbarh
sabbarh
Genitive
sabbassa
s abb ay a, sabbassa
sabbassa
Dative
sabbassa
sabbaya, sabbassa
sabbassa
Instrumental
sabbena
sabbaya
sabbena
Ablative
sabbasma,
sabbamha
sabbaya
sabbasma,
sabbamha
Locative
sabbasmim,
sabbamhi
sabbassam,
sabbayam
sabbasmim,
sabbamhi
PLURAL
Nominative
sabbe
sabba, sabbayo
sabbani
Accusative
sabbe
sabba, sabbayo
sabbani
Genitive
sabbesam
sabbasam
sabbesam
Dative
sabbesam
sabbasam
sabbesam
Instrumental
sabbehi, sabbebhi
sabbahi, sabbabhi
sabbehi, sabbebhi
Ablative
sabbehi, sabbebhi
sabbahi, sabbabhi
sabbehi, sabbebhi
Locative
sabbesu
sabbasu
sabbesu
3.8. Adverbial Derivatives
Adverbial derivatives from pronominal bases constitute a large and useful class of words.
The principle suffixes used are: -da', -dani; -tra; - tha ; -thd; -dha', -tharh; -ti; -to', -va (-vat); -rahi;
-ham; -ha; -him; -va; -varh; -di.
The suffixes -da; -dani; -rahi express time:
Base
Adverb
ka-
karahi, kada ‘when’
i-
iddni ‘now; at this time’
ta-
tarahi, tada, tadani ‘then; at that time’
eta-
etarahi ‘now’
The suffixes -to; -tra; -tha; -dha; -ha; -ham; -him form adverbs of place. Before a short
vowel, the -t- of -tha is doubled:
3. Pronouns 45
Base
Adverb
ka-, ku-
kattha, kutra, kuttha, kahath, kuhath, kuhim
whither?, wherein?, in what place?’
ya-
yatra, yattha ‘where, wherein, whither’
ya-
yato ‘from what’
e-
ettha ‘here, herein’
a-
atra, attha ‘here’
ta-
tattha, tatra, taham, tahim ‘there, thither’
ta-
tato ‘thence, from that place’
i-
ito ‘hence, from this place’
eta-
etto ‘thence, hence’
etato ‘from here; therefore’
‘where?,
The suffixes - tha ; -tham; -ti; -va; -vam form adverbs of manner:
Base
Adverb
ta-
tatha ‘thus, so, like that’
ka-
katham ‘how?’
i-
ittham ‘thus, in this manner
i-
iva Tike this, as, as it were’
i-
iti ‘thus, in this manner’
e-
eva, evam ‘so, just so’
ya-
yatha ‘as, like’
The suffix -va (-vat) forms adverbs of time and cause. The final -t of -vat is dropped in
accordance with the regular phonetic laws of Pali, which does not allow consonants to remain at
the end of a word, except -m. Before a vowel, however, the final -t is retained as -d, as in, for
instance: tava ‘so long, still, yet’; but tavad eva ‘just now, instantly, at once’. The final -a of the
pronominal base is lengthened before -va (-vat).
Base
Adverb
ya-
yava ‘until, as long as, in order that’
ta-
tava ‘so long, still, yet’
The ablative singular suffix -ta can also be added to these forms:
Adverb
yavata ‘as far as, because’
tavata ‘so far, to that extent, on that account’
The suffix -ta can be added to other pronominal bases as well:
46 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Base Adverb
eta- ettavata ‘to that extent, so far, thus’
ki- kittavata ‘to what extent?, how far?’
The suffix -di, expressing condition, is found only in yadi ‘if.
The suffix -ti is found in the following:
Base
Adverb
ka-
kati ‘how many?
ya-
yati ‘as many’
ta-
tati ‘so many’ ■
4
Numerals
4.1. Cardinals
1 . eka
2 . dvi
3 . ti
4 . catu
5 . patica
6 . cha
7 . satta
8 . attha
9 . nava
10 . das a
1 1 . ekadasa, ekarasa
12 . dvadasa, bar as a
13 . tedasa, terasa, telasa
14 . catuddasa, coddasa, cuddasa
1 5 . panca das a , pannarasa , pannarasa
16 . solasa, sorasa
17 . sattadasa, sattarasa
18 . atthadasa, atthdrasa
19 . ekunavisam, ekunavisati
20 . vlsarh, visati
2 1 . ekavfsam, ekavisati
22 . dvavisati
23 . tevTsati
24 . catuvisati
25 . pancavlsati
26 . chabbisati
27 . sattabTsati, sattavisati
28 . atthavisati
29 . ekunatimsati, ekunatimsam
30 . tirhsam, tints ati
40 . cattansam, cattalTsam
50 . panhasam, pannasa
48 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
60. satthi, satthim
70. sattati, sattari
80. asiti
90. navuti
100. satarh
200. dvasatam, basatahi
1.000. sahas sam
10.000. dasasahassahi
100.000. satasahassahi
1.000. 000. koti
Notes:
1. The forms vlsarh, timsarh, etc. indicate that the ending -ti can be replaced by niggahita (m).
The niggahita is also occasionally found where it should not be, as in dvadasam ‘12’; satthim
‘60’. When the -m is dropped, the preceding a may be lengthened.
2. The intennediate numerals between ‘20’ and ‘30’, etc., are regular, with the only exception
that dva, ba (or dva, ba before a double consonant) appear instead of dvi, as in dvavlsati,
bavlsati ‘22’; dvattimsa, battimsa ‘32’; dvenavuti ‘92’. Also, te- is found instead of ti-, as in
tevlsati ‘23’. For ‘84’, the fonn is cullasiti, and for ‘25’, pannuvisam.
3. The plural of cha ‘6’ is chalani and, for ’ 12’, dviccha.
For eka ‘one’, the declension is similar to that of the pronouns (see Chapter 3):
Masculine Feminine Neuter
SINGULAR
Nominative
eko
eka
ekahi
Vocative
eka
eke
eka
Accusative
ekahi
ekaiii
ekahi
Genitive
ekassa
ekissa, ekissaya
ekassa
Dative
ekassa
ekissa, ekissaya
ekassa
Instrumental
ekena
ekaya
ekena
Ablative
ekasma, ekamha
ekaya
ekasma, ekamha
Locative
ekasmim, ekamhi
ekaya, ekissam
ekasmim, ekamhi
PLURAL
Nominative
eke
eka, ekayo
ekani
Vocative
eke
eka, ekayo
ekani
Accusative
eke
eka, ekayo
ekani
Genitive
ekesam
ekasam
ekesaiii
Dative
ekesam
ekasahi
ekesam
Instrumental
ekebhi, ekehi
ekabhi, ekahi
ekebhi, ekehi
Ablative
ekebhi, ekehi
ekabhi, ekahi
ekebhi, ekehi
4. Numerals 49
Locative ekesu
ekasu
ekesu
Notes:
1. eka is frequently used as an indefinite article ‘a, an’. In this sense and as a numeral proper, it
only appears in the singular. In the plural, it is used as an adjective with the meaning ‘ones;
some’.
The declensions of dvi ‘two’ and ubho ‘both’ are as follows:
Nom.
dve, duve
ubho, ubhe
Ace.
dve, duve
ubho, ubhe
Gen.
dvinnam, duvinnam
ubhinnam
Dat.
dvinnam, duvinnam
ubhinnam
Instr.
dvibhi, dvihi
ubhobhi, ubhohi, ubhebhi, ubhehi
Abl.
dvibhi, dvihi
ubhobhi, ubhohi, ubhebhi, ubhehi
Loc.
dvisu
ubhosu, ubhesu
Notes:
1. There is only one set of forms for all genders for the numeral ‘two’, and they are used only in
the plural.
2. ubho ‘both’ is one of the few dual fonns remaining in Pali.
The numerals ti ‘three’ and catu ‘four’ have separate forms for the feminine, as follows:
Masculine and Neuter
Feminine
Nom.
tayo;
tini
tisso
Ace.
tayo;
tini
tisso
Gen.
tinnam, tinnannam
tissannam
Dat.
tinnam, tinnannam
tissannam
Instr.
tibhi, tihi
tibhi, tihi
Abl.
tibhi, tihi
tibhi, tihi
Loc.
tisu
tisu
Masculine and Neuter
Feminine
Nom.
cattaro, caturo; cattari
catasso
Ace.
cattaro, caturo; cattari
catasso
Gen.
catunnam
catassannam
Dat.
catunnam
catassannam
Instr.
catubbhi, catubhi, catuhi
catubbhi, catubhi, catuhi
Abl.
catubbhi, catubhi, catuhi
catubbhi, catubhi, catuhi
Loc.
catusu
catusu
50 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
The declension of panca ‘five’ is:
Nom. panca
Acc. panca
Gen. pancannam
Dat. pancannam
Inst. pancahi
Abl. pancahi
Loc. pahcasu
Notes:
1 . There is only one set of fonns for all genders for the numeral ‘five’.
2. All numerals ending in -a follow the declension of panca ‘five’.
3. Numerals ending in -i are declined like feminine /-stems, while satam ‘100’ and sahassam
‘1,000’ are declined like neuters in -am.
4. Another form of sahassa ‘1,000’ is sahassT, which is used especially as a masculine or
feminine in connection with cakkavala ‘world-systems’ or vasudha ‘wealth’, as in dasa-
sahassl-cakkavale ‘in 10,000 world-systems’. Sometimes, the substantive is omitted, and
dasasahassi is treated like a feminine noun, as in dasasahassi pakampati ’10,000 [world-
sytems] quake’.
5. When used in conjunction with nouns, satam and sahassam can be joined to the nouns in the
following ways:
A. With a noun in the genitive plural, as in itthimam panca satani ‘500 women’.
B. With a noun in the nominative plural, as in panca satam yati ‘500 monk-guides’; panca
sata bhikkhu ‘500 Bhikkhus’.
C. With a noun in the singular, as in chacattalisam vassarii atikamma ‘after the lapse of 46
years’.
D. As a compound, with the numeral being the last part, as in gathasatam ‘100 verses’.
E. As a compound, with the numeral being the first part sahassajatila ‘1,000 ascetics with
matted hair’.
4.2. Ordinals
The ordinals for five, and from seven upwards, are fonned by adding the suffix -ma to the
cardinal, as in pahcama ‘fifth’; sattama ‘seventh’. The feminine ends in -F, and the neuter in
-am, and they are declined like the corresponding substantives.
The ordinal fonns of the first ten numerals are:
1st
pathama
2nd
dutiya
3rd
tatiya
4th
catuttha
5 th
pahcama
4. Numerals 51
6th
cattha, chama
7th
sattama
8th
atthama
9th
navama
10th
dasama
11th
ekarasama
12th
barasama
13 th
tedasama
14th
catuddasama
15th
pancadasama
16th
solasama
17th
sattadasama
18th
atthadasama
19th
ekfmavisatima
20th
visatima
30th
timsatima
40th
cattalisatima
50th
pannasama
60th
satthima
70th
sattatima
80th
asitima
90th
navutima
100th
satama
1,000th
sahassama
10,000th
dasashassma
100,000th
satasahassama
1,000,000th
kotima
Notes:
1 . From twenty upwards, there are two forms of the ordinals, one formed by adding the suffix
-ma to the cardinal in -ti, as in visatima ‘twentieth’, and the other formed by dropping the -ti,
as in visa ‘twentieth’; timsa ‘thirtieth’; etc.
2. The feminine ordinals in -f are used to designate the day of the month, as in pancamT ‘the
fifth day’; ekadasi ‘the eleventh day’; etc. ■
Conjugation
5.1. Structure of the Pali Verb
5.1.1. General Structure
The inflection of verbs is kn own as “conjugation”. It consists of changes in form to show
differences in person, number, tense, mood, and voice.
The Pali verb distinguishes three persons:
1. The person(s) speaking (= T, ‘we’);
2. The person(s) spoken to, that is, the person(s) being addressed (= ‘you’);
3. The person(s) or thing(s) spoken about, that is, everyone or everything else (= ‘he’, ‘she’,
‘it’; ‘they’).
The persons are distinguished by a special set of personal endings. These personal endings will
be discussed in detail below.
As with the noun, two numbers are distinguished in the verb: singular and plural. Unlike
Sanskrit, dual verbal forms do not exist in Pali. The singular agrees with the subject when it
denotes only one; the plural agrees with the subject when it denotes more than one.
Tense marks the time when an action takes place. There are six tenses in Pali:
1 . Present: occurring in the present;
2. Imperfect: occurring at some definite point in the past; the imperfect is rarely used;
3. Perfect: occurring at some indefinite point in the past; this tense is of very rare occurrence;
4. Aorist: occurring in the recent past; this is the only true past in Pali, and it is extensively
used;
5. Future: referring to an action or an event that will occur at some unspecified point in the
future;
6. Conditional: referring to a future event or circumstance relative to something that is past or
to an action to be performed due to some difficulty obstructing its performance. The
conditional is often classified as a mood rather than a tense.
Pali has three moods, which are used to express the speaker’s attitude toward the action:
1 . Indicative: used to express something that the speaker believes is true;
54 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
3. Optative: used by the speaker to express wishes or hopes;
4. Imperative: used by the speaker to express commands.
All three of these moods exist in the present tense. Each of the other tenses has only one
mood.
There is also the category of voice, which is used to express the role that the subject plays
in the action. There are two voices in Pali:
1 . Active (parassapada ): the subject is performing the action but is not being acted upon;
2. Reflexive ( attanopada ) (also called “middle”): the subject is being acted upon — the
subject is performing the action on or for himself/herself, that is to say that the action of the
verb is being directed back to the subject.
The reflexive has lost much of its importance in Pali, and the distinction between active and
reflexive has mostly disappeared. It is rarely found in prose, though examples are common in
poetry.
Several other terms should be defined as well: a “finite” verbal form denotes an action,
an event, or a state and is marked for tense, number, mood, aspect, etc. A finite verbal form can
occur on its own in an independent clause. A “non-finite” verbal form is not marked for tense,
number, mood, aspect, etc. and can only occur on its own in a dependent clause. Non-finite
forms include participles, infinitives, verbal nouns (gerunds), and verbal adjectives (gerundives).
A “transitive” verb takes a direct object, while an “intransitive” verb does not. A direct object
denotes the goal, beneficiary, or recipient of the action of a transitive verb. An indirect object
denotes the person or thing that is indirectly affected by the action of the verb.
“Reduplication” means the repetition of a part of a word. In Pali, reduplication consists
of a repeated syllable at the beginning of a word, formed according to the following rules:
1 . If the root begins with a vowel, the reduplication will consist of that vowel which will unite
with the root according to the regular rules of sandhi.
2. When the root begins with a consonant, the first letter of the reduplication will be that
consonant, except that:
A. An aspirate is replaced by its corresponding non-aspirate;
B. A guttural is replaced by the corresponding palatal;
C. h is replaced by j.
The vowel of the reduplicated syllable is typically the vowel of the root, except that:
A. A long vowel is shortened;
B. a coming after kh, ch, or 5 is changed to i;
C. u is sometimes replaced by a.
Finally, the root vowel in the reduplicated stem is sometimes lengthened.
The present, perfect, and future tenses each have a participle. The perfect participle,
formed mostly from the root, is principally of past and passive meaning. According to the stem
on which they are formed, the present and future participles may be either active or passive in
5. Conjugation 55
meaning. There is also a “participle of necessity”, also called the “future passive participle” or
the “potential participle”, which is actually a verbal adjective (gerundive). Depending upon the
base upon which it is formed, the present and future participles may be active or passive in sense.
There are two verbal nouns in Pali: (1) the infinitive, usually in the accusative case,
sometimes (rarely) in the dative case; and (2) a gerund, which is actually the case form of a
derivative noun having the force of an absolute participle.
There are four main tenses in Pali: present, aorist, perfect, and future. The other two are
preterite tenses, the imperfect accompanying the present and the conditional accompanying the
future.
Every primary verb is conjugated in four stems, in accordance with the four main tenses:
1 . Present stem;
2. Aorist stem;
3. Perfect stem;
4. Future stem.
On this basis, there are four systems in the conjugation of Pali verbs, as follows:
1 . The present system, composed of:
A. The present indicative;
B. The imperfect;
C. The present imperative;
D. The present optative;
E. The present participle.
2. The aorist system, composed of the aorist tense only.
3. The perfect system, comprising:
A. The perfect tense;
B. The perfect participle.
Note: The regular perfect participle has almost entirely disappeared. Its place is generally
filled by a derivative in -vant- or -vin- from the past passive participle. Neither this
derivative nor the past passive participle itself really belongs to the perfect system.
4. The future system, composed of:
A. The future tense;
B. The conditional;
C. The future participle.
The aorist stem, the perfect stem, and the future stem are each formed in one general way
for all verbs, and the four tenses belonging to those three systems are, therefore, called “general
tenses”.
56 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
5.1.2. The Present System
The present system is by far the most important, and it serves as the basis of the different
conjugations of verbs. The present stem is formed in ten different ways for different verbs. In
accordance with the special treatment of the present stem, the four tenses belonging to the
present system are called “special tenses”. Present verbs are divided into seven classes, the first
of which has four divisions.
1. Verbs of the first class form the present stem as follows:
A. First division, having roots ending in -i, -I; -u, -u, which strengthen the root vowel to -ay-
and -av-, respectively, and add -a-.
Examples
Roots
Bases
ni-
‘to lead’
nay-a-
ji-
‘to conquer’
jay-a-
bhu-
‘to be’
bhav-a-
ku-
‘to make a sound’
kav-a-
khi-
‘to govern’
khay-a-
B. Second division, consisting of roots ending in a consonant, add -a- either with or without
lengthening of the root vowel.
Examples
Roots
Bases
pac-
‘to cook’
pac-a-
labh-
‘to obtain’
labh-a-
mar-
‘to die’
mar-a-
rakkh-
‘to keep, to guard’
rakkh-a-
yac-
‘to entreat, to beg’
yac-a-
vad-
‘to tell, to say’
vad-a-
tar-
‘to cross’
tar-a-
jiv-
‘to live’
jiv-a-
bhar-
‘to carry’
bhar-a-
Also included here are those roots containing the root vowels or -u-, directly followed
by a consonant: -iC- and -uC-. These are divided into two types:
1. Those in which the root vowels are not changed in the base forms (without
“strengthening”): (roots) -iC- and -uC- > (bases) -iC-a- and -uC-a-;
5. Conjugation 57
2. Those in which the root vowel -i- is changed to -e- and -u- to -o- in the base forms
(with “strengthening”): (roots) -iC- and -uC- > (bases) -eC-a- and - oC-a -:
Examples: (1) root vowels unchanged in base forms
Roots
Bases
tud-
‘to strike with an instrument’
tud-a-
phus-
‘to touch’
phus-a-
likh-
‘to write’
likh-a-
nud-
‘to remove’
nud-a-
Examples: (2) root vowels changed in base forms
Roots Bases
gup- ‘to keep, to watch’ gop-a-
subh- ‘to shine, to be beautiful’ sobh-a-
C. Third division, which use the bare root with or without lengthening of the root vowel.
Since the vowel -a- is not added to the root, the base forms are thus the same as the roots.
Examples
Roots
Bases
ya-
‘to go’
va-
va-
‘to blow’
va-
tha-
‘to stand’
tha-
khya-
‘to tell’ (used with prefix a-)
khya-
bru-
‘to speak’
brii-
Notes:
1. Roots ending in -f, or -u, -u can also belong to this class. When -a- is added to
them, they do not take the semivowel substitute as in the first division, but their root
vowels are merely changed:
Examples
Roots
Bases
ni-
‘to lead’
ne-
ji-
‘to conquer’
je-
hu-
‘to be’
ho-
ku-
‘to sound’
ko-
58 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2. The personal endings are added directly to these transformed roots. Thus, these roots
can assume two different bases: one in -e- (third division) or -ay-a- (first division)
and one in -o- (third division) or -av-a- (first division), according to whether the
ending vowel is -l, or -u, -u, respectively.
D. Fourth division, which simply reduplicate the root. The reduplication is accordance with
the general rules for reduplication given below. In a root compounded with an
indeclinable, the reduplication comes after the indeclinable and before the root.
Examples
Roots
Bases
tha-
to stand’
tittha-
da-
‘to give’
dada-
dha-
‘to put, to place’
dadha-
ha-
‘to forsake’
jaha-
hii-
‘to sacrifice’
juho-
Notes:
1. These bases retain the long -a- before the personal endings of the present and
imperative.
2. Verbs of the second class fonn the present stem by inserting a nasal before the final
consonant of the root and then adding -a-. The nasal assumes the form of the nasal of the
class to which the consonant belongs.
3. Verbs of the third class fonn the present stem by adding -ya- to the root. The -y- of the suffix
assimilates to a final consonant of the root according to the rules outlined in Chapter 1 .
4. Verbs of the fourth class form the present stem by adding -nu- or -na- to the root, if the root
ends in a vowel, or -unu- or -una-, if the root ends in a consonant, -nu- and -unu- strengthen
to -no- and -uno-, respectively, before endings.
5. Verbs of the fifth class form the present stem by adding -na- to the root, which always ends in
a vowel.
6. Verbs of the sixth class form the present stem by adding -u- to the root, usually strengthening
the -u- to -o- before endings.
7. Verbs of the seventh class form the present stem by lengthening the root vowel and adding
-aya- or -apaya-, which, in turn, may contract to -e- or -ape-, respectively, before endings
beginning with a consonant, or drop the final -a- before endings beginning with a vowel.
5. Conjugation 59
5.1.3. The Remaining Systems
The aorist stem consists of the bare root with or without lengthening of the root vowel.
The aorist stem is sometimes replaced by the present stem.
The perfect stem consists of the reduplicated root with or without lengthening of the root
vowel.
The future stem is formed by adding -ssa- to the root. When the root ends in a consonant,
the connecting vowel -i- is generally inserted, but, sometimes, assimilation takes place. In the
formation of the future stem, the -ssa- is frequently added to the present stem instead of being
added directly to the root.
The imperfect, aorist, and conditional generally prefix an “augment”, a-, but the augment
is frequently omitted, especially in poetry. If stems form a compound with an indeclinable, the
augment comes before the indeclinable and the root.
5.2. Personal Endings
5.2.1. Endings of the Present System
A verb is fully conjugated by adding the following personal endings to its appropriate
stems:
PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-mi
-ma
-e
-mhe (-make, -mha)
2.
-si
-tha
-se
-vhe
3.
-ti
-nti
-te
-nte, -re
Notes:
1 . The fuller form in -make is sometimes found in the first person plural of the intransitive, as in
bhasmibhavamahe ‘we became dusty’. The shortened fonn -mha occurs in dadamha ‘we
give’; mannamha ‘we think’.
2. The personal ending -are is frequently found in the third person plural intransitive instead of
-ante, as in miyyare ‘they die’; udiccare ‘they looked’; abhiklrare ‘they overwhelm’.
3. The stem vowel -a- becomes -a- before the first person singular and plural endings: -a-mi,
-a-ma, -a-mhe-, etc.
60 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
IMPERFECT ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-a, -aril
-mha
-irii
-mhase
2.
-o
-ttha
-se
-vharii
3.
-a
-u
-ttha
-tthurii
Notes:
1 . The stem vowel is dropped before endings beginning with a vowel.
IMPERATIVE ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-mi
-ma
-e
-mase
2.
-hi
-tha
-ssu
-vho
3.
-tu
-ntu
-tarn
-ntarii
Notes:
1 . The stem vowel -a- becomes -a- before -mi, -ma, -hi, -tha, and -mase.
2. The ending -hi may be dropped in the active second person singular, and the bare stem used
instead.
OPTATIVE ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-eyyami
-eyyama
-eyyarii
-evyamhe
2.
-eyyasi
-eyyatha
-etho
-eyyavho
3.
-eyya
-eyyurii
-etha
-erarii
Notes:
1 . The form -e may replace any one of the forms in the active singular.
5. Conjugation 61
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active
Masculine Feminine Neuter
-am, -ati, -am,
-an to -anti -ant am
Reflexive
Masculine Feminine Neuter
-mano, -mana, -manarii,
-ano -ana -anam
Notes:
1. The active participle follows the consonantal declension — it is similar to mahat, mahant
‘great, large’ (see Chapter 2, §2.3.3), except in the nominative masculine singular.
2. The reflective participle follows the first declension throughout.
5.2.2. Endings of the Aorist System
AORIST ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-im
-imha
-i
-imhe
2.
-i
-ittha
-ise
-ivham
3.
-i, -T
-um, -imsu
-ittha
-um, -imsu
Notes:
1 . When a stem ends in a vowel, an -s- is inserted between the vowel and the personal endings
given above.
5.2.3. Endings of the Perfect System
PERFECT ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-a
-mha
-i
-mhe
2.
-e
-ttha
-ttho
-vho
3.
-a
-u
-ttha
-re
Notes:
1 . Verbs ending in a consonant insert -i- between the root and the personal endings beginning
with a consonant: active: -i-mha, -i-ttha; reflexive: -i-ttho, -i-ttha; -i-mhe, -i-vho, -i-re.
62 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Active
Reflexive
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
Masculine
Feminine Neuter
-va,
-vati,
-varii,
-mano.
-mana, -man am
-vanto,
-vantT,
-vantarii,
-ano
-ana -anarii
-vi
-vim
-vi
Notes:
1. The first two forms of the active participle follow the consonantal declension — they are
similar to gunavat, gunavant ‘virtuous’ (see Chapter 2, §2.3.3). The third form follows the
second declension.
2. The perfect reflexive participle forms are identical to those of present participle.
5.2.4. Endings of the Future System
FUTURE ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-mi
-ma
-til
-mhe
2.
-si
-tha
-se
-vhe
3.
-ti
-nti
-te
-nte, -re
Notes:
1 . As in the present, the stem vowel -a- becomes -a- before the first person singular and plural
endings: -a-mi, -a-ma, -a-mhe-, etc.
CONDITIONAL ENDINGS
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
-am
-mha
-aril
-mhase
2.
-e
-tha
-se
-vhe
3.
-a
-rhsu
-tha
-msu
Notes:
1. The stem vowel may be dropped before endings beginning with a vowel. It may or may not
be lengthened before -mha and -mhase.
2. The bare stem may appear in place of the second and third person active singular endings.
5. Conjugation 63
FUTURE PARTICIPLE
Active Reflexive
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
-am, -ati, -aril, -mano, -mana, -manarii,
-anto -anti -antarii -ano -ana -anarii
Notes:
1 . The declension is the same as in the present participle.
5.2.5. Non-Finite Forms
1. Infinitive: -turn; -tave; -tuye; -taye. The suffix -tilth is the most common form.
2. Gerund (verbal noun): -tva; -tvana; -tuna; -ya or -tya (- cca ). The suffix -tv a is the most
common form. The other forms are used as substitutes for -tva and are found in poetry much
more than in prose. Gerunds are indeclinable.
3. Participle of necessity: -tabba; -Tya; -ya; -anlya. These forms are declined in accordance
with the first declension.
5.3. Conjugational Paradigms
Conjugation of khan- (also written khan-) ‘to dig, to dig out, to uproot; to destroy’:
Present System
PRESENT INDICATIVE
Active
Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
khanami
khanama
khane
khanamhe
2.
khanasi
khanatha
khanase
khanavhe
3.
khanati
khananti
khanate
khanante, khanare
IMPERFECT
Active
Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
akhana,
akhanarh
akhanamha
akhanirii
akhanamhase
2.
a khan o
akhanattha
akhanase
akhanavham
3.
akhana
akhanu
akhanattha
akhanatthum
64 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
IMPERATIVE
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
khanami
khanama
khane
khanamase
2.
khanahi
khanatha
khanassu
khanavho
3.
khanatu
khanantu
khanatam
khanantam
OPTATIVE
Active
Reflexive
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
khaneyyami khaneyyama
khaneyyam
khaneyyamhe
2.
khaneyyasi khaneyyatha
khanetho
khaneyyavho
3.
khaneyya khaneyyum
khanetha
khaneram
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active
Reflexive
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Masculine
Feminine Neuter
khan am, khanati,
khananto khananti
khan am,
khanantam
khanamano,
khanano
khanamana,
khanana
khanamanam,
khananam
Aorist System
AORIST
Active Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
akhanim
akhanimha
akhani
akhanimhe
2.
akhani
akhani tth a
akhanise
akhanivham
3.
akhani,
akhanum,
akhanittha
akhanum,
akhani
akhanimsu
akhanimsu
Perfect System
PERFECT
Active
Reflexive
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
cikhana
cikhanmha
cikhani
cikhanimhe
2.
cikhane
cikhanittha
cikhanittho
cikhanivho
3.
cikhana
cikhanu
cikhanittha
cikhanire
5. Conjugation 65
PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Masculine
Active
Feminine
Neuter Masculine
Reflexive
Feminine Neuter
khatava,
khatavanto,
khatavi
khatavati,
khatavanti,
khatavirii
khatavam, khanamano,
khatavantam, khanano
khatavi
khanamdna, khanamdnam ,
khanana khananam
Future System
FUTURE
Active
Reflexive
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
khanissami khanissama
khanissam
khanissamhe
2.
khanissasi khanissatha
khanissase
khanissavhe
3.
khanissati khanissanti
khanissate
khanissante, khanissare
CONDITIONAL
Active
Reflexive
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
akhanissam akhanissamha
akhanissam
akhanissamhase
2.
akhanisse akhanissatha
akhanissase
akhanissavhe
3.
akhanissa akhanissamsu
akhanissatha
akhanissamsu
FUTURE PARTICIPLE
Masculine
Active
Feminine
Neuter
khanissam,
khanissati,
khanissam,
khanissanto
khanissanti
khanissantam
Masculine
Reflexive
Feminine
Neuter
khanissamano.
khanissamana,
khanissamanam,
khanissano
khanissana
khanissanam
66 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Non-Finite Forms
INFINITIVE
GERUND
PARTICIPLE OF NECESSITY
khanitum
khanitva
khanitabbo
Practically speaking, conjugation is the same for all verbs, consisting merely of adding
the case endings to the appropriate stems. In the above example, the complete conjugation of
khanati (also written khanati ) ‘to dig, to dig out, to uproot; to destroy’ has been given, a verb of
the second division of the first class, where the great majority of Pali verbs belong.
In what follows, a synopsis will be given of a verb of each class and division to illustrate
how the endings are to be joined to the various stems described above. The following verbs will
be used as examples:
bhavati (root bhu-) ‘to become, to be, to exist’
pacati (root pac-) ‘to cook, to boil, to roast’
neti ( nayati ) (root m-) ‘to lead, to guide, to conduct’
jahati (root ha-) ‘to leave, to abandon, to lose’
rundhati (root rudh-) ‘to restrain, to hinder, to prevent, to obstruct, to keep out’
dibbati (root div-) ‘to sport, to play, to amuse oneself
sunoti (root su-) ‘to hear’
kinati (root kl-) ‘to buy’
tanoti (root tan-) ‘to stretch, to extend’
cored (root cur-) ‘to steal’
The classes are numbered on the left, and the divisions in parentheses following the
classes. The third singular forms are given.
Present System
PRESENT INDICATIVE
Active
Reflexive
1 (1) bhavati
(2) pacati
1 (1) bhavate
(2) pacate
(3) nayati', neti
(4) jahati
2 rundhati
3 dibbati
4 sunoti
5 kinati
6 tanoti
7 corayati ; cored
(3) nayate; nete
(4) jahate
2 rundhate
3 dibbate
4 sunote
5 kinate
6 tanote
7 corayate ; corete
5. Conjugation 67
IMPERFECT
Active
Reflexive
1 (1) abhava
(2) apaca
(3) anaya
(4) ajaha
2 arundha
3 adibba
4 assunuva
5 akkina
6 atanuva
7 acoraya
1 (1) abhavattha
(2) apacattha
(3) anayattha; anettha
(4) ajahattha
2 arundhattha
3 adibbattha
4 assunuttha
5 akkinattha
6 atanuttha
7 acoravattha; acorettha
IMPERATIVE
Active
Reflexive
1 (1) bhavatu
(2) pacatu
(3) nayatu; netu
(4) jahatu
2 rundhatu
3 dibbatu
4 sunotu
5 kinatu
6 tanotu
7 coretu
1 (1) bhavatam
(2) pacatam
(3) navatam; netam
(4) jahatam
2 rundhatam
3 dibbatam
4 sunotam
5 kinatam
6 tanotam
7 coretam
OPTATIVE
Active
Reflexive
1 (1) bhaveyya
(2) paceyya
(3) nayeyya; neyya
(4) jaheyya
2 rundeyya
3 dibbeyya
4 suneyya
5 kineyya
6 taneyya
7 corayeyya; coreyya
1 (1) bhavetha
(2) pacetha
(3) nay ether, netha
(4) jahetha
2 rundhetha
3 dibbetha
4 sunetha
5 kinetha
6 tanetha
7 corayetha ; coretha
68 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active
1(1) bhavam, bhavanto
(2) pacarii, pacanto
(3) nayam, nayanto , nento
(4) jaham,jahanto
2 rundham, rundhanto
3 dibbam, dibbanto
4 sunam, sunanto, sunonto
5 kinam, kinanto
6 tanarh, tananto
7 corayam, corayanto, corento
Aorist System
AORIST
Active
1 (1) abhavi
(2) apaci
(3) anayi; anesi
(4) ahasi
2 arodhi
3 adevi
4 assosi
5 akkesi
6 atani
7 ( acoresi )
Perfect System
PERFECT
Active
1 (1) babhuva
(2) papaca
(3) ninaya
(4) jahara
2 rurodha
3 dideva
4 sussosa
5 cikaya
6 tatana
7 cucora
Reflexive
1(1) bhavamano, bhavano
(2) pacamano, pacano
(3) nayamano, nayano, nemano
(4) jahdmd.no, jahd.no
2 rundhamano, rundhano
3 dibbamano, dibbano
4 sunamano, sunono
5 kinamano, kinano
6 tanomano, tanono
7 corayamano, corayano, coremano
Reflexive
1 (1) avhavittha
(2) apacittha
(3) anayittha; anesittha
(4) ahasittha
2 arodhittha
3 adevittha
4 assosittha
5 akkesittha
6 atanittha
7 ( acoresittha )
Reflexive
1 (1) babhuvittha
(2) papacittha
(3) ninettha
(4) jaharittha
2 rurodhittha
3 didevittha
4 sussosittha
5 cikayittha
6 tatanittha
7 cucorittha
5. Conjugation 69
PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Active
1 (1) bhutava
(2) pacitava
(3) nitava
(4) hmava
2 ruddhava
3 divitava
4 sutava
5 kitava
6 tatava
7 curitava
Future System
FUTURE
Active
1 (1) bhavissati
(2) pacissati
(3) nayissati
(4) ( jahissati )
2 rodhissati
3 devissati
4 sossati
5 ( kinissati )
6 tanissati
7 ( coressati )
CONDITIONAL
Active
1 (1) abhavissa
(2) apacissa
(3) anayissa, anessa
(4) ( ajahissa )
2 arodhissa
3 adevissa
4 asossa
5 (i akinissa )
6 atanissa
7 ( acoressa )
Reflexive
1(1) bhavamano, bhavano
(2) pacamano, pacano
(3) nayamano, nayano, nemano
(4) jahdmano , jahdno
2 rundhamano, rundhano
3 dibbamano, dibbano
4 sunamano, sunono
5 kinamano, kinano
6 tanomano, tanono
7 corayamano, corayano, coremano
Reflexive
1 (1) bhavissate
(2) pacissate
(3) nayissate
(4) (jahissate)
2 rodhissate
3 devissate
4 sossate
5 ( kinissate )
6 tanissate
7 ( coressate )
Reflexive
1 (1) abhavissatha
(2) apacissatha
(3) anayissatha, anessatha
(4) ( ajahissatha )
2 arodhissatha
3 adevissatha
4 asossatha
5 ( akinissatha )
6 atanissatha
7 ( acoressatha )
70 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
FUTURE PARTICIPLE
Active
1 (1) bhavisam, bhavissanto
(2) pacissaih, pacissanto
(3) nessaih, nessanto
(4) (jahissamjahissanto )
2 rodhissam, rodhissanto
3 devissam, devis santo
4 sossam, sossanto
5 ( kinissarh , kinis santo)
6 tanissam, tanissanto
7 ( coressam , coressanto)
Reflexive
1 (1) bhavissamano, bhaissvano
(2) pacissamano, pacissano
(3) nessamano, nessano
(4) (j ahissamano , j ahissano)
2 rodhissamano, rodhissd.no
3 devissamano, devissano
4 sossamano, sossano
5 ( kinissamano , kinissano)
6 tanissamano, tanissano
7 ( coressamano , coressano )
Non-Finite Forms
INFINITIVE
GERUND
PARTICIPLE OF NECESSITY
1(1)
bhavitum
bhavitva
bhavitabbo
(2)
paciitum
pacitvd
pacitabbo
(3)
netum
netva
netabbo
(4)
jahitum
jahitva, hitva
hatabbo
2
rodhitum
rodhitva
rodhitabbo
3
devitum
devitva
devitabbo
4
sotum
suh’a
sottabbo
5
( kinitum )
(kinitva)
(kinitabbo)
6
tanitum
tanitva
tanitabbo
7
(to return )
(coretva)
(coretabbo)
Notes:
1 . General tense forms enclosed in parentheses are made on the basis of the present stem.
5.4. Defective Verbs
The verbs atthi (root as-) ‘to be, to exist’ and hoti (root bhu-) ‘to become, to be, to exist’
belong to the first class, second division, and are exceedingly frequent. Inasmuch as both show
irregular forms and are defective, they will be conjugated in full below.
atthi (root as-) ‘to be, to exist’
5. Conjugation 71
Masculine
santo
Present System
PRESENT INDICATIVE
Singular
Plural
1
as mi, amhi
asma, amha
2
asi
attha
3
atthi
santi
IMPERATIVE
Singular
Plural
1
as mi, amhi
asma, amha
2
ahi
attha
3
atthu
santu
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active
Reflexive
Feminine
Neuter Masculine Feminine
santi
santarh samano samana
Aorist System
AORIST
Singular
Plural
1
asim
asimha
2
asi
asittha
3
asi
asum, asimsu
Future System
CONDITIONAL
Singular
Plural
1
assam
assama
2
assa
assatha
3
assa, siya
assu, siyum
♦♦♦
Neuter
samanam
hoti (root bhu-) ‘to become, to be, to exist’
72 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Present System
PRESENT INDICATIVE
Singular
Plural
1
homi
homa
2
hosi
hotha
3
hoti
honti
IMPERFECT
Singular
Plural
1
ahuva, ahuvam
ahuvamha
2
ahuvo
ahuvattha
3
ahuva
ahuvu
IMPERATIVE
Singular
Plural
1
homi
homa
2
ho hi
hota
3
hotu
hontu
OPTATIVE
Singular
Plural
1
heyyami
heyyama
2
heyyasi
heyyatha
3
heyya
heyyum
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Masculine Feminine Neuter
honto hontT hontam
Aorist System
AORIST
Singular Plural
1
2
ahosim, ahosum
ahosi
ahosimha, ahumha
ahosittha
5. Conjugation 73
ahosi, ahu
ahesurh, ahum
Future System
FUTURE
First Fonn
Second Form
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1 .
hemi.
hema,
hehami,
hehama,
hessami
hessama
hehessami
hehessama
2.
hesi,
hetha.
hehasi,
hehatha,
hessasi
hessatha
he hessasi
hehessatha
3.
heti,
henti,
hehati,
hehanti,
hessati
hessanti
hehessati
hehessanti
Non-Finite Forms
INFINITIVE
GERUND
PARTICIPLE OF NECESSITY
hotum
hutva
hotabbo
5.5. Secondary Verbs
Primary verbs are formed directly from roots by various modifications of the root itself
and by the addition of different suffixes. Secondary verbs, on the other hand, are built on a
secondary stem rather than directly on the root.
Every primary verb is accompanied by five secondary stems:
1 .
2 .
3.
4.
5.
Passive: The passive is used to indicate that the subject is the recipient of the action
expressed by the simple root.
Causative: The causative is used to indicate causation. It is extensively used in Pali.
Desiderative: The desiderative is used to indicate the wish or the desire to do or be what is
expressed by the simple root. The desiderative is not extensively used in Pali.
Intensive: The intensive (also called “frequentive”) is used to indicate the frequent repetition
or the intensification of the action expressed by the simple root. The intensive is not
extensively used in Pali.
Denominative: Denominatives are nouns that have been converted into verbs. They occur
frequently in Pali.
Except for the causative, derivative verbs are not conjugated in all tenses and all voices.
The passive stem is made by adding the suffix -ya- to the root as follows:
1 . When the root ends in a vowel, -ya- is added directly, the root vowel frequently undergoing
change.
74 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2. When the root ends in a single consonant, -ya- is generally added directly, and the preceding
consonant may be changed in accordance with the regular rules of assimilation.
3. When the root ends in a consonant cluster or a single consonant that does not readily double
(generally r or h), -ya- is added with the connecting vowel -T-, yielding -iya-. Sometimes,
-iya- is added to the present stem.
The causative stem is fonned by lengthening the root vowel and adding the suffixes -aya-
or -apaya-, which may contract, respectively, to -e- or -ape-, respectively, before consonant
endings, but remain, dropping final -a- before vowel endings.
The desiderative stem is formed by reduplicating the root and adding the suffix -sa-, with
or without -i- as a connecting vowel. In this reduplication, the consonant follows the regular
rules for reduplication, but the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is generally Sometimes, the
reduplicated syllable and the root are contracted into one syllable, which, together with
assimilation with -sa-, gives some unusual forms.
The intensive stem is formed by a peculiar reduplication of the root with or without the
addition of the suffix -ya-. In this reduplication, the first consonant of the root is repeated
according to the regular rules of reduplication given above, but:
1 . The vowel is lengthened;
2. A consonant, generally r or a nasal, taken from the end of the root, may or may not be
inserted between the vowel of the reduplicated syllable and the root;
3. i or i, according to whether the root begins with a consonant cluster or a single consonant,
may or may not be still further inserted between this final consonant of the reduplicated
syllable and the root.
Denominate stems are fonned by adding one of the following suffixes to a noun stem:
-aya-, -aya-, -iya-, or -iya-.
The following is a synopsis of the derivatives of khan- (also written khan-) ‘to dig, to dig
out, to uproot; to destroy’: (passive) khannatr, (causative) khaneti. The third singular forms are
given.
Present System
PRESENT INDICATIVE
Active
Reflexive
Passive khahhati
Causative khaneti
khahhe
khane
IMPERFECT
Active
Reflexive
Passive akhahha
Causative akhanaya
akhahhattha
akhanayattha
5. Conjugation 75
Passive
Causative
Passive
Causative
Passive
Causative
Passive
Causative
Passive
Causative
IMPERATIVE
Active
Reflexive
khahhatu khahhatam
khanetu khanetam
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active
Reflexive
khannam,
khanhanto
khannam,
khanhanto
khahhamano,
khahhano
khahhamano,
khahhano
Aorist System
AORIST
Active
Reflexive
akhahhi
akhanesi
akhahhittha
akhanesittha
Perfect System
PERFECT
[Not formed]
PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Active Reflexive
khato khahhamano, khahhano
khanitava khahhamano, khahhano
Future System
FUTURE
Active Reflexive
khahhissati khahhissate
khanessati khanessate
76 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
CONDITIONAL
Active Reflexive
Passive akhahhissa akhahhissatha
Causative akhanessa akhanessatha
FUTURE PARTICIPLE
Active
Reflexive
Passive khahhissam,
khahhissanto
Causative khanessam,
khanessanto
khahhissama.no,
khahhissa.no
khahhissamano,
khahhissano
Non-Finite Forms
INFINITIVE GERUND
PARTICIPLE OF NECESSITY
Passive
Causative
khahhitum
khanetum
khahhitva
khanetva
khahhitabbo
khanetabbo
5.6. Compound Verbs
In addition to the secondary verbs just discussed, Pali has compound verbs. Compound
verbs are formed from verb roots to which adverbs and prepositions have been prefixed.
5.7. Past Passive Participle
The so-called “past passive participle” (also called the “passive perfect participle”) has
the force of a perfect participle but, in its formation, has no connection with either the perfect
stem of the primary conjugation or the special passive stem of the secondary conjugation. It is a
primary derivation formed directly from the root by adding the suffixes -ta or -na. Of the two,
the suffix -ta is by far the most frequently used. All forms of this participle are declined with the
case endings of the first declension. The past passive participle is widely used in Pali.
The past passive participle is often used with some fonn, generally present, aorist, or
future, of the verbs atthi, hoti, or bhavati ‘to be, to become’, either expressed or understood, as a
regular periphrastic conjugation.
The suffix -ta is affixed to the root in several ways. If the root ends in a vowel, -ta is
added directly to it. If the root ends in -a, however, that vowel is generally changed to -i or -f.
If the root ends in a consonant, -ta may either be joined to it by means of the connecting
vowel -i- (yielding -ita), or it may become assimilated to the consonant according to the
following rules:
5. Conjugation 77
1 . When -ta is added to roots ending in -g-, the past passive participle takes the form -gga
2. When -ta is added to roots ending in -o, the past passive participle takes the form -tta
3. When -ta is added to roots ending in -cch-, the past passive participle takes the form -ttha
4. When -ta is added to roots ending in the past passive participle takes the fonn -tta
5. When -ta is added to roots ending in -dh-, the past passive participle takes the fonn -ddha
6. When -ta is added to roots ending in -n-, the -n is dropped, and -ta is added to what is left
7. When -ta is added to roots ending in -p-, the past passive participle takes the form -tta
8. When -ta is added to roots ending in -bh-, the past passive participle takes the fonn -ddha
9. When -ta is added to roots ending in -m-, the past passive participle takes the form -nta, or
they drop the -m- before -ta
10. When -ta is added to roots ending in -5-, the past passive participle takes the form -ttha
1 1 . When -ta is added to roots ending in the past passive participle takes the fonn -ddha or
-Iha
When the suffix -na is added to roots ending in a consonant, it may become assimilated
to the consonant as follows:
1 . When -na is added to roots ending in -d-, the past passive participle takes the form -nna
2. When -na is added to roots ending in -r-, the past passive participle takes the form -inna or
drop the -r and add -ta to what is left
5.7.1. Past Passive Participle -ta
The suffix -ta is by far the most commonly used formation.
Examples:
A. Roots ending in a vowel:
Root
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
naha- ‘to bathe’
bhu- ‘to be, to
become’
m- ‘to lead’
ji- ‘to conquer’
ci- ‘to collect’
bhi- ‘to be afraid’
yd- ‘to go, to
undergo’
ha- ‘to know’
nahayati ‘he/she bathes’ nahata ‘bathed
bhavati ‘he/she is, he/she becomes’ bhuta ‘been, become’
neti, nayati ‘he/she leads’
jetijayati ‘he/she conquers’
cinati ‘he/she collects’
bhayati ‘he/she is afraid’
yati ‘he/she goes, undergoes’
janati ‘he/she knows’
nit a Ted’
jita ‘conquered’
cita ‘collected’
bhita ‘afraid, frightened’
yata ‘gone, undergone’
hat a ‘known’
78 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
B. Roots ending in -a:
Past Passive Participle
pita ‘drunk’
thita ‘stood’
hita ‘put, placed’
dinna ‘given’
C. Roots ending in a consonant and inserting -i- before - ta :
Root
Present (3rd person singular)
pa- ‘to drink’
tha- ‘to stand’
dha- ‘to put’
da- ‘to give’
pibati ‘he/she drinks’
titthati ‘he/she stands’
dahati ‘he/she puts’
dadati ‘he/she gives’
Root
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
pac- ‘to cook’
cal- ‘to shake’
gah- ‘to take’
kapp- ‘to arrange’
khad- ‘to eat’
likh- ‘to write’
mand- ‘to adorn’
gil- ‘to swallow’
kath- ‘to tell’
pacati ‘he/she cooks’
calati ‘he/she/it shakes’
ganhati ‘he/she takes’
kappeti ‘he/she arranges’
khadati ‘he/she eats’
likhati ‘he/she writes’
mandeti ‘he/she adorns’
gil ad ‘he/she swallows’
katheti ‘he/she tells’
pacita ‘cooked’
calita ‘shaken’
gahita ‘taken’
kappita ‘arranged’
khadita ‘eaten’
likhita ‘written’
mandita ‘adorned’
gilita ‘swallowed’
kathita ‘told’
Notes:
1. Participles like pacita ‘cooked’, calita ‘shaken’, etc. are declined like purisa (m.)
‘man’.
2. In the neuter, these participles are often used as nouns: (root) has- ‘to smile’,
(past passive participle) hasita ‘smiled’, (neuter) hasitam ‘a smile’; (root) gajj- ‘to
roar, to thunder’, (past passive participle) gajjita ‘thundered’, (neuter) gajjitam
‘the thunder’; (root) jiv- ‘to live’, (past passive participle) jivita lived’, (neuter)
jivitam ‘life’.
D. Roots ending in a consonant in which -ta is assimilated to the final consonant:
Root
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
bhuj- ‘to eat’
muc- ‘to release’
is- ‘to wish’
kas- ‘to plow’
das- ‘to bite’
dam- ‘to tame’
kam- ‘to walk’
radii- ‘to obstruct’
budh- ‘to awaken’
bhuhjati ‘he/she eats’
muhcati ‘he/she releases’
icchati ‘he/she wishes’
kas ad ‘he/she plows’
das ad, dams ad ‘he/she bites’
damyati ‘he/she tames’
kamati ‘he/she walks’
rundhati ‘he/she/it obstructed’
bujjhati ‘he/she awakens’
bhutta ‘eaten’
mutta ‘released’
ittha ‘wished’
kattha ‘plowed’
dattha ‘bitten’
danta ‘tamed
kanta ‘walked’
ruddha ‘obstructed’
buddha ‘awakened’
5. Conjugation 79
labh- ‘to obtain’
majj- ‘to wipe’
to clean, to
polish’
muh- ‘to err, to
go astray’
nth- ‘to grow’
lih- ‘to lick’
jhas- ‘to hurt’
pat- ‘to fall’
tap- ‘to bum’
duh- ‘to milk’
labhati ‘he/she obtains’
majjati ‘he/she wipes, cleans,
polishes
muyhati ‘he/she errs, goes astray’
ruhati ‘he/she/it grows’
lihati ‘he/she licks’
jhasati ‘he/she/it hurts’
patati ‘he/she/it falls’
tapati ‘it burns’
dohati ‘he/she milks’
laddha ‘obtained’
mattha (also matta )
‘wiped, cleaned,
polished’
mulha (also muddha)
‘erred, gone astray’
rulha ‘grown’
Id ha ‘licked’
jhatta ‘hurt’
patta ‘fallen’
tatta ‘burned’
duddha ‘milked’
E. Roots ending in -r generally drop the -r before -ta:
Root
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
kar- ‘to do’ karoti ‘he/she does’
sar- ‘to remember’ sarati ‘he/she remembers’
mar- ‘to die’ marati ‘he/she dies’
kata ‘did’
sata ‘remembered’
mata ‘dead’
F. Roots ending in -n general drop the -n before -ta:
Root Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
man- ‘to think’ mahhati ‘he/she thinks’ mata ‘thought’
khan- (also khan-) khanati (also khanati ) ‘he/she digs’ khata (also khata ) ‘dug’
‘to dig’
han- ‘to strike, hanati ‘he/she strikes, kills’ hat a ‘stricken, killed’
to kill’
G. Sometimes, final -m is also dropped before -ta:
Root
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
gam- ‘to go’
ram- ‘to enjoy
onself
gacchati ‘he/she goes’
ramati ‘he/she enjoys himself/
herself
gata ‘gone’
rata ‘enjoyed, amused,
delighted’
5.7.2. Past Passive Participle -na
The suffix -na is far less common than -ta. Like -ta, the suffix -na may be added to roots
ending in a consonant by means of a connecting vowel or it may be added directly to roots
ending in a vowel. When -na is added directly to roots ending in a consonant, either that
consonant is assimilated to the -n- of -na, or the -n- of -na is assimilated to the final consonant.
The suffix -na is added mainly to roots ending in -d- and -r-.
80 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Examples:
A. The suffix -na added to roots ending in -d-\
Root
Present (3rd person singular)
sad- ‘to sink,
to subside,
to yield’
pasad- ‘to be
calm, pleased’
nisad- ‘to sit
down’
chid- to cut off
chad- ‘to cover’
sidati ‘he/she/it sinks, subsides,
yields’
pasTdati ‘he/she is calm, pleased’
nisldati ‘he/she sits down’
chindati ‘he/she cuts off
chadati ‘he/she/it covers’
B. The suffix -na added to roots ending in -r-\
Root Present (3rd person singular)
tar- ‘to cross’ tarati ‘he/she crosses’
car- ‘to walk, to carati ‘he/she walks, moves about’
move about’
kir- ‘to scatter’ kirati ‘he/she scatters’
C. The suffix -na added to roots ending in a vowel:
Root
Present (3rd person singular)
IT- ‘to stick to,
to cling to’
lu- ‘to cut, to
reap’
khT- to waste
away, to be
exhausted’
ha- ‘to leave, to
abandon’
liyati ‘he/she/it sticks to, clings to’
lundti ‘he/she/it cuts, reaps’
khTyati ‘he/she/it wastes away, is
exhausted’
jahati (also jahati) ‘he/she leaves,
abandons’
Past Passive Participle
sanna ‘sunk, subsided,
yielded’
pasanna ‘calmed, pleased’
nisinna ‘sat down’
chinn a ‘cut off
channa ‘covered’
Past Passive Participle
tinna ‘crossed’
cinna ‘walked, moved about’
kitina ‘scattered’
Past Passive Participle
Una ‘stuck to, clung to’
luna ‘cut, reaped’
kluna ‘wasted away,
exhausted’
hum Tow, inferior’
D. The suffix -na added to roots ending in a consonant other than -d- or -r-\
Root Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
bhaj- ‘to divide’ bhajati ‘he/she divides’
bhagga ‘divided’
5. Conjugation 81
5.7.3. Two Forms of the Past Passive Participle
Sometimes, there are two forms of the past passive participle for the same root.
Examples:
Root
lag- ‘to adhere’
gam- ‘to go’
da- ‘to give’
kas- ‘to plow’
Present (3rd person singular) Past Passive Participle
lagati (also laggati ) ‘it adheres’
gacchati ‘he/she goes’
dadati ‘he/she gives’
kasati ‘he/she plows’
lagga ~ lagita ‘adhered’
gata ~ gamita ‘gone’
dinna ~ data ‘given’
kattha ~ kasita ‘plowed’
5.8. Perfect Participle Active
The perfect participle active is formed by adding -va to the past passive participle.
Examples:
Root
pac- ‘to cook’
bhuj- ‘to eat’
kar- ‘to do’
Past Passive Participle
pacita ‘cooked’
bhutta ‘eaten’
kata ‘done’
Perfect Participle Active
pacitava ‘having cooked’
bhuttava ‘having eaten’
katava ‘having done’
Notes:
1. The perfect participles active are declined like (nom. sg. m.) gunava (adj.) ‘virtuous’.
2. These participles can also be fonned with the suffix -vT, in which case the -a- before the -vT is
lengthened to -a-, thus: pacitavi ‘having cooked’; bhuttavi ‘having eaten’; etc.
5.9. Infinitives
Infinitives serve to express the meaning of the verb in the abstract, without regard to
tense, aspect, mood, or person. They may be translated into English by “to ...” or “for the
purpose of ...”, “in order to ...” Infinitives are fonned by adding one of the following suffixes
to the root: -turn; - tave ; -tuye; -tave. Infinitives are used both actively and passively.
5.9.1. The Suffix -turn
The suffix -turn is by far the most common form. The other suffixes are extremely rare,
though -tave occurs more frequently than the remaining two. The suffix -turn is added directly to
roots ending in a vowel. When roots end in a consonant, it may be added by means of the
connecting vowel When added directly to roots ending in a consonant without the
82 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
connecting vowel the initial -t- of -turn is assimilated to or assimilates the final consonant of
the root in exactly the same way as in the formation of the past passive participle.
Examples:
Root
Infinitive
pac- ‘to cook’
khdd- ‘to chew, to bite’
thar- ‘to spread’
pacitum ‘to cook’
khaditum ‘to chew, to bite’
tharitum ‘to spread’
budh- ‘to awaken’
chid- ‘to cut’
bodhitum (also bujjhitum ) ‘to awaken’
chinditum (also chettum) ‘to cut’
da- ‘to give’
tha- ‘to stand’
yd- ‘to go’
datum ‘to give’
tha turn ‘to stand’
yatum ‘to go’
i- ‘to go’
ji- ‘to conquer’
ni- ‘to lead’
si- ‘to lie down, to sleep’
su- ‘to hear’
etwii ‘to go’
jetum ‘to conquer’
netum ‘to lead’
setum (also sayitum) ‘to lie down, to sleep’
sotum (also sunitum) ‘to lead’
labh- ‘to receive’
bhu-j ‘to eat’
gam- ‘to go’
laddhum ‘to receive’
bhottum ‘to eat’
gantum ‘to go’
Notes:
1 . Both the roots and the infinitives cited above are translated with infinitive meanings.
2. Roots ending in -i, -i strengthen these vowels to -e before -turn.
3. Roots ending in -u, -u strengthen these vowels to -o before -turn.
5.9.2. The Suffixes -tave, -tuye, -taye
Examples:
Root
Infinitive
ni- ‘to lead’
ha- ‘to leave, to abandon’
nam- ‘to bend’
dha- ‘to put’
mar- ‘to die’
gan- ‘to count, to reckon’
netave (also netum) ‘to leave’
vippahatave ‘to leave, to abandon’
unnametave ‘to rise up, to ascend’
nidhetave ‘to hide, to bury (a treasure)’
marituye (also maritum) ‘to die’
ganetuye ‘to count, to reckon’
5. Conjugation 83
das- ‘to see, to perceive’ dakkhitaye (also dakkhitum ) ‘to see, to perceive’
Notes:
1 . Several forms of the infinitive are often found for the same root.
5.10. Gerunds
Gerunds are formed by means of the suffixes: -tva; -tvana; -tuna; -ya or -tya (- cca ). The
suffix -tva is the most common form. The other forms are used as substitutes for -tva and are
found in poetry much more than in prose. Gerunds are indeclinable.
5.10.1. The Suffixes -tva, -tvana, -tuna
The suffixes -tva, -tvana, and -tuna are added directly to roots ending in a vowel. When
a root ends in a long vowel, it is shortened before these suffixes.
When roots end in a consonant, these suffixes may be added by means of the connecting
vowel -/-. When they are added directly to roots ending in a consonant without the connecting
vowel the initial -t- of these suffixes may be assimilated to the final consonant of the root.
Occasionally, the final consonant of the root is dropped before these suffixes.
Examples:
Root
Gerund
pac- ‘to cook’
pacitva ‘having cooked’
khad- ‘to chew, to bite’
khaditva ‘having chewed, bitten’
labh- ‘to receive’
labhitva (also laddha ) ‘having received’
m- ‘to lead’
netva ‘having led’
chid- ‘to cut’
chetva ‘having cut’
kar- ‘to do’
katva (also katuna, kattuna) ‘having done’
tha- ‘to stand’
thitva (also thatva) ‘having stood’
bhJ- ‘to fear’
bhit\>a ‘having feared’
da- ‘to give’
datva (also daditva, daditvana ) ‘having given’
bhuj- ‘to eat’
bhutva ‘having eaten’
ji- ‘to conquer’
jitva (also jetva) ‘having conquered’
su- ‘to hear’
sutvd (also sotiinam, sunitva, sunitvana) ‘having heard’
5.10.2. The Suffixes -ya and -tya
Though the suffix -ya is used with simple roots in a few cases, it is mostly used with
roots compounded with prefixes. When added directly to roots ending in a consonant, the initial
-v- of -ya is assimilated to the final consonant of the root. This suffix is added directly to roots
ending in -a, and it may also be added to any root or to the base by means of the connecting
vowel The suffix -tya is regularly changed to -cca.
84 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Examples:
Root
Gerund
sic- ‘to sprinkle’
nisihciya ‘having besprinkled’
jan- ‘to know’
vijaniya ‘having known’
ikkh- ‘to look, to see’
samekkhiya ‘having considered, having looked for’
cint- ‘to perceive’
cintiya ‘having perceived’
bhuj- ‘to eat’
bhuhjiya ‘having eaten’
da- ‘to give’
adaya (also adiya) ‘having received’
ha- ‘to leave, to abandon’
vihaya ‘having left, having abandoned’
ha- ‘to know’
abhihhaya ‘having known’
gah- ‘to take’
gay ha ‘having taken’
gam- ‘to go’
gamma ‘having gone’
vis- ‘to enter’
pavissa ‘having entered’
sad- ‘to sit down’
nisTdiya (also nisajja and nisiditva) ‘having sat down’
kam- ‘to walk, to travel’
akkamma ‘having walked, having traveled’
i- ‘to go’
pecca (< pa+i+tya) ‘having gone’
abhisamecca (< abhi+sam+a+i+tya ) ‘having
comprehended’
paticca (< pati+i+tya ) ‘following from, following upon’
han- ‘to strike, to kill’ ahacca ‘having struck, having killed’
upahacca ‘having destroyed’
uhacca ‘having cut off
har- ‘to carry off, to take ahacca (< a+har+tva ) ‘having carried off, having taken
away’ away’
Notes:
1 . The verb vis- ‘to enter’ is only used in combination with prefixes.
2. Sometimes the -ya is dropped, as in: abhihha ‘having kn own’ (for abhihhaya );
patisankha ‘having pondered, having considered’ (for patisankhaya ); anupada ‘not
having clung to, not having grasped’ (for anupadaya).
3. As is evident from the above, there are often several forms from the same root, as in:
da- ‘to give’, (gerund) datva, daditva, daditvana, dajja ‘having given’; kar- ‘to do’,
(gerund) kariya, karitva, katva, katvana, katuna, kattuna ‘having done’; etc.
5.11. Participle of Necessity
The participle of necessity (also called the “future passive participle”, the “gerundive”, or
the “potential participle”) is formed by adding one of the following suffixes to the root: -tabba;
-ya; - amya ; -Tya.
5. Conjugation 85
This participle is passive in sense and expresses suitability, fitness, or propriety. It may
be translated into English by “fit to be . . “must be . . “ought to be. . “to be ...” that which
is expressed by the root.
These participles, like the others discussed above, are adjectives and are treated as such.
5.11.1. The Suffix -tabba
The suffix -tabba is the most common. It is added directly to roots ending in a vowel.
When roots end in a consonant, it may be added by means of the connecting vowel When
added directly to roots ending in a consonant without the connecting vowel the initial -t- of
-tabba is assimilated to or assimilates the final consonant of the root in exactly the same way as
in the formation of the past passive participle.
Examples:
A. The suffix -tabba added to roots ending in a vowel:
Root
Participle of Necessity
ha- ‘to leave,
to abandon’
da- ‘to give’
pa- ‘to drink’
hatabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be abandoned’
databba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be given’
patabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be drunk’
Notes:
1. Roots ending in -T strengthen these vowels to -e before - tabba : (root) m- ‘to
lead’, (participle of necessity) netabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be
led’; (root) i- ‘to go’, (participle of necessity) etabba ‘fit to be, that must be gone
to’.
2. Roots ending in -u, -u change these vowels to -avi before - tabba : (root) bhu- ‘to
be’, (participle of necessity) bhavitabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be’;
(root) ka- ‘to sing’, (participle of necessity) kavitabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be,
that must be sung’.
3. For su- ‘to hear’, the -u is merely strengthened: (participle of necessity) sotabba
‘fit to be, that ought to be, must be heard’.
B. The suffix -tabba added to roots ending in a consonant by means of the connecting
vowel
Root
Participle of Necessity
pac- ‘to cook’
khan- ‘to dig’
pucch- ‘to ask’
pacitabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be cooked’
khanitabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be dug’
pucchittaba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be asked’
86 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
C. The suffix -tabba added directly to roots ending in a consonant without the connec-
ting vowel
Root
Participle of Necessity
gam- ‘to go’
kar- ‘to do’
labh- ‘to receive’
gantabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be gone to’
kattabba, katabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be done’
laddhabba ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be received’
5.11.2. The Suffix -ya
As a general rule, when the suffix -ya is added directly to roots ending in a consonant, the
initial -y- becomes assimilated to the final consonant of the root according to the usual rules of
assimilation. Sometimes, the vowel of the root is strengthened (as in bhu- ‘to be’ below).
Examples
Root
Participle of Necessity
gam- ‘to go’
gamma (< gam+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be gone
to’
sak- ‘to be able’
khad- ‘to chew,
to bite’
vaj- ‘to avoid’
bhu- ‘to be’
sakka (< sak+va) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be possible’
khajja (< khad+ya, with vowel shortening) ‘fit to be, that ought to
be, that must be chewed, bitten’
vajja (< vaj+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be avoided’
bhabba (< bhav+ya, with strengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to
be, that ought to be, that must be proper, possible’
labh- ‘to obtain’
labbha (< labh+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be
obtained’
bhuj- ‘to eat’
bhojja (< bhoj+ya, with strengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to be,
that ought to be, that must be eaten; edible’
bhid- ‘to break’
lih- ‘to lick’
bhijja (< bhid+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be broken’
levy a (< leh+ya, with strengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to be,
that ought to be, that must be licked’
has- ‘to laugh’
hassa (< has+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be laughed
at’
gah- ‘to take’
kar- ‘to do’
gayha (< gah+ya ) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be taken’
kayya (< kar+ya) ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be done’
In a few cases, the suffix -ya is added to roots by means of the connecting vowel -/-
Examples
Root
Participle of Necessity
kar- ‘to do’
kariya (with lengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to be, that ought to
5. Conjugation 87
be, that must be done’; also kayira (with metathesis)
bhar- ‘to bear, to bhariya (with lengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to be, that ought
support’ to be, that must be supported’
After roots ending in -a or -/, -i, the initial -y- of the suffix -ya is doubled, and the vowel
of the root is changed to e.
Examples
Root
Participle of Necessity
ha- ‘to abandon’
pa- ‘to drink’
da- ‘to give’
ji- ‘to conquer’
m- ‘to lead’
5.11.3. The Suffix -aniya
heyya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be abandoned’
peyya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be drunk’
deyya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be given’
jeyya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be conquered’
neyya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be led’
The suffix -aniya is added to the root or the base.
Examples
Root
Participle of Necessity
pac- ‘to cook’
puj- ‘to honor’
kar- ‘to do’
bhu- ‘to be’
Notes:
pacanlya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be cooked’
pujanlya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be honored’
kar aniya ‘fit to be, that ought to be, that must be done’
bhavamya (with strengthening of the root vowel) ‘fit to be, that
ought to be, that must be proper, possible’
1. The -n- is changed to -n- under the influence of -r- in kar- ‘to do’.
5.12. Denominative Verbs
Denominative stems may be created from any noun, primary or secondary, in the
language. Denominative stems are regularly conjugated by adding the personal endings and
prefixing, as required, the augment and reduplication.
The suffixes used to create denominative stems are as follows: (a) -ay a, -aya, -e; (b) -a;
(c) -Tya, -iya; (d) -ara, -ala (these two are rather rare and are simply alternative forms of -aya);
and (e) -ape.
The denominative stems generally express:
88 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
1 . ‘to act as, to be like, to wish to be like’ that which is denoted by the noun;
2. ‘to wish for, to desire’ that which is denoted by the noun;
3. ‘to change or make into’ that which is denoted by the noun;
4. ‘to use or make use of that which is denoted by the noun.
Examples:
Noun Stem
Denominative Verb (3rd person singular present active)
unha ‘heat’
upakkama ‘plot, plan’
karuna ‘compassion’
gana ‘crowd, multitude, following’
cTvara ‘monk’s (upper) robe’
tan ha ‘craving’
dukkha ‘pain, suffering’
dhana ‘wealth, riches’
patta ‘bowl, alms-bowl’
pabbata ‘a mountain, hill, rock’
party osana ‘end, conclusion’
putta ‘son’
macchara ‘avarice, greed’
metta ‘loving-kindness’
vina ‘lute’
samudda ‘sea, ocean’
samodhana ‘combination’
sukha ‘happiness’
unhapeti ‘to heat up, to warm’
upakkamalati ‘to plot, to make plans’
karunayati ‘to feel compassionate, to show compassion’
ganayati ‘to wish for a following or disciples’
clvarlyati ‘to desire a robe’
tanhdyati ‘to crave’
dukkhapeti ‘to cause pain, suffering’
dhanayati, dhanayati ‘to desire wealth, riches’
pattiyati ‘to wish for a bowl’
pabbatayati ‘to be like a mountain’
pariyosanati ‘to bring to an end’
puttiyati ‘to desire a son, to treat as a son’
maccharayati ‘to be avaricious, greedy, selfish’
mettayati ‘to feel friendly, to show loving-kindness’
vlnayati ‘to play on the lute’
samuddayati ‘to be like the ocean’
samodhaneti ‘to combine, to put together’
sukhapeti ‘to make happy’
Notes:
1. Denominatives can also be formed from adjectives and adverbs.
2. There is an uncommon way of forming denominative verbs from nouns. The first, second, or
third syllable of the noun is reduplicated, and the suffixes -visa or -Tyisa are added to the
word thus reduplicated. The vowels -u- or -i- may or may not be inserted between the
reduplicated syllables. Examples include:
Noun Stem Denominative Verb
putta ‘son’ pupputtlyisati, puttittlyisati ‘to wish to be (as) a son’
kamala ‘lotus flower’ kakamalayisati, kamamaldyisati, kamalalayisati ‘to wish
to be (as) a lotus flower’
3. The passive and causative of all denominative verbs are formed in the usual manner.
Synopsis of the denominative verb puttiyati ‘to desire a son, to treat as a son’ (all finite
forms are 3rd person singular):
5. Conjugation 89
Active
Reflexive
Present
Imperfect
Imperative
Optative
Present Participle
Aorist
Perfect
Future
Conditional
Future Participle
puttiyeyya
puttiyam, puttJyayanto
aputtTyT
[not formed]
puttiyissati
puttiyissa
puttiyissam, puttiyissanto
puttlyati
aputtiya
puttTyatu
puttiyate
aputtiyattha
puttxyatam
puttiyetha
puttiyamd.no, puttiyayano
aputtTyittha
[not formed]
puttiyessate
puttiyissatha
puttiyissamano, puttiyissano
Infinitive Gerund Participle of Necessity
puttiyitum puttiyitva puttiyitabbo
5.13. Verbal Prefixes
Verbal prefixes, or prepositions, are called “ upasagga ” in Pali. They are prefixed to
verbs and verbal derivatives. In general, they modify the meaning of the root or intensify it, and,
sometimes, they totally alter it. In other cases, they add little to the original meaning of the root.
The usual rules of sandhi apply to these prefixes. When a prefix is placed before a tense
with the augment a-, the augment does not change its original position but remains between the
prefix and the root.
The verbal prefixes are as follows:
a ‘to, at, towards, near to, until, as far as, away, all around’.
ati (before vowels = acc) ‘beyond, across, over, past, very much, very’ — it expresses
excess.
adhi (before vowels = ajjh ) ‘over, above, on, upon, superior to, great’ — it expresses
superiority.
anu ‘after, along, according to, near to, behind, less than, in consequence of, beneath’.
apa ‘off, away, away from, forth’ — it also implies detraction, hurt, reverence.
api ‘on, over, unto, close upon’ — This prefix is rarefy used. It is mostly prefixed to the
roots dha- ‘to put, to set, to lay’ and nah- ‘to bind, to join’. In most instances, it is
abbreviated to pi.
abhi (before vowels = abbh ) ‘to, unto, towards, against, in the direction of — it also
expresses excess, reverence, particularity.
ava ‘down, off, away, back, aside, little, less’ — it also implies disrespect, disregard.
ud ‘upwards, above, up, forth, out’.
apa ‘unto, to, towards, near, with, by the side of, as, like, up to, below, less’.
ni (sometimes lengthened to m; before vowels = nir) ‘out, forth, down, into, downwards,
in, under’ .
90 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
pa ‘onward, forward to, forth, fore, towards, with’ — it expresses beginning’.
pati (also pati) ‘against, back to, in reverse direction, back again in return to, towards,
near’.
para ‘away, back, opposed to, aside, beyond’.
pari (often written pali ) ‘around, all around, about, all about, all over’ — it expresses
completeness, etc.
vi ‘asunder, apart, away, without’ — implies separation, distinctness, dispersion.
sam ‘with, along, together, fully, perfectly’
Notes:
1. These prefixes are not only used with verbs but also with verbal derivatives, nouns, and
adjectives.
2. pari, vi, and sam very often merely add an intensive force to the root.
3. After the prefixes samupa, para, pari, and the word pura ‘in front, before’, the verb kar- ‘to
do’ sometimes assumes the form khar-, as in: purakkharoti ‘to put in front, to revere, to
honor’; parikkhara ‘requisite, accessory, equipment’.
Two, and sometimes three, of the above prefixes may be combined. The most common
combinations are:
ajjho (= adhi+o; o = ava)
anupa (= anu+pa )
anupari (= anu+pari )
anusam (= anu+sam )
upasam (= upa+sam)
vya (written by a) (= vi+a)
samabhi (= sam+abhi)
sama (= sam+a )
samud (= sam+ud)
samuda (= sam+ud+a)
samupa (= sam+upa )
Several adverbs are used in much the same way as the verbal prefixes, but their use is
restricted to a few verbs only. They are:
attham (adverb and noun) ‘home; setting, disappearing’ — often used to indicate ‘setting
(of the sun, moon, and stars)’, an idiomatic expression derived from ‘going home’, as
in anatthamite suriye ‘before sunset’, suriyass ’atthagamana ‘at sunset’.
antara ‘among, within, between’ — used with dha- ‘to put, to place’: antaradhayati ‘to
vanish, to disappear’.
alam ‘fit, fit for’ — used with the verb kar- in the sense of ‘decorating’, as in: alankaroti
‘to adorn, to embellish, to decorate’.
avi ‘in full view, in sight, in view, manifestly, visibly’ — it is prefixed to the verbs bhii-
‘to be, to become, to exist’ and kar- ‘to do’, as in: avibhavati ‘to become manifest,
5. Conjugation 91
visible; to appear, to be evident’; avikaroti ‘to make manifest, clear, evident; to
explain, to show’.
tiro ‘out of sight; across, beyond’ — prefixed to the verbs kar- ‘to do’ and dha- ‘to put, to
place’ in the sense of ‘covering, hiding, etc’, as in : tirodhapeti ‘to cover, to veil, to
put out of sight’; tirodhanam ‘a covering, a veil’; tirokaroti ‘to cover over, to draw
across; to veil, to screen’; tirokaram ‘a curtain, a veil’.
patu (before vowels = patur ) ‘forth to view, manifestly, evidently’ — it is mostly used
with the verbs bhu- ‘to be, to become, to exist’ and kar- ‘to do’, as in: patubhavati
‘to become manifest, evident, clear; to appear, to arise’, patubhava ‘appearance,
manifestation’; patukaroti ‘to make manifest, clear, evident; to produce’.
pur a ‘in front, before’ — used almost exclusively with kar- ‘to do’, as in: purakkharoti
‘to put or place in front, to appoint or make a person a leader’. ■
6
Indeclinables
6.1. Introduction
The indeclinables (“ nipata ” in Pali) include adverbs, prepositions and postpositions,
conjunctions, and interjections.
1. Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, or clauses by
expressing time, place, manner, degree, cause, etc. They answer the questions “how?”,
“when?”, and “where?”
2. Prepositions and postpositions are relation or function words that connect nouns, noun
phrases, and pronouns to other elements of a sentence. Prepositions precede the nouns, noun
phrases, and pronouns they connect, while postpositions follow. The combination of a
preposition and its object is called a “prepositional phrase”.
3. Conjunctions are uninflected words used to connect other words, phrases, and sentences.
Conjunctions may be: (a) “coordinating” (and, but, or, etc.); (b) “subordinating” (if when,
as, because, though, etc.); or (c) “correlative” (either ...or, both. ..and, etc.).
4. Interjections are exclamations, such as: ah!, oh!, ouch!, well!, etc.
6.2. Adverbs
There is a large body of words and forms in Pali used as adverbs, and some of these
sometimes seem to have a distinct prepositional force. There are also a few that seem to have a
distinct conjunctive force.
There are four classes of words and forms used as adverbs:
1 . Case-form adverbs;
2. Derivative adverbs;
3. Prefixes;
4. Miscellaneous adverbs.
Case-form adverbs consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and absolute words that have
become fixed as adverbs. The cases thus used are: (1) the accusative, most frequently; (2) the
instrumental, quite frequently; (3) the ablative and locative, less frequently; (4) the dative, more
rarely; and (5) the genitive, quite rarely.
94 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Examples:
Accusative case:
idatii ‘here’
kith ‘why?’
tahi ‘there’
yam ‘because, since’
divas am ‘during the day’
rattim ‘at night’
saccam ‘truly’
khippam ‘quickly’
dram ‘a long time’
mandam ‘stupidly’
arum ‘presently’
alum ‘enough’
is a hi ‘a little, somewhat’
jatu ‘surely, certainly’
tunhi ‘silently’
bahi ‘outside’
mitho, mithu ‘one another, mutually’
raho ‘in secret, secretly’
sajju ‘immediately’
say am ‘a little, somewhat’
Instrumental case:
ten a ‘therefore’
yena ‘because’
divasena ‘in a day’
masena ‘in a month’
diva ‘by day’
sahasa ‘suddenly’
antarena ‘within’
uttarena ‘to the north’
cirena ‘long’
dakkhinena ‘to the south’
Ablative case:
ara ‘far off
6. Indeclinables 95
kasma ‘why?’
tasma ‘therefore’
paccha ‘behind’
yasma ‘because’
hettha ‘below’
Locative case:
avidure ‘not far’
dure ‘far’
bahire ‘outside’
bhuvi ‘on earth, on the earth’
rahasi ‘privately, secretly’
samlpe, santike ‘near’
Dative case:
atthaya ‘for the sake of, for the purpose of
dray a ‘for a long time’
hitaya ‘for the benefit of
Genitive case:
kiss a ‘why?’
cirassa ‘long’
hetussa ‘causally’
Derivative adverbs are formed, to some extent, from nouns and adjectives and a few from
other adverbs and prepositions. However, the majority of them are formed from pronouns. The
suffixes used are as follows:
1. Suffixes of place: -to; -tra; -tta; -ttha; -dha; -ha; -ham; -him.
2. Suffixes of time: -da, -di; -dani, -danirh; -rhi, -rahi.
3. Suffixes of manner: -tha; -iti, -ti; -iva, -va, -viva; -eva, -yeva, -heva; -evam.
4. Suffixes of distribution: -dha, -dhi; -khattum; -so, -sa.
5. Suffixes of indefiniteness: -d; -apa; -cana.
Examples:
abhito ‘near’
orato ‘from the near shore’
dakkhinato ‘southerly, on the south’
parato ‘further’
pacinato ‘easterly, on the east’
parato ‘from the further shore’
pitthito ‘from the surface, from the back, etc.’
96 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
sabbat o ‘everywhere’
anhatha, annatara ‘everywhere’
ubhavattha ‘in both places’
sabbattha ‘everywhere’
ekada ‘once’
sada, sabbada ‘at all times, always’
sabbadhi ‘everywhere’
balasa ‘forcibly’
atthaso ‘according to the sense’
bahuso ‘in a great degree’
Adverbial prefixes are indeclinables that are prefixed to the roots from which verb stems
and, less frequently, noun stems are formed. In general, when a prefix is part of a noun stem, it
assumes the force of an adjective. The following prefixes are among the most common:
a- {an- before vowels) ‘not’
ati- ‘over, beyond, past, in excess’
adhi- ‘above, over, on, on to’
anu- ‘after, under, along, toward’
anto-, antara- ‘within, between, among’
apa- ‘away, forth, off
api- ‘unto, on, upon, over’
abhi- ‘to, unto, toward, against’
ava-, o- ‘down, off
a- ‘to, toward, unto’ (this prefix reverses the meaning of a few roots)
avi- ‘manifestly, openly’
u-, ud- ‘up, out, forth, away’
upa- ‘below, under, less; near to’
tiro- ‘across, beyond, over’
du- {dur- before vowels) ‘bad, ill; hard, difficult’
ni- ‘down’
ni-, nir- ‘outward, away; not’
pa- ‘forward, forth, towards’
pati-,pati- ‘backward, reversed, in return’
para- ‘away, forth, at a distance’
pari- ‘around, about’
patu- {pdtur- before vowels) ‘manifestly, openly’
vi- ‘apart, asunder, away, from; not’
sam-, sa- ‘along with, together’
su- ‘well, favorable, easy’
6. Indeclinables 97
Notes:
1. Frequently, two or more of these prefixes are used at the same time in combination
with a single root (see Chapter 5, §5.13, for additional information).
2. Only the most general meanings are given above. Many variations in meaning occur,
especially when these prefixes are combined with each other.
3. Frequently, the meaning of the root to which the prefix is attached is not changed but
merely intensified.
4. Initial consonants are generally doubled after du- ‘bad, ill; hard, difficult’ but rarely
after su- ‘well, favorable, easy’.
Miscellaneous adverbs consist of a number of words used as adverbs which do not fit in
the other classes. A few of the most common and important are:
atha, atho ‘and, also, then, etc.’
kira, kila ‘they say, we are told that’
kva ‘where?’
khalu ‘indeed’
kho ‘indeed, really, surely, perhaps’
tu ‘now, indeed’
na ‘no, not; un-, non-; in-, im-, il-, ir-; etc.’ (negative particle)
nanu — used to ask questions for which an affirmative answer is expected
nana ‘variously’
nu ‘now’ — also used to ask simple questions
niina ‘surely, perhaps’
tnd ‘do not . . . ’ (prohibitive particle; it is often used with the aorist)
hi ‘for, because; indeed, surely’
6.3. Prepositions and Postpositions
As discussed in Chapter 5, §5.13, verbal prefixes are properly prepositions, and they can
be used with nouns as well as with verbs.
There is no special class of words in Pali used to govern nouns. For the most part, the
case forms are used to indicate relationships with other elements in a sentence. However, some
adverbs, especially the adverbial prefixes listed above, are frequently used with prepositional
force, some of the most important being: ati; adhi ; anw, anto, antara ; apa\ a\ avi; upa; tiro', and
pad, pad. To these may be added the following:
ad ho ‘under, below’
purato ‘in front of, before’
hahi, bahim ‘out of, without’
rite ‘except, without’
vina ‘without, except’
saddhim ‘with, together with’
saha ‘together with, accompanying’
98 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Case forms of nouns, when not fixed in adverbial or prepositional usage, frequently
determine the case of nouns with which these words are used. Words used as prepositions may
govern any case except the nominative and vocative. Most of the verbal prefixes require that the
nouns be in one case or another.
Words with prepositional force follow the nouns that they govern.
6.4. Conjunctions
There are very few conjunctions in Pali. The frequent use of compounds, of the absolute
construction, of the particle iti ‘thus’, and especially of the gerund, greatly reduces the need for
conjunctions.
Many adverbs, especially derivatives from the relative pronoun stem, have a conjunctive
force.
Examples include:
1 . Copulative:
atha ‘and, then, now’
atho ‘and also, then’
ca ‘and, also, but, even’ (never used at the beginning of a sentence)
2. Disjunctive:
atha va ‘or else, rather’
uda ‘or’
uda va ox va ... va ‘either ... or’
tatha va ‘nevertheless’
na va ‘or not’
yadi va ‘whether’
yadi va ... yadi va ‘whether or’
va ‘or’ (never used at the beginning of a sentence)
3. Conditional:
ce ‘if (never used at the beginning of a sentence)
noce ‘if not’
yadi evarh, yajj ’evarh ‘if so’
yadi sace ‘if
4. Causal:
hi ‘for, because; certainly’
6. Indeclinables 99
6.5. Interjections
Pali has the following interjections:
are, re ‘I say!, hey!’
ahaha ‘alas!, oh!, ah!’
aho vata ‘oh!, ah!’
dhi, dhl ‘shame!, fie!, woe!’
bhane ‘I say!, to be sure!’
bho ‘friend!, sir!’
marine ‘why!, methi nk s!’
sadhu ‘well done!, well said!, excellent!, very good!’
he‘o h!’ ■
7
Compounds
7.1. Introduction
Declinable noun stems are frequently joined together to form compounds. In the older
language, compounds are simple and rarely consist of more than two or three stems, but they
become more complicated in the later language. The case endings of the first member or
members of a compound are generally dropped. There are only a few instances in which they are
preserved.
Compounds may also have an indeclinable as the first member. There are even a few
compounds made up entirely of indeclinables.
There are six kinds of compounds in Pali:
1. dvanda: copulative compounds;
2. tappurisa : determinative compounds;
3. kammadharaya (also called missakatappurisa ): descriptive compounds;
4. digu: numeral compounds;
5. abyayibhava : adverbial compounds;
6. bahubbihi : relative, or possessive, compounds.
7.2. Dvanda Compounds (Copulative Compounds)
The members of these compounds are co-ordinate syntactically. In their uncompounded
state, each member would be connected with the other by means of the conjunction ca ‘and’.
There are two kinds of dvanda compounds:
1 . The compound is a plural and takes the gender and declension of its last member;
2. The compound takes the form of a neuter singular and, no matter how many members it
contains, becomes a collective. Such compounds are called “ samahara ” in Pali. This is
generally the case with the names of: birds; parts of the body; persons of different sexes;
countries; trees; herbs; the cardinal points; domestic animals; things that form an antithesis;
etc. Sometimes, these compounds appear as plurals like those in (1). Such compounds are
called “ itaritara ” in Pali. Those compounds that can take either the neuter singular or the
plural are called “ vikappasamahara ” in Pali.
102 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
The following rules determine the order of the members of dvanda compounds:
1 . Words ending in -i and -u are placed first;
2. Shorter words are placed before longer ones;
3. f and u are usually shortened to i and u in the middle of a compound;
4. Sometimes, a feminine noun in the middle of a compound is changed to the masculine form
(as in candimasuriya ‘the sun and the moon’); sometimes, a feminine noun in the middle of a
compound remains unchanged (as in jaramaranam. ‘decay and death’).
Examples of dvanda compounds in which the compound is a plural:
samanabrahmana = samana ca brahmana ca ‘ascetics and Brahmins’
devamanussa = dev a ca manussd ca ‘gods (celestial beings) and men’
devamanussanam = devanan ca manussanan ca ‘of gods and men’
candimasuriya = candima ca suriyo ca ‘the sun and the moon’
aggidhiimd = aggi ca dhumo ca ‘fire and smoke’
dhammattha = dhammo ca attho ca: attha refers to the primary meaning of the
word, while dhamma refers to interpreted meaning of the text, to its bearing
on the doctrine and disciplinary rules: ‘the letter and the spirit (of the doctrine
and the disciplinary rules)’
sariputtamoggallane = sariputte ca moggallane ca ‘in Sariputta and in
Moggallana’
Examples of dvanda compounds which take the form of a neuter singular:
mukhanasikam = mukhan ca nasika ca ‘the mouth and the nose’
chavimamsalohitam = chavi ca marhsan ca lohitaii ca ‘the skin, flesh, and blood’
jaramaranam = jara ca maranah ca ‘old age and death’
hatthapddam or hatthapada = hattha ca pada ca ‘the hands and the feet’
hatthinassam = hatthino ca assa ca ‘elephants and horses’
kusalakusalam or kusalakusala = kusalam akusalan ca ‘wholesome and unwhole-
some’
7.3. Tappurisa Compounds (Determinative Compounds)
In these compounds, the first member is a substantive in any case except the nominative
and vocative, qualifying, explaining, or determining the last member.
Notes:
1 . The case ending of the first member is generally elided.
2. In a few cases, the case ending of the first member is not elided. Such compounds are called
“ alutta tappurisa ” in Pali.
3. The -a of words such as raja ‘king, sovereign’, mdtd ‘mother \ pita ‘father’, bhata ‘brother’,
etc. is shortened when they are the first member of a tappurisa compound.
7. Compounds 103
4. Generally, a tappurisa compound takes the gender of the final member.
Examples of tappurisa with the accusative case ( dutiva tappurisa ):
arahnagato = arannam gato ‘gone to the forest’
sukhapatto = sukharh patto ‘attained happiness’
saccavadi = saccam vadi ‘speaking the truth’
kumbhakaro = kumbham karo ‘a pot-maker, a potter’
pattagaho =pattam gaho ‘receiving a bowl’
atthakamo = attham kamo ‘wishing the welfare of
Examples of tappurisa with the instrumental case ( tatiya tappurisa ):
buddhabhasito = buddhena bhasito ‘spoken by the Buddha’
vihfiugarahito = vinnuhi garahito ‘censured by the wise’
sukahatam = sukehi ahatam ‘brought by parrots’
jaccandho =jatiya andho ‘blind from birth’
urago = urena go ‘going on the chest’, that is, ‘a snake’
padapo =padena po ‘drinking with the foot (root)’, that is, ‘a tree’
asikalaho = asina kalaho ‘a combat with swords’
Notes:
1. In some tappurisa compounds, a word necessary to express the full meaning, is
completed elided, as in:
gulodano = gulena samsattho odano ‘rice mixed with molasses’
assaratho = assena yutto ratho ‘a carriage yoked with horses, a horse carriage’
Examples of tappurisa with the dative case ( catuttha tappurisa ):
kathinadussam = kathinassa dussam ‘cloth of the kathina robe’
sanghabhattam = sanghassa bhattam ‘rice (prepared) for the Sangha’
buddhadeyyam = buddhassa deyyam ‘worthy to be offered to the Buddha’
rajaraham = rahho arahath ‘worthy of the king’
Notes:
1. In these compounds, the final member designates the object destined for or attributed
to that which is expressed by the first member.
2. Compounds formed by adding kamo ‘desirous (of)’ to an infinitive are considered to
belong here. Examples include:
kathetukamo = kathetum kamo ‘desirous to speak’
sotukamo = sotum kamo ‘desirous to hear’
gantukamo = gantum kamo ‘desirous to go’
104 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Examples of tappurisa with the ablative case {pancama tappurisa ):
nagaraniggato = nagaramha niggato ‘gone out of town’
rukkhapatito = rukkhasma patito ‘fallen from the tree’
sasanacuto = sasanamha cuto ‘fallen away from the religion’
corabhTto = cord bhito ‘afraid of the thief
papabhJruko =papato bhiruko ‘fearing evil’
papajigucchT = papato jigucchV loathing evil’
bandhanamokkho = bandhanasma mokkho ‘freedom from the bonds’
lokaggo = lokato aggo ‘greater than the world’
matujo = matito jo ‘born from a mother’
Examples of tappurisa with the genitive case ( chattha tappurisa ):
rajaputto = ranno putto ‘the king’s son’
dhannarasi = dhannanam rasi ‘a heap of grains’
naditTram = nadiya tiram ‘the bank of the river’
bhikkhunisangho = bhikkhumnam sangho ‘the BhikkhunI Sangha’
naruttamo = naranam uttamo ‘the greatest of men’
Notes:
1 . tappurisa compounds in the genitive are by far the most common.
2. Final -f and -u of the first member are usually shortened to -i and -u, respectively.
3. The word ratti ‘night’ takes the form rattam at the end of a tappurisa compound.
Examples of tappurisa with the locative case ( sattama tappurisa ):
arannavaso = arane vaso ‘living in the forest’
danajjhasayo = dane ajjhasayo ‘inclined to alms-giving’
dhammarato = dhamme rato ‘delighting in the teachings’
vanacaro = vane caro ‘walking in the woods’
thalattho = thale tho ‘standing on firm ground’
pabbatattho = pabbatasmim tho ‘standing on a mountain’
Irregular tappurisa compounds:
1 . Sometimes the first member of a tappurisa compound is placed last:
rajahamso (also hamsaraja) = hamsanam raja ‘the swan-king’
2. In alutta tappurisa compounds, the case endings are not dropped:
pabbankaro =pabbam karo ‘making light’, that is, ‘the sun’
vessantaro = vessarii taro ‘crossing over to the merchants’ (the name of a king)
7. Compounds 105
parassapadam = parassa padam ‘word for another’, that is, the ‘active voice’
attanopadam = attano padam ‘word of oneself, that is, the ‘reflexive voice’
kutojo = kuto jo ‘sprung from where?’
antevasiko = ante vasiko ‘a pupil within’, that is ‘a resident pupil’
urasilomo = urasi (locative) lomo ‘having hair on the chest, hairy-chested’
Notes:
1. The case of the first member may be any case except the nominative and
vocative.
7.4. Upapada Compounds
When the second member of a dutiya tappurisa compound is a primary (kit a) derivative,
and the first member of a noun is in the accusative relation, the compound is called “upapada” .
Such a compound may be called indifferently: “ upapada ”, “upapada tappurisa”, or, simply,
“tappurisa” .
Examples:
atthakamo = attham kamo ‘wishing for the welfare of ( kamo is a kita derivative)
kumabhakaro = kumbham karo ‘a pot-maker, a potter’ ( karo is a kita derivative)
pattagaho =pattam gaho ‘receiver of the bowl’
rathakd.ro = ratham karo ‘carriage maker, Cartwright’
brahmacan = brahmam can ‘one who leads the holy life’
dhammahhu = dhammam hu ‘he who knows the teaching’
7.5. Kammadharaya Compounds (Descriptive Compounds)
In kammadharaya compounds, the adjective mahant ‘great, big, extensive, important’
assumes the form maha-, or, if the consonant which follows is doubled, maha-. In certain
compounds, the combination with maha- has become so established and customary that the
compound is viewed as an inseparable unity in which the second member either no longer occurs
as an independent word or, if it does occur, only very rarely.
The word sant ‘being, existing; good true’ becomes sa-. The word puman ‘man, male’
becomes pum-. The prefix na ‘not’ becomes a- before a consonant and an- before a vowel. The
stem ku (laid-, kum-) ‘bad, wrong, little’ may be replaced by ka- before a consonant and kad-
before a vowel.
When two members of a kammadharaya compound are feminine, the first one takes the
form of a masculine. Sometimes, the last member of a kammadharaya compound is also
changed from the feminine form to the masculine form.
kammadharaya compounds are divided into nine classes:
1 . visesanapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the determining or qualifying word is placed
first, as in:
106 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
mahapuriso = mahanto puriso ‘a great person’
mahanadi = mahantl nadT ‘a large river’
mahabbhayam = mahantam bhayam ‘great fear’
aparapuriso = aparo puriso ‘another person’
kanhasappo = kanho sappo ‘a black snake’
mluppalam = mlath uppalam ‘a blue lotus’
2. visesanaparapada, or vivesanuttarapada, kammadharaya, in which the second member
determines or qualifies the first, as in:
narasettho = naro settho ‘the oldest man’
purisuttamo = puriso uttamo ‘the most important person’
buddhaghosacariyo = buddhaghoso acariyo ‘the teacher Buddhaghosa’
sdriputtathero = sariputto thero ‘the elder Sariputta’
3. visesanobhayapada kammadharaya, in which both members are determinate or qualifying.
In such compounds, a word (such as so or he) is generally understood to stand between the
two members of these compounds. Examples include:
sTtunham = sitam (tan ca) unham ‘hot (and) cold’
khahjakhujjo = khahjo (ca so) khujjo ‘lame (and) hump-backed’
andhabadhiro = andho (ca so) badhiro ‘blind (and) deaf
katakatam = katam (ca tarn) akatam ‘done (and) not done’
4. sambhavanapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the first member indicates the origin of the
second member, or the relationship of the second term to the first. In such compounds,
words such as the following are generally understood to stand between the two members of
these compounds in order to bring out the full meaning: iti ‘namely, thus’; eva/ii ‘thus’;
samkhdto ‘called, named’; halva ‘being’. Examples include:
hetupaccayo = beta (hutva) paccayo ‘the term being, or considered as, the cause; the term
which is the cause or condition’
aniccasahha = anicca iti sahna ‘the perception, namely, impermanence’
hinasamato = hino hutva samato ‘equal in being low, unworthy, inferior’
dhammabuddhi = dhammo iti buddhi ‘knowledge (arising from) the teachings’
attaditthi = atta itti ditthi ‘the false view of Self
5. upama, or upamanuttarapada, kammadharaya, in which analogy is expressed between the
two terms. In such compounds, the word viya ‘like’ is understood to stand between the two
members. Examples include:
buddhadicco = adicco viya buddho ‘the sun-like Buddha’
munisiho = siho viya muni ‘lion-like sage’
saddhammaramsi = rarhsi viya saddhammo ‘light- like good teachings’
7. Compounds 107
Notes:
1. The words adicca ‘sun’, siha ‘lion’, pungava ‘bull’, usabha ‘bull’, naga ‘elephant’, are
frequently used in such compounds to denote superiority, greatness, excellence, or
eminence, so that buddhadicco may be translated as ‘the eminent Buddha’, munisiho ‘the
great sage’, munipungavo ‘the eminent sage’, etc.
6. avadharanapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the first member specifies a general term.
In order to resolve these compounds, the native grammarians insert the word eva ‘just, even’
(but which cannot be properly translated into English) between the two members. In English,
these compounds must be translated as if they were in a genitive relationship. Examples
include:
gunadhanam = guno eva dhanam ‘a wealth of virtues’
siladhanam = silam eva dhanam ‘the treasure of morality’
pahndsattham = p anna eva sattham ‘the sword of wisdom’
pahhdpajjoto = pahha eva pajjoto ‘the light of wisdom’
avijjamald = avijja eva malam ‘the stain of ignorance’
7. kunipatapubbapada kammadharaya, the first member of which is kit. Examples include:
kuputto = ku+putto ‘a bad son’
kudasa = ku+dasa ‘bad slaves’
kadannam = kad+annam ‘bad food’
kapuriso = ka+puriso ‘a low, vile, or contemptible person’
kadariyo = kad+ariyo ‘ignoble’
kalavanam = ka+lavanam ‘a little salt’
8. nanipatapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the prefix a- (before a consonant) / an- (before
a vowel) ‘not’ is the first member of the compound. Examples include:
anariyo = an+ariyo ‘ignoble’
aniti = an+iti ‘free from calamity’
aniimi = an+umi ‘not having waves, waveless’
anatikkama = an+atikkama ‘not transgressing’
anatthakamo = an+atthakamo ‘not wishing for the welfare of
9. padipubbapada kammadharaya, in which the first member is pa (pa) ‘forth, forward; to a
higher degree’, or any other prefix. Examples include:
pavacanam = pa+vacanam ‘the excellent word’, that is, ‘the word of the Buddha’
pamukho = pa+mukho ‘facing, in front of, first, foremost, chief
vikappo = vi+kappo ‘thinking over, considering; thought, consideration’
atidevo = ati+deva ‘supreme god’
abhidhammo = abhi+dhammo ‘higher doctrine’
uddhammo = ud+dhammo ‘wrong or false doctrine’
108 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
ubbinayo = ud+vinayo ‘wrong discipline’
sugandho = su+gandho ‘good smell, fragrance’
dukkatam = du+katam ‘a bad deed’
Notes:
1. Nouns in apposition are considered to be kammadharaya compounds. Example include:
vinayapitakam = vinaya+pitakam ‘the Vinaya Pitaka’
angdjanapadam = anga+janapadam ‘the Province of Bengal (Anga)’
magadharattham = magadha+rattham ‘the Kingdom of Magadha’
cittogahapati = cito+gahapati ‘Citta, the householder’
2. Sometimes, when the last member of a kammadharaya compound is feminine, it assumes the
masculine form, as in:
dighajangho = digha+jangha (feminine) ‘long-legged’
7.6. Digu Compounds (Numeral Compounds)
When a numeral occurs as the first member of a digu compound, the stem only is used.
There are two kinds of digu compounds:
1 . samahara digu, which, considered as a collective, takes the form of a neuter singular.
Examples include:
tilokam = ti+lokarh ‘the three worlds’ (collectively)
tiratanam = ti+ratanam ‘the Three Jewels’ (collectively)
catusaccam = catu+saccam ‘the Four Truths’ (collectively)
sattaham = satta+aham ‘seven days’ (collectively), hence, ‘a week’
pahcasikkhapadam = pahca+sikkhapadam ‘the Five Precepts’ (collectively)
dvirattam = dvi+ratti (see note below) ‘two nights’
tivangulam = fi(+epenthetic v)+anguli (see note below) ‘three fingers’
navasatam = nava+satarii ‘nine hundred’
catusahassam = catu+sahassaih ‘four thousand’
Notes:
1. When they occur as the last member of a digu compound, some words change
their final vowel to a, if it is other than a.
2. asamahara digu, which takes the form of a plural. Examples include:
tibhava = ti+bhava ‘the three states of existence’
catudisa = catu+disa ‘the four quarters’
7. Compounds 109
pancindriyani = panca+indriydni ‘the five faculties’
sakatasatani = sakata+satani ‘one hundred carts’
catusatani = catu+satani ‘four hundreds’
dvisatasahassani = dvi+sata+sahassani ‘two hundred thousand’
7.7. Abyayibhava Compounds (Adverbial Compounds)
In abyayibhava compounds, the first member is an indeclinable. The last member
generally assumes the form of the accusative singular in -m, and the entire compound is, itself,
indeclinable.
If the final vowel of the last member is -a, it is replaced by -am. Other long vowels are
shortened.
Examples include:
upagangam = upa+gangayam (locative) ‘near the Ganges’
upanagaram = upa+nagaram (locative) ‘near the town’
upagu = upa+gunnam (plural) ‘near the cows’
anuratham = anu+rathe ‘behind the chariot’
yavajlvam =yava+jTva (ablative) ‘as long as life lasts’
antopasadam = anto+pasadassa ‘within the palace’
anuvassam = anu+vassam ‘year after year, every year’
anugharam = anu+gharam ‘house after house, in every house’
yathabalam = yatha+balena ‘according to (one’s) power’
pativatam = pati+vatam (accusative) ‘against the wind’
tiropabbatam = pabbatassa+tiro ‘across the mountain’
uparipabbatam = pabbatassa+upari ‘upon the mountain’
patisotam = sotassa+patilomam ‘against the stream’
adhogangam = gangaya+adho ‘below the Ganges’
upavadhu = upa+vadhu ‘near (his) wife’
adhikumari = adhi+kumara ‘the young girl’
Sometimes, however, the case ending is retained. The cases thus retained are mostly the
ablative and locative. The ablative ending, in particular, may be retained when the indeclinable
is one of the following: pari, apa, a, bahi, yava, etc. In many cases, a parallel neuter form also
occurs for the same compound. Examples include:
yavajiva or yavajivam ‘as long as life lasts’
apapabbata or apapabbatam ‘away from the mountain’
bahigama or bahigamam ‘outside the village’
abhavagga or abhavaggam ‘the highest state of experience’
puraruna or purdrunam (= arunamha+pure ) ‘before daylight’
pacchabhatta or pacchabhattarii ‘after the meal’
tiropabbata or tiropabbate (locative) or tiropabbatam ‘on the other side of the mountain’
anto avicimhi (locative) ‘in hell’
110 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
anutire ‘along the ba nk ’
antaravithiyam (locative) ‘in the street’
bahisaniyam (locative) ‘outside the curtain’
7.8. Bahubbihi Compounds (Relative, or Possessive, Compounds)
When bahubbihi compounds are resolved into their component parts, they often require
the addition of pronouns such as: ‘one, who, that, which, etc.’ in order to express their full
meaning when translated into English — these compounds take the place of a relative clause. A
bahubbihi compound is used as an adjective and, therefore, the final member takes on the forms
of the three genders, that is, it agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun it qualifies.
In effect, all of the compounds discussed above ( dvanda , tappurisa, kammadharava,
digu, abyayibhava ) become bahubbihi compounds if used as adjectives.
The following are the different kinds of bahubbihi compounds:
1 . pathama-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word which it qualifies a nominative relation:
lohitamakkhitam mukham = lohitena makkhitam mukham ‘a mouth besmeared with blood’;
lohitamakkhitam ‘blood-besmeared’ is the bahubbihi
susajjitam puram ‘a well-decorated city’; susajjitam ‘well-decorated’ is the bahubbihi
2. dutiya-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word which it qualifies an accusative relation:
agatasamano sanghdrdmo = imam sangharamam samano agato ‘the monastery into which
the ascetic came’; agatasamano ‘came-into-ascetic’ is the bahubbihi
aruUianaro rukkho = so naro imam rukkham arulho ‘the tree into which the man climbed’;
arulhanaro ‘climbed-into-man’ is the bahubbihi
3. tatiya-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word it qualifies an instrumental relation:
jitindriyo samano = vena jitani indriyani samano ‘the ascetic by whom the senses have been
subdued’ ; jitindriyo ‘subdued-senses’ is the bahubbihi
vijitamaro bhagava = so bhagava vena maro vijito ‘the Blessed One by whom Mara has been
vanquished’; vijitamaro ‘vanquished-Mara’ is the bahubbihi
4. catuttha-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word it qualifies a dative relation:
dinnasunko puriso = yassa sunko dinno so ‘the one to whom tax, or tribute, is given’, that is,
‘a tax collector’; dinnasunko ‘tax-given; tribute-given’ is the bahubbihi
upanitabhojano samano = so samano yassa bhojanam upanitam ‘the ascetic to whom food is
given’; upanitabhojano ‘food-given’ is the bahubbihi
5. pahcami-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word it qualifies an ablative relation:
7. Compounds 1 1 1
niggatajano gamo = asma gamasma jcina niggata ‘the village from which people have
departed’; niggatajano ‘departed-people’ is the bahubbihi
apagatakalakam vattham = idam vattham yasma kalaka apagata ‘the cloth from which the
black spots have been removed’, that is, ‘a cloth free from black spots’; apagatakalakam
‘removed-black spots’ is the bahubbihi
6. chatthi-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word it qualifies a genitive relation:
chinn ahattho puriso = so puriso yassa hattho chinno ‘one whose hands have been cut off ;
chinnahattho ‘hands-cut off is the bahubbihi
visuddhasilo jano = so jano yassa silaiii visuddham ‘one whose conduct is pure’; visuddha-
silo ‘pure-conduct’ is the bahubbihi
7. sattami-bahubbihi — the bahubbihi gives the word it qualifies a locative relation:
sampannasasso janapado = yasmim janapade sassani sampannani ‘a district in which crops
are abundant’; sampannasasso ‘abundant-crops’ is the bahubbihi
bahujano gamo = yasmim game babu jana honti ‘a village in which there are many people’;
bahujano ‘many-people’ is the bahubbihi
Notes:
1. The word qualified by the bahubbihi compound is often understood or implied and not
expressed. Examples include:
dinnasunko ‘the one to whom tax, or tribute, is given’, that is, ‘a tax collector’
jitindriyo ‘the ascetic by whom the senses have been subdued’
lohitamakkhito ‘besmeared with blood’
sattahaparinibbuto ‘dead for a week’
somanasso ‘joyful’, literally, ‘one in whom joy has arisen’
chinnahattho ‘one whose hands have been cut off
masajato ‘a month old’, literally, ‘one who was born one month ago’
vijitamd.ro ‘the one by whom Mara has been vanquished’, an epithet of the Buddha
2. In some bahubbihi compounds, the qualifying word may be placed either first or last without
any change in meaning, as in:
hatthachinno or chinnahattho ‘one whose hands have been cut off
jatamaso or masajato ‘a month old’
3. Feminine nouns ending in -i or -u, as well as stems ending in -tu (= -ta), generally add the
suffix -ka when they are the last member of a bahubbihi. These vowels are then shortened to
-I and -u, respectively, before the -ka. Possession is then implied. Examples include:
bahukattuko deso ‘a place where there are many artisans’; bahukattuko ‘many-artisans’ is the
bahubbihi
112 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
bahukumarikam. kulam ‘a family in which there are many girls’; bahukumarikam ‘many-
girls’ is the bahubbihi
bahunadiko janapado ‘a district in which there are many rivers’; bahunadiko ‘many-rivers’ is
the bahubbihi
4. When a feminine noun is the last member of a bahubbihi, it takes the masculine form if it is
qualifying a masculine noun, and the first member, if also feminine, drops the mark of the
feminine, as in:
digha jangha ‘a long leg’: dighajangha itlhi ‘a long-legged woman’, but dighajangho puriso
‘a long-legged man’
5. The adjective maha ‘great’ may be used as the first member of a bahubbihi, as in:
mahapahho ‘very wise’, literally, ‘(of) great-wisdom’
6. Sometimes, -a is added to the words dhanu ‘a bow’ and dhamma ‘teaching, doctrine’ when
they are the last members of a bahubbihi compound:
gandhivadhanu = gandhivadhanvd ‘one who has a strong bow’, an epithet of Arjuna
paccakkhadhammd besides paccakkhadhammo ‘one to whom the teaching is apparent’
7.9. Anomalous Compounds
A few compounds occur which are anomalous in their formation in that they are made up
of words not usually compounded together. Such compounds are probably very early formations
and, consequently, must be reckoned among the oldest in the language. Examples include:
vitatho = vi+tathd ‘false, unreal’
yathatatho = yatha+tatha ‘real, true, as it really is’
itiha = iti+ha (lengthened to ha) ‘thus indeed’
itihasa = iti+ha+asa ‘thus indeed it was’
itihitiha = iti+ha+ititha : the same as itiha, itihasa
itivuttam = iti+vuttam ‘thus it was said’
itivuttaka = iti+vuttam+ka (suffix): the same as itivuttam', the name of a book in the Pali
scriptures
ahhamahham = anham+anham ‘one another’
paramparo = param+para ‘successive’, as in uppattiparampara ‘successive births’
ahamahamika = aham+aham+ka (suffix) ‘egoism, arrogance, conceit’
7.10. Complex Compounds
Compounds may themselves become either the first or the last member of another
compound, or two compounds may be joined together to form a new one, and this new one again
7. Compounds 113
may become a member of another compound, and so on to almost any length, thus fonning
compounds within compounds. These compounds are mostly used relatively, that is, they are
bahubbThi compounds. It should be noted that, the older the language is, the fewer complex
compounds there are, and, the later the language, the more numerous they become. It therefore
follows that the presence of long compounds is an indication of the relatively late age of a text.
Examples:
varanarukkhamule ‘at the foot of the varana tree ( Crataeva roxburghii )’ is a tappurisa
compound in the genitive relation, and is resolved as follows: varanarukkhasa mule;
varanarukkhasa is itself a kammadharaya compound = varana eva rukkha. Thus, it
is a tappurisa compound, the first member of which is a kammadharaya compound.
maranabhayatajjito ‘terrified by the fear of death’ is a bahubbThi qualifying an implied
noun; it is a tappurisa compound in the instrumental relation: maranabhayena tajjito;
maranabhayena is itself a tappurisa in the ablative: maraud bhaya.
sThalatthakathaparivattanam ‘the translation of the Sinhalese Commentaries’ is, first, a
tappurisa compound: sThalatthakathaya parivattanam; second, another tappurisa :
sThalaya atthakatha ‘the Sinhalese Commentaries’.
aparimitakalasahcitapuhhabalanibbattaya ‘produced by the power accumulated during
an immense period of time’ is a feminine bahubbThi in the instrumental. It is resolved
as follows: aparimitakalasahcitapuhhabala is a tappurisa qualifying nibbattaya;
aparimitakalasahcitapuhha is a kammadharaya qualifying bala;
aparimitakalasahcita is a kammadharaya qualifying puhna;
aparimitakala is a kammadharaya qualifying sahcita;
aparimita is a kammadharaya = a+parimita.
In its uncompounded state, it would run as follows:
aparimite kale sahcitassa puhhassa balena nibbattaya.
7.11. Changes of Certain Words in Compounds
Some words, when compounded, change their final vowel. Some of the most common
are as follows:
go ‘a cow, bullock’ becomes gu, gavo, or gavahv.
pahcagu ‘battered by five cows’ = pahcahi gohi kito
rajagavo ‘the king’s bullock’ = rahho go
daragavam ‘wife and cow’ = daro ca go
dasagavam ‘ten cows’
bhumi ‘place, stage, stage, degree, storey’ becomes bhuma:
jatibhumam ‘birth place’ =jatiya bhumi
dvibhumam ‘two stages’ = dvi bhumiyo
dvibhumo (also dvibhumako ) ‘two storeyed’
114 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
nadi ‘a river’ becomes nada :
pancanadam ‘five rivers’
pancanado ‘having five rivers’
anguli ‘finger’ becomes angula :
atthangulo ‘eight inches’, that is, ‘the length of eight fingers’
ratti ‘night’ becomes ratta :
digharattam ‘for a long time’, literally, ‘long nights’ = digha rattiyo
ahor attain ‘Oh!, the night’ = aho ratti
addharatto ‘midnight’ = rattiya addharh ‘the middle of the night’
akkhi ‘eye’ becomes akkha :
visdlakkho ‘large eyed’ = visalani akkhini yassa honti
virupakkho ‘having horrible eyes’ (epithet of the king of the Nagas) = virupani
akkhini yassa ‘to whom (are) horrible eyes’
sahassakkho ‘the thousand-eyed’ (epithet of Sakka) = akkhini sahassani yassa
parokkham ‘invisible, imperceptible’, literally, ‘beyond the eye’
sakha (m.) ‘friend, companion’ becomes sakho :
vayusakho ‘fire’, literally, ‘a breeze’s friend’ = vayuno sakha so
sabbasakho ‘the friend of all’ = sabbesarh sakha
atta ‘self, oneself becomes atta :
pahitatto ‘resolute, one whose mind is bent upon’ =pahito pesito atta yena
thitatto ‘of firm mind’ = thito atta assa
puma ‘male, man’ becomes pitth (the final -m is assimilated to the following consonant
according to the normal rules):
pullingam (= pum+lingam) ‘the male sex; manhood; masculine gender’
pun ko kilo (= pum+kokilo) ‘a male cuckoo’
saha ‘with’ generally becomes sa, which is placed at the beginning of compounds — the
suffix -ka is sometimes added at the end:
sapicuka ‘of cotton, with cotton’, as in -sapicukam mandalikam ‘a ball of cotton’
sadevako ‘with the celestial worlds’
sahodaka ‘with water, containing water’ = saha udaka
santa ‘good, pious’ becomes sa:
sappurisa ‘a good or pious person’
sajjano ‘well-bom, virtuous’
samana ‘same, similar, equal’ likewise becomes sa:
sajati, also sajatika ‘of the same species, of the same class’
sajanapado ‘of, or belonging to, the same district’
7. Compounds 115
sanamo ‘of the same name’ = samano namo
sanabhika ‘having a nave (of a wheel)’
mahant ‘great’ becomes maha ( maha before a double consonant):
mahapuriso ‘a great person’ = mahanto puriso
mahanadT ‘a large river’ = mahanti nadT
mahabbhayam ‘great fear’ = mahantam bhayam
jay a ‘wife’ becomes jani,jam,jayam, and tudam before the word pad ‘husband’:
janipati and tudampati (m.) ‘husband and wife’
jayapati and jayampati (m. pi.) ‘husband and wife’
jayampatika and jayampatika (pi.) ‘a married couple’
7.12. Verbal Compounds
Many nouns and adjectives are compounded with the verb roots kar ‘to do’ and bhu ‘to
be, to become’ or with their derivatives very much in the manner of verb prefixes. The noun or
adjective stems so used change final -a to -i or -i. Examples include:
dalhikaroti ‘to make firm’ ( dalha ‘firm, hard’ + karoti ‘to make’)
dalhikaranam ‘making firm, strengthening’
bahulikaroti ‘to increase, to enlarge’ ( bahula ‘abundant’ + karoti ‘to make’)
bahullkaranam ‘increasing, enlarging’
bahulTkato ‘increased, enlarged’
bhasmibhavati to be reduced to ashes’ ( bhasmam ‘ashes’ + bhavati ‘to be, to become’)
bhasmibhuto ‘reduced to ashes’ ■
8
Syntax
8.1. Definition of Terms
Syntax ( karaka ) is the set of rules that defines how words are combined to fonn
sentences. Nearly all the relations of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns which will be described in
this chapter have already been discussed in the chapter dealing with compounds. Thus, those
who understand the formation of compounds should also understand ordinary prose without too
much difficulty. However, there are some special rules that will be explained in this chapter.
Word order is relatively simple in Pali, compound sentences being the exception rather
than the rule.
A “sentence” is a combination of words expressing a complete thought. There are three
types of sentences in Pali:
1 . A “simple sentence”, expressing a single thought.
2. A “complex sentence”, expressing one primary (independent) thought, with one or more
dependent thoughts.
3. A “compound sentence”, expressing two or more independent, connected thoughts, with or
without dependent thoughts.
In the expression of every thought, whether independent or dependent, two elements are
absolutely essential:
1. The “subject” — the person, place, or thing about which something is expressed; the subject
may also be described as the doer of the action.
2. The “predicate” — that which is expressed concerning the subject. The predicate may be:
A. A finite verb, as in: bhikkhu gahapatim ovadi ‘Monk+householder+admonished’ = ‘The
Monk admonished the householder’.
B. A substantive with a form of the verb hoti ‘to be’ understood after it, as in: yadi ete guna
‘if+these+virtues(+are)’ = ‘if these (are) virtures’.
C. An adjective with a form of the verb hoti ‘to be’ understood after it, as in: tvam atibalo
‘you+very foolish(+are)’ = ‘you (are) very foolish’.
D. A past passive participle used as a finite verb, as in: so pi gato ‘he+also+gone’ = ‘he also
went’.
118 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
In Pali, the predicate must always come last. In a simple sentence containing an object,
the word order is: (a) subject, (b) object, (c) predicate, as in: daso kammam karoti ‘slave+work
+does’ = ‘the slave does the work’.
A few more terms must be defined:
1 . A “substantive” is a noun and any item which can function as a noun.
2. An “appositive” is a word or expression placed beside another so that the second explains
and has the same grammatical construction as the first. An example would be: “Bertrand
Russell, the noted philosopher and mathematician, was an atheist.” Here, there are two noun
phrases, both of which have identity of reference and the same syntactic function.
3. An “object” is a general tenn denoting the recipient of an action.
4. A “direct object” denotes the recipient of the action of a transitive verb.
5. An “indirect object” denotes the person or thing which is indirectly affected by the action of
the verb.
6. A “transitive verb” carries an action over to and has an effect on some person or thing; a
transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
7. An “intransitive verb” does not require a direct object to complete its meaning.
Note: Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive depending upon how they are used.
8.2. The Syntax of Nouns
A substantive in the predicate must agree with the subject in case and gender. An
appositive must agree in case and gender with the noun it qualifies.
When a substantive takes the place of the predicate, it does not have to agree with the
subject in gender and number: appamado nibbanapadam ‘vigilance+w'bbana-path’ = ‘vigilance
(is) the path to nibbancC .
Though there are no words in Pali corresponding to the English indefinite article ‘a, an’
or the definite article ‘the’, the words eko, ekacce ‘one, a certain one’ are often used in the sense
of an indefinite article, and so, eso ‘that, this’ function as a definite article, as in: so puriso ‘the
man, the person’; sa itthl ‘the woman’. Substantives not preceded by the above words may,
according to context, be translated into English as if preceded by articles, thus: puriso ‘a man, a
person; the man, the person’; itthT ‘a woman; the woman’.
8.2.1. Nominative Case
1. The subject of a verb must be in the nominative case, and the verb must agree with it in
person and number.
Notes:
A. Every verb has a pronominal subject implied in its personal ending; hence, a separate
pronominal subject does not have to be expressed except when desired for emphasis, and
a substantive may be omitted if it is understood from the context.
8. Syntax 119
B. The verb vattati ‘should, ought to’ is used impersonally with the infinitive and the
instrumental of agent, as in: dametum vattati ‘(he) ought to be subdued’, or ‘(he) is worth
conquering’; mokkhadhammam pana gavesantehi eka pabbajja laddhum vattati ‘the
ascetic life alone ought to be adopted by those who seek final liberation’.
2. The nominative case is always used in titles, headings, etc.
8.2.2. Vocative Case
1 . The vocative case is used in direct address, just as in English.
8.2.3. Accusative Case
1. The accusative is used as a direct object with transitive verbs, as in: ratham karoti ‘a
carriage+he makes’ = ‘he makes a carriage’.
2. Verbs of making, choosing, appointing, and the like take two accusatives of the same person
or thing.
3. Causative verbs may take two accusatives — one of the person or thing caused to act, and
one of the action itself, as in: puriso purisam gamam gamayati ‘man (nom.)+man (acc.)+to
the village (acc.)+causes to go (caus.)’ = ‘the man causes the man to go to the village’.
Note: In such examples, the instrumental may be used instead of the factitive object, as in:
samiko dasena (or ddsarh ) khajjam khadapeti ‘master (nom.)+slave (instr./acc.)+food
(acc.)+causes to eat (caus.)’ = ‘the master causes the slave to eat the food’.
4. Verbs expressing or implying motion or action towards a place or thing govern the place or
thing in the accusative, as in: nagaram gacchati ‘to town+he goes’ = ‘he goes to town’.
5. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed in the accusative.
6. The accusative may be used adverbially to denote time at which and other circumstances.
7. The accusative is frequently used with prepositions and adverbs.
8.2.4. Genitive Case
1. A substantive is frequently qualified by another noun in the genitive case. The qualifying
genitive may be:
A. Possessive genitive: denoting possession of that which is designated by the substantive it
qualifies, as in: rukkhassa sakha ‘of a tree+branch’ = ‘the branch of a tree’; suvannassa
rasi ‘of gold+heap’ = ‘a heap of gold’.
B. Subjective genitive: denoting the cause or origin of that which is designated by the noun
it qualifies.
C. Objective genitive: denoting the object towards which the action is directed or the
feeling designated by the noun it qualifies.
D. Genitive of quality: denoting some quality or characteristic of the noun it qualifies.
E. Partitive genitive: denoting a part of the whole which is designated by the noun it
qualifies, as in: sabbayodhanam atisiiro ‘of all-warriors+bravest’ = ‘of all the warriors,
120 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
he is the bravest’; brahmanam so pandito ‘among Brahmins+he+wise’ = ‘among
Brahmins, he is wise’.
F. Genitive of definition: having the force of an appositive and defining the noun it
qualifies.
Note: Any of the above may be turned into a predicate of the subject by means of any form
of the verb ‘to be’.
2. The genitive is used to complete the meaning of many adjectives denoting:
A. Desire or aversion.
B. Knowledge, proficiency, skill, or their opposites.
C. Remembering and forgetting.
D. Participation, guilt, fullness, mastery, and their opposites.
E. Equality and inequality.
3. The genitive is governed by some verbs expressing:
A. Remembering and forgetting.
B. Mastering and ruling.
C. Filling and emptying.
D. Sharing, tasting, seeing, cleaning, and many others when the action expressed only
partially affects the object.
4. The substantive in the genitive and another in the accusative are governed at the same time
by a few transitive verbs:
A. Verbs expressing fullness or want take an accusative of the receptacle with a genitive of
the material.
B. Verbs expressing accusation, condemnation, acquittal, and the like, take an accusative of
the person and a genitive of the crime.
5. A substantive with a participle in agreement may be used in the genitive to denote some
attendant circumstance. This is called the “genitive absolute”. It is much less frequent than
the “locative absolute”. Note: The absolute construction generally denotes time. But it may
denote cause, consequence, or other attendant circumstances.
6. Genitives are often compounded with the nouns they quality, as in (see possessive genitive
above): suvannarasi (= suvannassa rasi ) ‘a heap of gold’.
7. The genitive is used with adverbs and prepositions.
8. The genitive can also be used, albeit rarely, adverbially.
8.2.5. Dative Case
1. The dative case is used as an indirect object with intransitive verbs and with transitive verbs
having a direct object in the accusative. The dative may be:
8. Syntax 121
A. Dative of influence: denoting the person to whom something is or is done.
B. Dative of interest: denoting the person for whom something is or is done.
C. Dative of purpose or end: denoting the object or end for which something is or is done.
2. The dative is used with atthi, hoti ‘to be’ and verbs of related meaning to express possession,
as in: putta me n 'atthi ‘sons+to me+not+are’ = ‘I have no sons’.
Note: When the verbs atthi, hoti ‘to be’ are used with the dative to express possession, they
are generally put in the singular, even when, as in the preceding example, what is
expressed is plural.
3. The dative may be governed by verbs expressing: hearing; request or worship; praise or
blame; pleasure or displeasure; obedience or resistance.
4. The dative may denote the purpose for which, in which case, it governs a genitive, as in:
ddrassa bharanaya ‘of a wife (gen.)+for (the purpose of) maintaining (dat.)’ = ‘for the
purpose of maintaining a wife’, or ‘to maintain a wife’.
5. The dative is used in expressions of salutation and blessing.
6. The dative may be governed by an indeclinable.
7. The dative may be used adverbially.
8.2.6. Instrumental Case
1. The agent by whom, or the instrument with which, an action is performed is put in the
instrumental case, as in: cakkhuna rupam passati ‘with the eye (instr.)+fonn (acc.)+he sees’
= ‘he sees a form with the eye’; hatthena kammam karoti ‘with the hands (instr.)+work (ace.)
+he does’ = ‘he does work with the hands’.
2. A substantive, adjective, or verb may take an instrumental to show in what respect it is
applicable. This is the “instrumental of specification”, and it is especially used in specifying
bodily defects and ailments, as in: hatthena kuni ‘hand (instr.j+crooked’ = ‘having a crooked
hand’; akkhina so kano ‘eye (instr.)+he+blind’ = ‘he is blind in one eye’.
3. Words denoting sufficiency or lack take the instrumental of that which is sufficient or
lacking.
4. The instrumental is used to express cause, reason, or motive, as in: kammuna vasalo hoti
‘(by reason of) work (instr.)+outcaste+he is’ = ‘he is an outcaste by reason of the kind of
work he does’; rukkho vatena onamati ‘tree+(on account of) wind (instr.)+bends’ = ‘the tree
bends on account of the wind’.
5. Substantives expressing price or value are put in the instrumental, as in: satasahassena
kinitva ‘for 100,000 (instr.)+having bought (gerund)’ = ‘having bought it for 100,000 (pieces
of money)’.
6. Time or space within which may be expressed in the instrumental, as in: divasena patto ‘in
one day (instr.)+arrived’ = ‘arrived in one day’.
7. Also, time or space at which may be expressed in the instrumental, as in: tena samayena ‘at
that (instr.)+time (instr.)’ = ‘at that time’; aparena samayena ‘subsequent+time’ = ‘later’.
8. The instrumental may be used to express manner.
9. The word attho (also attho) ‘desire, want, need’ takes an instrumental of the object desired,
wanted, or needed and a dative of the person, as in: manina me attho ‘a jewel (instr. )+to me
122 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
(dat.)+want’ = ‘I want a jewel’; aggina me attho ‘fire (instr.)+to me (dat.)+wanf = ‘I want
fire’.
10. The instrumental is used to express that in accordance with which anything is or is done.
1 1 . Measure of difference is expressed in the instrumental.
12. The instrumental is frequently governed by prepositions and adverbs.
13. The indeclinables saha, saddhim, samam ‘with, together with’ and vind ‘without’ govern the
instrumental, as in: vind dosena ‘without fault, innocent’; tumhehi saha gacchami ‘you
(instr. pl.)+with+I go’ = ‘I will go with you (pi.)’.
Note: saha sometimes expresses equality, as in: puttena saha dhanava pita ‘son (instr.)+
equal+wealthy+father’ = ‘a father as rich as his son’.
14. The word alam ‘enough, sufficient’ also governs the instrumental, as in: a/am buddhena
‘sufficient+Buddha (instr.)’ = ‘the Buddha is sufficient for me’; alam iddha vasena ‘enough+
here+living (instr.)’ = ‘enough of living here’.
15. The instrumental is often used adverbially.
8.2.7. Ablative Case
1 . Place or time from which is denoted by the ablative.
2. The ablative is used to express separation, as in: gdmd apenti ‘village (abl.)+they left’ =
‘they left the village’; so assa patati ‘he+from horse (instr. )+falls’ = ‘he fell from the horse’.
3. The ablative is also used to express motive, cause, or reason, and can be translated by ‘for, on
account of, by reason of, because of, due to, etc.’, as in: vacaya marati ‘speech (abl.)+he
dies’ = ‘he died on account of his speech’; silato nam pasamsanti ‘virtue (abl.)+him (acc.)+
they praise’ = ‘they praise him for his virtue’.
4. Verbs meaning ‘to be bom, to originate from, to arise from, etc.’ govern the ablative, as in:
cord bhayam jayati ‘from a thief (abl.)+fear+arises’ = ‘fear arises from a thief.
5. Verbs meaning ‘to abstain from, to refrain from, to avoid, to release, to fear, to abhor’ also
govern the ablative, as in: corehi bhayami ‘of thieves (abl. pl.)+I am afraid’ = ‘I am afraid of
thieves’; papadhammato viramati ‘from evil (abl.)+he refrains’ = ‘he refrains from evil’.
6. That with which a comparison is made is put into the ablative in conjunction with adjectives
in the comparative.
7. The ablative is sometimes used instead of the instrumental to express means or agency.
8. The following indeclinables govern the ablative: araka ‘far from, afar’; upari ‘above’; pad
‘against, instead, in return’; rite ‘except, without’; ndnd ‘different, away from’; puthu
{puthag before vowels) ‘separately, without, except’; a ‘till, as far as’; yava ‘till, as far as’.
9. The ablative is frequently used adverbially.
Note: The ablative is very frequently used in place of the instrumental, accusative, genitive,
and locative, as in, for example: vind saddhamma (abl.) = vind saddhammam (acc.) =
vina saddhammena (instr.) ‘without+good doctrine’ = ‘without good doctrine’.
8.2.8. Locative Case
1 . Place or time in which is denoted by the locative.
8. Syntax 123
Notes:
A. This “in” idea includes all that may be expressed in English by a variety of prepositions
of location, such as ‘at, on, near, among, in respect to, etc.’
B. The locative is extensively used in place of other cases and is very often encountered
where one would expect to find some other case. The very frequent substitution of the
locative for other cases, as well as its adverbial uses, grows out of the broad ground
covered by the “in” idea denoted by it.
2. That with which a comparison is made is put into the locative (or genitive) in conjunction
with adjectives in the superlative, as in: manussesu kkattiyo siiratamo (loc.) = manussanam
khattiyo siiratamo (gen.) ‘of men+the Khattiya (a member of the warrior caste)+most valiant’
= ‘the Khattiya is the most valiant of men’.
3. The following words govern the locative (and the genitive) as well: sami ‘owner, master,
husband’; issaro ‘lord, ruler’; adhipati ‘chief, lord’; dayado ‘heir’; patibhu ‘surety’; pasiito
‘offspring, child’; kusalo ‘clever, expert, skillful’; as in: gonesu sami (loc. pi.) = gonanam
sami (gen. pi.) ‘of oxen+owner’ = ‘an owner of oxen’.
4. Like the ablative, the locative is be used to express the cause, reason, or motive of an action,
as in: kuhjaro dantesu hahhate ‘elephant+for tusks (loc. pl.)+is killed’ = ‘the elephant is
killed for his tusks’.
5. The locative denotes the time when an action takes place, as in: sayanhasamaye agato ‘in
the evening (loc.)+he came’ = ‘he came in the evening’.
6. Words signifying reverence, respect, love, delighting in, saluting, taking, seizing, striking,
kissing, being fond of, and adoring govern the locative, as in: bhikkhiisu abhivadenti ‘the
Monks (loc. pl.)+they salute’ = ‘they salute the Monks’; purisam sise paharati ‘man (ace.)
+on the head (loc.)+he struck’ = ‘he struck the man on the head’.
7. The locative is used to denote superiority or inferiority, with the words up a ‘below’ and adhi
‘above, over’, respectively, as in: adhi devesu buddho ‘over+gods (loc. pl.)+Buddha’ = ‘the
Buddha is superior to the gods’.
8. The locative is used to denote proximity, as in: tassa pannasalaya hatthimaggo hoti
‘there+near leaf-hut (loc.)+elephant-trail+is’ = ‘there is an elephant trail near the leaf hut’.
9. Words denoting fitness or suitability govern the locative, as in: tayi na yuttam ‘for you+not
+suitable’ = ‘not suitable for you’. The genitive can also be used in the same sense: tava na
yuttam ‘not suitable for you’.
10. Certain prepositions and adverbs require the locative.
1 1 . The locative is frequently used adverbially.
8.2.9. The Genitive and Locative Absolute
1. When a noun or a pronoun in the locative or genitive cases is used with a participle in the
same case as itself, the construction is called the “locative absolute” and the “genitive
absolute”, respectively. The locative absolute occurs more frequently than the genitive
absolute. Now and then, a nominative absolute is also found, but it is far less common than
the other two.
124 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
Note: A noun clause may take the place of the substantive, and the participle alone in the
locative is frequently used impersonally with an adverb or an instrumental of agent.
2. The locative, genitive, and (sometimes) nominative absolute, may be translated by ‘when,
while, since’ and sometimes by ‘although’, as in: suriye atthangate ‘sun+set’ = ‘when the
sun had set’, that is, ‘after sunset’; asaniya pi sTse patantiya ‘thunderbolt+although+on
head+falling’ = ‘although the thunderbolt was falling on their head’; gavisu duyhamanasu
gato ‘the cows+being-milked+gone’ = ‘he went when the cows were being milked’.
3. Besides having the above meanings, sati, the locative singular of sank) ‘being’ may also be
translated by ‘if, such being the case’, as in: atthe sati ‘need+being’ = ‘if there is need’;
evam sati ‘such+being’ = ‘such being the case’; payoge sati ‘occasion+being’ = ‘when there
is occasion’.
8.3. The Syntax of Adjectives
1. Adjectives (and participles), when not compounded with the nouns they quality, must agree
with those nouns in case, gender, and number.
2. Adjectives are frequently used without nouns, thus, apparently acting as substantives. In
general, it is best to consider the missing substantives as understood.
3. Adjectives in the comparative degree require an ablative, as in: sTlarh eva suta seyyo ‘virtue
(nom. sg.)+even so+from learning (abl. sg.)+better’ = ‘virtue is better than learning’.
4. Comparison can also be expressed by the indeclinable varam ‘better’ with an ablative, as in:
tato varam ‘from that (abl. sg.)+better’ = ‘better than that’.
5. Comparison is also expressed by an ablative followed by an adjective in the positive degree,
as in: madhura pataliputtakehi abhirupa ‘Madhurans (nom. pl.)+from Pataliputtans-sort
(abl. pl.)+attractive (positive degree; nom. pi.)’ = ‘the Madurans are more attractive than the
Pataliputtans’, or ‘the people of Madhura are more attractive than those of Pataliputta’.
6. Adjectives in the superlative degree are used with the genitive or locative.
7. When the better of two is to be expressed, the genitive is used with the positive degree, as in:
tumhakam dvinnam ko bhaddako ‘of you (gen. pl.)+of two (gen. pl.)+who (nom. sg.)+good
(positive degree; nom. sg.)’ = ‘of the two of you, who is better?’
8. When an adjective or a past passive participle takes the place of the predicate, the adjective
or past passive participle must agree with the subject in gender and number, as in: so gato
‘he+gone’ = ‘he went’, but sa gata ‘she+gone’ = ‘she went’; so taruno ‘he+young’ = ‘he is
young’, but sa taruna ‘she+young’ = ‘she is young’, tam tarunam ‘it+young’ = ‘it is young’.
8.4. The Syntax of Pronouns
1 . All the rules which apply to substantives apply equally to pronouns when they are used as
substantives. Those applying to adjectives apply equally to pronouns when they are used as
adjectives.
Note: All pronouns, except personal pronouns, may be used either as substantives or as
adjectives.
8. Syntax 125
2. When pronouns are used as substantives, they must agree with the antecedent in person,
gender, number, and case.
8.4.1. Personal Pronouns
1. The enclitic forms of aharii T, namely, me (sg.) ‘me’ and (pi.) no ‘us’, and tvarn ‘you’,
namely, te (sg.) ‘you’ and vo (pi.) ‘you’, are never used at the beginning of a sentence nor
immediately before the particles ca ‘and’, va ‘or’, and eva ‘so, just so’. Examples: detu me
‘let him give+to me’ = ‘let him give to me’; tava va me hotu ‘yours+or+mine+let it be’ + ‘let
it be yours or mine’; kammarn no nitthitam ‘task+our+finished’ = ‘our task is finished’;
kaharn vo raja ‘where+your (pl.)+king?’ = ‘where is your king?’; ko te doso ‘what+your
(sg.)+fault?’ = ‘what is your fault?’
2. The personal pronouns are usually understood with verbs, inasmuch as the personal endings
indicate the person, as in: gaccheyyami = a ham gaccheyyami ‘I should go’; gacchati = so
gacchati ‘he goes’ ~ sa gacchati ‘she goes’.
3. The pronoun so, sa, tarn is used as the third person personal pronoun, as a demonstrative, and
as a definite article. Hence, so puriso can mean ‘the man’ or ‘that man’ according to context.
8.4.2. Demonstrative Pronouns
1 . The demonstrative pronouns eso, esa, etam, as well as asu and ayam, are used to indicate that
which is near or adjacent, as in: esa itthl ‘this woman’; nirupakaro eso ‘useless+this’ = ‘this
man is useless’.
2. The ablative fonn tasma is used adverbially in the sense of ‘therefore, accordingly, thereby’.
It has the same range of meanings when followed by hi and ti ha (= iti ha), as in: tasma hi
pahha ca dhanena seyyo ‘therefore+wisdom+and+wealth (instr.)+better’ = ‘and therefore,
wisdom is better than wealth’; tasma ti ha bhikkhave ‘accordingly+O Monks’ = ‘accordingly,
O Mo nk s’.
3. The instrumental fonn tena is used with the same meanings as tasma. When followed by hi,
it means ‘well!, very well!, all right!, well then!’, as in: tena hi khadapessami nan ti ‘very
well then+I will make devour+it’ = ‘very well then, I will make you devour it’.
Note: The forms na and ena ‘this’ are used when someone or something already mentioned
is referred to.
4. The neuter form etad ‘this’ is used idiomatically with the verb hoti ‘to be’ and the genitive of
the person to mean ‘to think’, as in: tassa etad ahosi ‘of his+this+was’ = ‘he thought’.
5. The demonstrative so and, less frequently, the relative vo are used redundantly for emphasis
with substantives and other pronouns used as substantives.
8.4.3. Relative Pronoun
1. The relative vo ‘who, which, what’ is regularly used in correlation with the demonstrative so.
The clause containing the relative regularly precedes that containing the demonstrative.
126 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
2. The relative vo ‘who, which’ is used with the indefinite koci ‘whoever, anyone, anybody’, as
in vo koci ‘whoever, anyone’; yam kind ‘whatsoever, anything’.
3. The neuter singular yam is frequently used adverbially in the sense of ‘as, that, because,
since, seeing that, if, when’, as in: turn bahurn yarn pi jivasi ‘it+much+that (adv.)+even+you
live (sg.)’ = ‘it is much that you live’.
4. The instrumental vena is used adverbially in the sense of ‘whereby, because, by which, for
which’, as in: vena nam ganhissami ‘by which+him+I shall catch’ = ‘by which I shall catch
him’.
5. vena ‘where’ is used together with tena ‘there’ to express motion to a definite place, as in:
vena bhagava ten ’upasankati ‘where+Lord+there+he approached’ = ‘he approached where
the Lord (Buddha) was’.
6. yasma ‘because’ is generally used together with tasma ‘therefore’, as in: yasma tvarh na
janasi tasma balo ‘because+you+not+you understand+therefore+fooT = ‘because you do not
understand, therefore, you are a fool’.
7. The pronouns so, yo, and ko are used adverbially in the accusative, instrumental, and ablative
— ko is also sometimes used adverbially in the genitive.
8. Relative pronouns must agree with their antecedent in gender, number, and person.
9. In general, the clause containing the relative is placed first. However, the clause containing
the correlative may be placed first instead for emphasis, as in: na so pitayena putto na
sikkhapiyati ‘no+he+father by whom+son+not+is made to learn’ = ‘he is no father by whom
the son is not made to learn’.
8.4.4. Interrogative Pronoun
1. The interrogative pronoun ko ‘who?, which?, what?’ may be used by itself or with a noun or
other pronoun, as in: ko pana tvarh? ‘who+now+you (sg.)?’ = ‘and who are you?’; ke ete?
‘who+these?’ = ‘who are these?’; ka darika ‘which+girl?’ = ‘which girl?’
2. The instrumental kena is used with attho ‘need, want, desire’ and the dative of the person to
form expressions such as: kena te attho? ‘what+you (dat.)+want?’ = ‘what do you want?’
3. The instrumental kena, ablative kasma, and genitive kissa are used adverbially with the
meaning ‘why?’, ‘wherefore?’
4. kim is quite often used with the instrumental to express ‘what is the use of?’, as in: kim me
jivitena? ‘what use+to me+life (instr.)?’ = ‘what is the use of life to me?’
8.4.5. Indefinite Pronoun
1. The indefinite pronoun koci ‘whoever; anyone, anybody’ does not present any difficulty.
Examples include: ma idha koci pavisi ‘do not+here+anyone+let enter’ = ‘do not let anyone
enter here’; kind bhayam ‘any+danger’ = ‘any danger’; ydni kanici bhayani ‘whatever
dangers’; yo koci ‘whoever, anyone’; yam kind ‘whatsoever, anything’.
8.5. Repetition
1. To express plurality, totality, distribution, variety, multiplicity, etc., words are sometimes
repeated, thus: tesu tesu thanesu ‘in these (loc. pl.)+in these (loc. pl.)+in places (loc. pi.)’ =
8. Syntax 127
‘in various places’; tarn tarn kathaya mana ‘this+this+saying+with conceit’ = ‘saying this and
that conceitfully’; gatagatathane = gata+gata+thane ‘gone+gone+in place (loc. sg.)’ = ‘in
every place’; vena vena ‘wherever’ .
2. When yo is repeated, it means ‘whoever, whatever, whichever’, as in: yam yam gamam upeti
‘what+what+village+he approaches’ = ‘whatever village he approaches’.
8.6. The Syntax of Verbs
1 . Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number.
2. When there are two or more subjects, the verb may agree with one and be understood by the
rest, or it may take a plural fonn in agreement with all conjointly.
8.6.1. Active Voice
1. A verb is used in the active voice (parassapada) to represent the subject as simply acting or
existing, stating such simple action as fact, question, or supposition.
8.6.2. Reflexive Voice
1. A verb is used in the reflexive voice ( attanopada ) to represent the subject acting upon itself
or as acting or existing with special reference to itself.
Note: Frequently, the reflexive idea is not readily apparent, and it is probable that reflexive
fonns were used, especially in poetry, for mere convenience or variety of expression.
2. The reflexive is frequently used in a passive sense, especially in the “general tenses”.
8.6.3. Present Tense
1. Action or existence actually in progress at the present time is designated by the present
indicative, as in: so bhayati ‘he+is afraid’ = ‘he is afraid’; sa pacati ‘she+is cooking’ = ‘she
is cooking’.
2. The present tense often expresses continuance of an action and is, thus, equivalent to the
progressive present in English, as in: sa gabbhe nisidati ‘she+in room+is sitting’ = ‘she is
sitting in her room’.
3. Habit, custom, and general truths are expressed by the present indicative, as in: bhikkhu
sTlam acarati ‘Monk+virtue+he practices’ = ‘a Monk (is one who) practices virtue’; sabbe
mar anti ‘all+they die’ = ‘all (men) die’.
4. When past action or existence is, for effect, represented as progressing into the present time,
it is put into the present indicative.
5. The so-called “historical present” is very much more frequent in Pali than in English.
Indeed, in most narrative, it very largely displaces the past tenses, as in: so pancamdna-
vakasatani sippaiii ugganhapeti ‘he+five hundred young men+a trade+he treaches’ = ‘he
taught five hundred young men a trade’.
128 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
6. When no interrogative particle is used, questions are sometimes asked by placing the present
tense at the beginning of a sentence, as in: socasi tvam upasaka? ‘grieve+you+layman?’ =
‘are you grieving, O layman?’
Note: Other tenses may be used in the same way to ask questions.
7. The present indicative is sometimes used with a future signification. This future signification
is especially common in questions, as in: kirn karomi? ‘what+I do?’ = ‘what shall I do?’
8. The present imperative is used in commands, exhortations, and entreaties. With the particle
md ‘do not’, it expresses prohibition.
8.6.4. Imperfect Tense
1. Theoretically, the imperfect refers to a recent definite past time not included in the current
day. In practice, however, the imperfect is entirely interchangeable with the aorist.
8.6.5. Aorist Tense
1 . Theoretically, the aorist refers to indefinite past time, including the current day. In practice,
however, it is used to designate all kinds of past time. This is the only true past in Pali, and it
occurs frequently. In general, it may be translated into English by the past indefinite or by
the present perfect. Examples: mukhe pahari ‘on the mouth+you struck’ = ‘you struck (him)
on the mouth’; kena karanena rodi ‘on what (instr.)+account (instr.)+you cry?’ = ‘what made
you cry?’, or ‘why did you cry?” brdhma.no elakena saddhim vicari ‘Brahmin+with a goat
(instr.)+with+walked about’ = ‘the Brahmin walked about with a goat’.
2. The aorist is sometimes used with md in prohibitions, as in: elaka md bhayi ‘goat+do not+be
afraid’ = ‘do not be afraid, O goat’; md puna evarupam akasi ‘do not+again+such+do’ = ‘do
not do so again’; tata, md garni ‘dear one+do not+go’ = ‘dear one, do not go’.
8.6.6. Perfect Tense
1 . The perfect represents remote and definite past time. This tense is of very rare occurrence.
8.6.7. Future Tense
1. The future refers to an action or an event that will occur at some unspecified point in the
future, as in: aham gacchissami ‘I+shall go’ = ‘I shall go’; te marissanti ‘they+will die’ =
‘they will die’.
2. The future is sometimes used as a mild fonn of imperative, as in: tvam tassa bandhanam
dantehi khadissasi ‘you+his+bonds+with teeth+cut’ = ‘cut his bonds with your teeth’.
3. The future is often used to express what must be or what must be done, as in: ay am me putto
bhavissati ‘this+my+son+he must be’ = ‘he must be my son’.
4. The future is used with the particles ce ‘even, if, sace ‘if, and yadi ‘if to express simple,
direct suppositions or conditions, as in: yadi tvam yagum pacissasi aham pivissami ‘if+you+
rice gruel+will cook+I+shall drink’ = ‘if you will cook the rice gruel, I shall drink if; so tan
8. Syntax 129
ce labhissati, tena saddhim gaccha ‘he+it+if+will get+him (instr.)+with+go’ = ‘if he gets it,
go with him’.
5. When bhavissati is preceded by the negative particle na ‘not’, it may be translated ‘it cannot
be’, as in: nayath issarabheri bhavissati ‘not-this (na+ayam )+rul cr ’ s-d rum ( issara+bheri )
+it can be’ = ‘this cannot be the ruler’s kettle-drum’.
6. The first person singular future janissami (from janati ‘to know’) is often used idiomatically
in the sense ‘I shall see’, as in: hotu, paccha janissami ‘let it be+afterwards+I shall see’ =
‘let it be, I shall see (to it) afterwards’, or ‘I shall take care (of it) later’.
8.6.8. Optative
1. The present optative is used to express possibility, probability, fitness, agreement, and
pennission and may be translated ‘should, would, may’, as in: api ca nama gaccheyyami
‘perhaps+I should go’ = ‘perhaps, I should go’.
2. The present optative may be used to express affirmation modestly or doubtfully.
3. The present optative may be used to mildly express command, entreaty, exhortation, and
(with ma) prohibition, as in: tv am idani gaccheyyasi ‘you+now+should go’ = ‘you should go
now’; udarena nipajjeyyasi ‘belly+you should lie on’ = Tie on your belly’.
4. The present optative may be used to express condition or supposition with implied
possibility.
Note: To express supposition, the word yatha ‘as, like, how, when’ is sometimes used with
the optative.
5. The optative may also be used to lay down rules and precepts.
8.6.9. Conditional
1 . The conditional is often classified as a mood rather than a tense.
2. The conditional refers to a future event or circumstance relative to something that is past or
to an action to be performed due to some difficulty obstructing its performance, as in: so ce
tarn yanam alabhissa agacchissa ‘he+if+that+vehicle+could get+would go’ = ‘he would go
if he could get that vehicle’.
8.6.10. Imperative
1. The imperative is used for simple commands, as in: tena hi, gaccha ‘very well+go!’ = ‘very
well, go!’, or ‘in that case, go!’
2. It is used to express entreaty, as in: bhante bhagava apposukko viharatu ‘Lord+Blessed
One+free from cares+let him live’ = ‘Lord, let the Blessed One (now) live free from cares’.
3. The imperative is used for benedictions and blessings, as in: vassasatam jiva ‘years-one
hundred+may you live! ’ = ‘may you live a hundred years! ’
4. Combined with ma ‘do not’, the second person imperative expresses simple prohibition, as
in: ma evam karotha ‘do not+so+do!’ = ‘do not do so!’
130 An Introductory Grammar of the Pali Language
5. The third singular imperative of the verb ‘to be’ is often used idiomatically with the meaning
‘very well’, as in: hotu, aham janissami ‘very well+I+shall see’ = ‘very well, I shall see (to
it)’, or ‘very well, I shall take care (of it)’.
8.6.11. Participles
1. Participles are verbal adjectives (gerundives) governing the same cases as the verbs from
which they are derived, as in: agacchantam tarn disva pi ‘coming+him+saw+although’ =
‘although he saw him coming’; avlcinirayam gacchanta satta ‘Avfcz'-Hell+going to+beings’
= ‘beings going to the Avici Hell’.
2. Participles denote present, past, and future time only relatively to that of the principal verb.
3. The present participle may generally be translated in English as ‘while’. This participle
always expresses contemporaneous action, as in: attano gamam gacchanto coratavim patva
‘his own+village+(while) going to+thieves-forest ( co ra+ata v/j+c a m e upon’ = ‘while going
to his village, he came upon a forest inhabited by thieves’.
4. The past passive participle, especially in the periphrastic conjugation, frequently has the
force of a present active participle.
8.6.12. Infinitive
1 . Infinitives are verbal nouns, usually in the accusative case, sometimes (rarely) in the dative
case.
2. A verb may take an infinitive to complete its action.
3. After an infinitive, the verb dadati ‘to give’ means ‘to let, to allow’, and the verb labhati ‘to
obtain’ means ‘to be allowed’, as in lam paharitum na dassami ‘him+to be struck+not+I will
allow’ = ‘I will not allow him to be struck’; gehabahi nikkhamitum alabhanto ‘house-out
of+to go out+not being allowed’ = ‘not being allowed to go out of the house’.
4. The indeclinables labbha ‘possible, allowable’ and sakka ‘able, possible’ are used with an
infinitive and instrumental of agent in impersonal constructions, as in: idaih na labbha evam
katum ‘this+not+possible+thus+to do’ = ‘it is not possible to do it in this way’; na sakka so
(dhammo) agaramajjhe puretum ‘not+possible+this (teaching)+in a household ( agara+
majjhe)+to be fulfilled’ = ‘this (teaching) cannot be fulfilled in a household’.
Note: The infinitive is used in the same form with either active or passive meaning.
5. The infinitive is used with verbs meaning ‘to wish, to try, to strive, to begin, to be able’, as
in: na koci rnayd saddhim sallapitum sakkoti ‘not+anyone+me (instr.)+with+to talk+is able’
= ‘no one can talk with me’; sa roditum arabhi ‘she+to cry+began’ = ‘she began to cry’.
6. Verbs like vattati ‘to behoove; to be fit, right, proper’ are used a great deal with the infinite,
as in: tain haritum vattati ‘him+to kill+it is best’ = ‘it is best to kill him’; ettha dam may a
vasitum vattati ‘here+now+me+to live+it behooves’ = ‘it now behooves me to live’.
8.6.13. Gerund
1. The gerund (verbal noun) is used as an adjunct to the logical subject of a sentence in which it
is found and denotes some action accompanying or (more generally) preceding what which is
8. Syntax 131
signified by the verb in the sentence. Thus used, the gerund is the most common connective
in Pali and, for all practical purposes, does away with the conjunction equivalent of English
‘and’ connecting two sentences. Thus: so tam ukkhipitva gharam netva catudha vibhajitva
danadini puhnani katva yathakammam gato ‘he+it+lifted+home+took+into four parts (adv.)+
divided+alms-giving+good deeds+practicing+according to (his) deeds+gone’ = ‘he lifted it
up, took it home, divided it into four parts, and, practicing alms-giving and other good deeds,
went according to his deeds’.
Note: The gerundial clause is sometimes an adjunct of a noun in some case other than the
nominative, when the grammatical construction puts the real agent, or logical subject,
into a dependent clause.
2. The gerund frequently has merely prepositional force.
3. The word va (= eva ‘just, quite, even’) may be translated into English as ‘as soon as’ when it
follows a gerund, as in: tam vacanam sutva va ‘these+words+heard+as soon as’ = ‘as soon
as he heard these words’.
4. The particle api ‘also, even, though, merely’ may be translated as ‘although, even though’
when it comes after a gerund, as in: akatafinu puggalo cakkavattirajjam datva pi tosetum na
sakka ‘an ungrateful man+universal-power (wheel+tuming+sovereignty)+given+even though
+be satisfied+not+possible’ = ‘an ungrateful man cannot be satisfied even though he is given
power over the entire world’.
8.6.14. Participle of Necessity
1. The participle of necessity, like other declinable adjectives, must agree with its noun in case,
gender, and number.
2. The participle of necessity is most frequently used with some form of atthi, hoti ‘to be’, or
other verb of related meaning in a periphrastic formation.
8.7. The Syntax of Indeclinables
1 . Adverbs generally qualify whole clauses, but they sometimes qualify only particular words in
a clause.
2. The adverbial particle iti is added at the end of quoted speech, or even quoted thought, which
is always given in the form of direct discourse, as in: mam sandhaya bhasatiti natva
‘me+about+he speaks (bhasati+iti)+ perceiving’ = ‘perceiving that he speaks about me’.
Note: The initial vowel of iti generally contracts with a preceding vowel, lengthening it if
short.
3. Prepositional words govern cases of nouns.
4. Conjunctions join words and clauses. ■
Pali Grammar by Allan R. Bomhard
Anónimo