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This is a comprehensive and authentic
book on basic Buddhism. The author
has entered on his task with a great zest
and vigour evident to the most casual
reader. He has been at pains to explain
the important aspects of the topics of
each chapter, and he does so in a
manner which is interesting, instructive
and invigorating. Never at a loss to
refer to the texts he has considerably
enhanced the value of his treatise by
copious quotations from the texts. He
does not merely transport material
from the texts. In his hands such
material is sifted, analysed and made
the subject of independent thinking
before it is presented to the reader.
The combination of Western thought
and Buddhist canonical lore makes for
the effective presentation of this book
to Western readers. It is refreshing to
find some original thinking in this book.
"The book is well written in a firm
and clear style. . . It is a book about
the four ariyan Truths', the eight factors
of the Way as put forward under the
fourth Truth are meticulously examined .
This makes interesting and instructive
reading , and the validity of the inter -
pre.ations is not open to question. On the
contrary , these interpretations , authorita¬
tive and unimpeachable , may be taken
as a trustworthy guided
— Miss I. B. Horner, D. Litt.
President , Pali Text Society , London
For biographical note see back flap.
The
Buddha’s Ancient Path
Piyadassi Thera
The
Buddha’s Ancient Path
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
KANDY 1979 SRI LANKA
First published in the United Kingdom
by Rider & Company 1964
Reprinted 1964
This Sri Lankan Edition 1974
Second Impression 1979
(g) Piyudassi Thera 1964
Printed by
w
LAKE HOUSE PRINTERS & PUBLISHERS LTD.
41, W. A. D. Ramanayake Mawatha,
Colombo 2.
To
my teaeher, the late
Venerable Vajiraiiana (sangha-nayaka)
founder-superior of Vajirarama, Colombo
and the
Venerable Narada,
the present superior
in respectful admiration
Ujumaggamhi akkhate gacchatha md nivattatha:
Altana coday at tanam nibbanarh abhihdraye .
Theragatha , 637
4 Declared is the straight path,
Walk along, falter not;
Let each admonish himself,
And by stages reach Nibbana’.
CONTENTS
Preface 9
1 The Buddha 11
2 The Buddhist Standpoint 23
•»
3 The Central Conception of Buddhism (The Four Noble
Truths). The First Noble Truth — Dukkha; Suffering 37
4 The Second Noble Truth — Samudaya: The Arising of
Suffering 54
5 The Third Noble Truth — Nirodha: The Cessation of
Suffering 67
6 The Threefold Division of the Noble Eightfold Path 77
7 The Fourth Noble Truth— Magga: The Path
Right Understanding (Samma-di(fhi) 87
8 Right Thought (Samma-samkappa) 103
9 Right Speech (Samma-vaca) 127
10 Right Action (Samma-kamtnanta) 142
11 Right Livelihood (Samma-ajiva) 155
12 Right Effort ( Samma-vdyarna) 163
13 Right Mindfulness (Sammd-sati) 178
14 Right Concentration (Samma-samadhi) 197
15 Conclusion 219
Abbreviations 227
Indices 229
PREFACE
Two thousand five hundred years ago, in the Deer Park at Sarnath,
India, close to the ancient city of Baranasi (Benares), was heard the
Message of the Buddha which was to revolutionize the thoughts
and life of the human race. Though this Message was first heard by
just five ascetics, it has now penetrated peaceably to the remotest
corners of the world, and the demand for better and deeper under¬
standing of its meaning is great.
Many expositions of the Buddha’s Teaching in English have
appeared in recent years, but a great number of them lack authen¬
ticity and do not represent the Buddha-word correctly. I have in
all humility undertaken to set out as accurately as possible the
Teaching of the Buddha as it is found in the Pali Canon, the Tipitaka,
of the Theravada which has preserved the oldest and most faithful
tradition. This book, therefore, gives a comprehensive account of
the central conception of Buddhism—the Four Noble Truths—
♦
with special emphasis on the Noble Eightfold Path which is
Buddhism in practice. I have named the book The Ancient Path
(purana maggam), the very words used by the Buddha in reference
to the Eightfold Path. *
As an introduction, the first chapter gives a concise account of the
life of the Buddha, while the second sets out t|te correct standpoint
of Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path are
discussed at full length in the following chapters. A good deal of
space is devoted to Buddhist meditation, as found in the suttas, the
discourses of the Buddha, in, chapters 12, 13 and 14.
I now express my sense of gratitude first to Nyanaponika Thera,
who invited and encouraged me to write this book while I was
staying at the Senanayaka (Forest) Hermitage, Kandy] Ceylon
for the many interesting discussions I had with him on the subject
and for information on special points, and to Mr. Francis Story,
the Anagarika Sugatananda, who with much kindliness read
9
10
PREFACT
through the type-script and made useful and valuable sugges¬
tions. To Bhikkhu Jinaputta, Messrs. V. F. Gunaratna, the
Public Trustee of Sri Lanka, R. Abeysekara and D. Munidasa, also,
I am grateful for much help and encouragement. I would also like
to record here my deep gratitude to four distinguished members of
the Order, the Theras: Metteyya, Soma, Kassapa and ftanamoli
with whom I have been associated for more than a decade. Many a
lively discussion that I have had with them on the Dhamtna has
inspired me. They are no more. Meetings end in partings (samyoga
viyogantd). Last, but far from least, to Mr. K. G. Abeysingha. who so
tirelessly typed the whole script, 1 am grateful.
PI YADASSI
Vajirdrdnut,
Colombo 5,
Sri Lanka ( Ceylon)
I
THE BUDDHA
The Buddha, the founder of the great religion* Buddhism, lived
in North India over 2500 years ago and is known as Siddhattha
(Skt. Siddhartha, one whose purpose has been achieved). Gotama
(Skt. Gautama) was his family name. His father, Suddhodana,
ruled over the land of the Sakyas at Kapilavatthu on the Nepalese
frontier. Mahamaya, princess of the Koliyas, was Suddhodana’s
queen.
On a full-moon day of May — vasanta-tide, when in India the
trees were laden with leaf, flower and fruit, and man, bird and
beast were -in joyous mood, Queen Mahamaya was travelling in
state from Kapilavatthu to Devadaha, her parental home, according
to the custom cf the times, to give birth to her child. But that was
not to be, for halfway between the two cities, in the Lumbini grove,
under the shade of a flowering Sal tree, she brought forth a son.
Lumbini or Rummindei, the name by which it is now known, is
100 miles north of Baranasi (Benares) and within sight of the
snow-capped Himalayas. AV this memorable spot where Prince
Siddhattha, the future Buddha, was born, Emperor Asoka, 316 years
after the event, erected a mighty stone pillar to mark the holy
spot. The inscription engraved on the pillar in five lines consists
of ninety-three Asokan (brahmi) characters, amongst which occurs
the following: ‘Hida 'Budhe jate Sakyamuni’, ‘Here was born the
Buddha, the sage of the Sakyas’. The mighty column is still to be
seen. The pillar, ‘as crisp &s the day it was cut’, had been struck by
lightning even when Hiuen Tsiang, the Chinese pilgrim, saw it
towards the middle of the seventh century after Christ. The
discovery and identification of the Lumbini park in 1896 is attributed
to the renowned archaeologist, General Cunningham.
1. The term religion is used here in the sense of a ‘Way of Life’ and not in the
sense in which it is commonly understood. See p. 31.
11
12
the buddha's ancient path
Queen Mahamaya, the mother, passed away on the seventh day
after the birth of her child, and the baby was nursed by his mother's
sister, Pajapati Gotami. Though the child was nurtured till man¬
hood in refinement amidst an abundance of material luxury, the
father did not fail to give his son the education that a prince ought
to receive. He became skilled in many a branch of knowledge, and
in the arts of war easily excelled all others.
Nevertheless, from his childhood the prince was given to serious
contemplation. When the prince grew up the father’s fervent wish
was that hislon should marry, bring up a family and be his worthy
successor; but he (eared that the prince would one day give up home
for the homeless life of an ascetic.
According to the custom of the time, at the early age of sixteen t
the prince was married to his cousin Yasodhara, the only daughter
of King Suppabuddha and Queen Pamita of the Koliyas. The
princess was of the same age as the prince. Lacking nothing of the
earthly joys of life, he lived knowing naught of sorrow. Yet all the
efforts of the father to hold his son a prisoner to the senses and make
him worldly-minded were of no avail. King Suddhodana’s en¬
deavours to keep life’s miseries from his son’s inquiring eyes only
heightened Prince Siddhattha’s curiosity and his resolute search for
Truth and Enlightenment.
With the advance of age and maturity the prince began to glimpse
the woes of the world. As the books say, he saw four visions: the
first was a man weakened with age, utterly helpless; the second
was the sight of a man mere skin and bones, supremely unhappy
and forlorn, smitten with some pest ; the third was the sight of a
band of lamenting kinsmen bearing on their shoulders the corpse
of one beloved for cremation. These woeful signs deeply moved him.
The fourth vision, hotvever, made a lasting impression. He saw a
recluse, calm and serene, aloof and independent, and learnt that
he was one who had abandoned his home to live a life of purity,
to seek Truth and solve the riddle of life. Thoughts of renuncia¬
tion flashed through the prince's mind and in deep contemplation
he turned homeward. The heart-throb of an agonized and ailing
humanity found a responsive echo in his own heart. The more he
came in contact with the world outside his palr.ee walls, the more
convinced he became that the world was lacking in true happiness.
In the silence of that moonlit night (it was the full moon of July)
such thoughts as these arose in him:
‘Youth, the prime of life, ends in old age and man's senses fril him
THE BUDDHA
13
when they are most needed. The hale and hearty lose their vigour
and health when disease suddenly creeps in. Finally death comes,
sudden perhaps and unexpected, and puts an end to this brief span
of life. Surely there must be an escape from this unsatisfactoriness,
from ageing and death.’
Thus the great intoxication of youth, of health, and of life 1 left
him. Having seen the vanity and the danger of the three intoxica¬
tions, he was overcome by a powerful urge to seek and win the
Deathless, to strive for deliverance from old age, illness, misery and
death, 2 to seek it for himself and for all beings that suffer. It was his
deep compassion that led him to the quest ending in Enlightenment,
in Buddhahood. It was compassion that now moved his heart
towards the Great Renunciation and opened for him the doors of
the golden cage of his home life. It was compassion that made his
determination unshakable even by the last parting glance at his
beloved wife asleep with their baby in her arms.
Now at the age of twenty-nine, in the flower of youthful manhood,
on the day his beautiful Yasodhara, giving birth to his only son,
Rahula, made the parting more sorrowful and heart-rending, he
tore himself away — the prince with a superhuman effort of will
renounced wife, child, father and a crown that held the promise of
power and glory, and in the guise of an indigent ascetic retreated
into forest solitude to seek the eternal verities of life, ‘in quest of the
supreme security from bondage— Nibbdna'. 1 This was the great
renunciation.
Dedicating himself to the noble task of discovering a remedy for
life’s universal ill, he sought’guidance from two famous sages.
Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, hoping that they, being
masters of meditation, would show him the way to deliverance. He
practised concentration and reached the highest meditative attain¬
ments possible thereby, but was not satisfied with anything short
of supreme enlightenment. Their range of knowledge, their ambit
of mystical experience, however, was insufficient to grant him what
he earnestly sought. He, therefore, left them in search of the still
unknown.
In his wanderings he finally reached Uruvela, by jhe river
Neranjara at Gaya. He was attracted by its quiet and dense groves
and the clear waters of the river. Finding that this was a suitable
1. Yobbanamada , drogyamada, jivitamada.
2. See A. i. 146, sutta 38.
3. Af. i. 163, sutta 26.
14
THE BUDDHAS ANCIENT PATH
place to continue his quest for enlightenment, he decided to stay.
Five other ascetics who admired his determined effort waited on
him. They were Kondanna, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama and
Assaji.
There was, and still is, a belief in India among many of her
ascetics that purification and final deliverance from ill can be
achieved by rigorous self-mortification, and the ascetic Gotama
decided to test the truth of it. And so there at Uruvela he began
a determined struggle to subdue his body, in the hope that his
mind, set free from the shackles of the body, might be able to soar
to the heights of liberation. Most zealous was he in these practices.
He lived on leaves and roots, on a steadily reduced pittance of
food, he wore rags collected from dust-heaps; he slept among corpses
or on beds of thorns. The utter paucity of nourishment left him a
physical wreck.
‘Rigorous have 1 been in my ascetic discipline. Rigorous have 1
been beyond all others. Like wasted, withered reeds became all my
limbs!.. 1 In such words as these, in later years, having attained
to full enlightenment, did the Buddha give his disciples an awe¬
inspiring description of his early penances. 1
Struggling thus for six long years, he came to death’s very door,
but he found himself no nearer to his goal. The utter futility of
self-mortification became abundantly clear to him* by his own ex¬
perience; his experiment for enlightenment had failed. But un¬
discouraged, his still active mind searched for new paths to the
aspired-for goal. Then it happened that he remembered the peace
of his meditation in childhood under a rose-apple tree, and confi¬
dently felt : ‘This is the path to enlightenment.’ He knew, however,
that, with a body so utterly weakened as his, he could not follow
that path with any chance of success. Thus he abandoned self¬
mortification and extreme fasting and took normal food. His
emaciated body recovered its former health and his exhausted
vigour soon returned. Now his five companions left him in their
disappointment; for they thought that # he had given up the effort
to live a life of abundance.
Nevertheless with firm determination and complete faith in his
own purity and strength, unaided by any teacher, accompanied by
none, the Bodhisatta 2 (a* * ie * s known before he attained enlighten-
1. For a detailed account sec M. 36, translation by i. B. Homer in The Middle
Length Sayings, Vol. I (Puli Text Society, London).
2. A Bodhisatta (Skt. Bodhisattva) is one who adheres to or is bent on (satta)
the ideal of enlightenment, or knowledge of the four noble truths (bedhi). In this
THE BUDDHA 15
ment) resolved to make his final search in complete solitude. Cross-
legged he sat under a tree, which later became known as the Bodhi
tree, the Tree of Enlightenment’ or ‘Tree of Wisdom’, 1 on the
Bank of the river Neranjara, at Gaya (now known as Buddha-
Gaya)— ‘a pleasant spot soothing to the senses and stimulating to
the mind’—making the final effort with the inflexible resolution:
Though only my skin, sinews and bones remain, and my blood
and flesh dry up and wither away, yet will I never stir from this seat
until I have attained full enlightenment (samma-sam-bodhi).* So
indefatigable in effort, so unflagging in his devotion was he, and
so resolute to realize Truth and attain full enlightenment.
Applying himself to the ‘Mindfulness on in-and-out Breathing'
(ana + apana sati), the meditation he had developed in his child¬
hood, 2 the Bodhisatta entered upon and dwelt in the first meditative
sense, the term may be applied to any one who is bent on enlightenment. But it is
specially applied to an aspirant for full enlightenment (samma-sam-bodhi). A
Bodhisatta fully cultivates ten perfections or parami which arc essential qualities
of extremely high standard initiated by compassion, and ever tinged with under¬
standing or quick'wit, free from craving, pride and false views ( tanhd, mana and
ditfhi) that qualify an aspirant for Buddhahood. They are: generosity, morality,
renunciation, wisdom, effort, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving¬
kindness and equanimity (ddna, sila , nekkhamma, panM, viriya, khanti, sacca,
adhitthana, mettd and upekkha).
1. It appears to^be rather strange that no mention of the Bodhi tree is made in
the two discourses (nos. 26 and 36 of the Majjhima Nikdya) which graphically
describe the Bodhisatta’s struggle and search for enlightenment.
The Account given in the two discourses is as follows:
‘Then I, monks, seeking for whatever is good, searching for the incomparable,
matchless path to peace, walking on tour through Magadha in due course arrived
at Uruvela, the camp township. There I saw a delightful stretcl? of land and a
lovely woodland grove, and a clear flawing river (the Neranjara) with a delightful
ford, and a village for support nearby. It occurred to me, monks: “Indeed, it is a
delightful stretch of land...” “Indeed this does well for the striving of a young
man set on striving.” So I, monks, sat down just there, thinking: “Indeed this
does well for striving.” ’ (Miss I. B. Homer’s transition The Middle Length
Sayings, i, 210).
Perhaps the Buddha felt it was not necessary for him to mention that he sat
under a tree at it was well known then that recluses and ascetics sat cross-legged
in the open under trees, for their^neditation.
In the Mahapadhana-sutta (D . ii. 4), however, the tree is mentioned. It is an
Assattha, the sacred fig tree, ficus religiosa . Mention of the tree was made by (he
Buddha Gotama when he referred to the lives of the previous six Buddhas, his
predecessors. Addressing the monks he said: ‘I, now, monks, am«an Accom¬
plished One (< araharh ), a Supremely Enlightened One (samma-sam-buddho). I
attained supreme enlightenment under the fig tree (assatthassa mule abhisam-
buddho).'
2. Read M. 36 with the Commentary , MA. ii. 291 and Andpdna Samyutta
no. 8 (5. v 317).
16
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
absorbtion ( jhana skt. dhydna a term difficult to translate). By
gradual stages he entered upon and dwelt in the second, third and
the fourth jhanas. Thus cleansing his mind of impurities; with the
mind thus composed, he directed it to the knowledge of recollecting
past births (pubbemvasanussatiiidna). This was the first knowledge
attained by him in the first watch of the night (6 p.m. to 10 p.m.).
Then the Bodhisatta directed his mind to the knowledge of the
disappearing and reappearing of beings of varied forms, in good
states of existence, and in states of woe, each faring according to his
deeds (cuti + upapata ndna). This was the second knowledge
attained by him in the middle watch of the night (10 p.m. to 2 a.m.).
Next he directed his mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the
taints (asavakkhayanana).
He understood as it really is: This is suffering (dukkha), this is
the arising (cause) of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, this
is the path leading to the cessation of suffering. 2 He understood as it
really is: These are the taints (asavas), this is the arising of the taints,
this is the cessation of the taints, this is the path leading to the
cessation of the taints.
Knowing thus, seeing thus, his mind was liberated from the
taints: of sense-pleasures (kdmasava), of becoming (bhavasava), and
of ignorance (avijjasava). 3 4 When his mind was thus liberated, there
came the knowledge: ‘liberated’ and he understood:
Destroyed is birth, the noble life (brahma cariyam) has been lived,
done is what was to be done, there is no more of this to come
(meaning, there is no more continuity of the mind and body,
that is, no more becoming, rebirth). This was the third know¬
ledge attained by him in the last watch of the night (2 a.m. to
6 a.m.) 1
Thereon he spoke these words of victory :
‘Being myself subject to birth, ageing, disease, death, sorrow and
defilement; seeing danger in what is subject to these things; seeking
the unborn, unageing, diseaseless, deathless, sorrowless, undefiled,
supreme security from bondage — Nibbana, I attained it (literally
I experienced it). Knowledge and vision arose in me; unshakable
1. Sec chapter 14, Right Concentration ( samma-sam&dhi ).
2. For details see chapter 3 on The First Noble Truth, dukkha.
3. Elsewhere we see taint of false view ( dipthasava ) added to these as the
fourth taint.
4. M. 36.
THE BUDDHA
17
is my deliverance of mind. This is the last birth, now there is no
more becoming, no more rebirth.’ 1
Thus did the Bodhisatta Gotama on another full moon of May.
at the age of thirty-five, attain Supreme Enlightenment, by com¬
prehending in all their fullness the Four Noble Truths, the Eternal
Verities, and become the Buddha, the great Healer and Consum¬
mate Master-Physician (bhisakko) who can cure the ills of beings.
For a week, immediately after this enlightenment, the Buddha
sat at the foot of the Bodhi tree experiencing the bliss of deliverance.
Then he thought over the Dependent Arising or causal genesis
(paticca samuppdda )The Blessed One then spent six more weeks
in lonely retreat at six different places in the vicinity of the Bodhi
tree. 3 At the end of the seven weeks, he made up his mind fo
proclaim the D/icwvna —his discovery of the Ancient Path —(puranam
maggam), to his former friends, the five ascetics.
Knowing that they were living at Baranasi in the deer park at
Isipatana, the Resort of Seers (modern Sarnath), still steeped in
the unmeaning rigours of extreme asceticism, the Buddha left
Gaya for distant Baranasi, India’s holy city, walking by stages some
150 miles. There at the deer park (migadaya) he rejoined them.
Now on a full moon day of July, at eventide, when the moon was
rising in a globing Eastern sky, the Blessed One addressed the
five ascetics:
‘Monks, these two extremes ought not to be cultivated by the
recluse, by one gone forth from the house-life. What two? Sensual
indulgence and self-mortification which lead to no ‘good. The
middle path, understood by the Tathagata,* the Perfect One, after
he had avoided the extremes, gives vision, and knowledge, and
leads to calm, realization, enlightenment, tyibbarta. And what,
monks, is that middle path? It is this Noble Eightfold Path, namely:
1. M. 26.
2. This deeply profound doctrine is discussed in chapter 4, p. 56.
3. Vinaya, i. p. 1.
4. Even before the advent of the Buddha the word Tathugatci was used, but in
the sense of 'being’ ( satta ) as in the saying: ‘hoti tathagato parammarana —will
there be a being after death?’. The Venerable Sariputta used it in this^ense when
explaining a point to the Venerable Yamaka. See 5. iii. Ill and commentary.
After the advent of the Buddha, however, it was used as an epithet for
the Buddha, and the Master frequently used it when referring to himself. The
commentary to the Anguttara Nikaya (P.T.S. i. 103) gives the following meanings
to the word. ‘One attained to Truth.’ ‘One who understands things as they
are and not otherwise.’ Thus gone’ ( Tat ha -f gat a).
11
18
the buddha’s ancient path
right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.’*
Then the Buddha explained to them the Four Noble Truths. 1 2
Thus did the Enlightened One proclaim the Dhamma and set in
motion the matchless ‘Wheel of Truth’ (anuttaram dhammacakkam ).
With the proclamation of the Dhamma , for the first time, and with
the conversion of the five ascetics, the deer park at Isipatana became
the birth place of the Buddha's Dispensation ( Buddha-sasana),
and of the Sahgha , the community of monks, the ordained disciples. 3 4
Before long, fifty-five others headed by Yasa, a young man of
wealth, joined the Order of the Sangha. When the Rains (vassana,
July-October) ended, the Buddha addressed his disciples, the
Accomplished Ones (arahats,) now sixty in number and said:
‘Released am I, monks, from all ties whether human or divine.
You also arc delivered from fetters whether human or divine. Go
now and wander for the welfare and happiness of many, out of
compassion for the world, for the gain, welfare and happiness of
gods and men. Let not two of you proceed in the same direction.
Proclaim the Dhamma (doctrine) that is excellent in the beginning,
excellent in the middle, excellent in the end, possessed of meaning
and the letter and utterly perfect. Proclaim the life of purity, the
holy life consummate and pure. There are beings with little dust in
their eyes who will be lost through not hearing the Dhamma. There
are beings who will understand the Dhamma. 1 also shall go to
Uruvela, to Senanigama to teach the Dhamma . M
1. Y'inaya, i. 10; S. v. 420.
2. The Path and the Four Noble Truths which outline the basis of the entire
teaching will be discussc ] in later chapters.
3. The Emperor Asoka came on pilgrimage to this holy spot and caused a
series of monuments and a commemorative pillar with the lion capital to be
erected. This capital with its four magnificent lions upholding the ' Dharma-
Cakra\ ‘the Wheel of Dharma \ now stands in the museum of Sarnath, and is
today the official crest of India. The ‘ Dharniu-Cakra' festival is still maintained
in Sri Lanka.
Jawaharlal Nehru writes: 'At Sarnath near Benares, 1 would almost see the
Buddha p.caching his first sermon, and some of his recorded words would come
like a distant echo to me through two thousand five hundred years. Asoka s
pillars of stone with their inscriptions would speak to me in their magnificent
language and tell me of a man who, though an emperor, w'as greater than any
king or emperor.'
The Discovery of India (The Signet Press, Calcutta), p. 44.
4. Y'inaya, i. 21.
9
THE BUDDHA
19
Thus did the Buddha commence his sublime mission which lasted to
the end of his life. With his disciples he walked the highways and
byways of Jambudipa, Land of the rose apple (another name for
India), enfolding all within the aura of his boundless compassion
and wisdom.
The Buddha made no distinction of caste, clan or class when
communicating the Dhamma. Men and women from different walks
of life — the rich and the poor; the lowliest and the highest; the
literate and the illiterate; brahmins and outcasts, princes and
paupers, saints and criminals—listened to the Buddha, took refuge
in him, and followed him who showed the path to peace and
enlightenment. The path is open to all.
Caste, which was a matter of vital importance to the brahmins
of India, was one of utter indifference to the Buddha, who strongly
condemned so debasing a system. The Buddha freely admitted into
the Order people from all castes and classes, when he knew that
they were fit to live the holy life, and some of them later distinguished
themselves in the Order. The Buddha was the only contemporary
teacher who endeavoured to blend in mutual tolerance and concord
those who hitherto had been rent asunder by differences of caste
and class.
The Buddha also raised the status of women in India. Generally
speaking, during »the time of the Buddha, owing to brahminical
influence, women were not given much recognition. Sometimes
they were held in contempt, although there were solitary cases of
their showing erudition in matters of philosophy, and so on. In his
large-heartedness and magnanimity, the Buddha treated women
with consideration and civility, «und pointed out to them, too, the
path to peace, purity and sanctity. The Buddha established the
Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sasana) for the first time in history; for
never before this had there been an Order whei% women could lead
a celibate life of renunciation. Women from all walks of life joined
the Order. The lives of quite a number of these noble nuns, their
strenuous endeavours to win the goal of freedom, and their paeans
of joy at deliverance of mind are graphically described in the
‘Psalms of the Sisters’ (Theri-gatha). t
While journeying from village to village, from town to town,
instructing, enlightening and gladdening the many, the Buddha
saw how superstitious folk, steeped in ignorance, slaughtered
animals in worship of their gods. He spoke to them:
1. Psalms of the Early Buddhists—The Sisters, translated by C. A. F. Rhys
Davids. P.T.S. Translation Series.
20
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Of life, which all can take but none can give,
Life which all creatures love and strive to keep,
Wonderful, dear, and pleasant unto each.
Even to the meanest...’ 1
Thus when people who prayed to the gods for mercy, were merciless,
and India was blood-stained with the morbid sacrifices of innocent
animals at the desecrated altars of imaginary deities, and the harm¬
ful rites and rituals of ascetics and brahmins brought disaster and
untold agony, the Buddha, the Master of merciful wisdom, pointed
out the Ancient Path, the path of the Enlightened Ones, of righteous¬
ness, love and understanding. Being one who acted in constant
conformity with v/hat he preached, the Four Sublime States
(brahma-vihara) 2 always dominated his acts.
The Buddha never encouraged wrangling and animosity.
Addressing the monks he once said: T quarrel not with the world,
monks, it is the world that quarrels with me. An exponent of the
Dhamma quarrels not with anyone in the world.’ 3
Though the Order of the Sangha began its career with only sixty
disciples, it expanded into thousands, and in those early days an
adherent sought entry into it by pronouncing the threefold formula
known as the 'Three Refuges’ (ti-sarana) :
4 Buddham saranam gacchami
Dhammam saranam gacchami
Sang ham saranarh gacchami
Dutiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami
Dutiyampi Dhammarii saranaih gacchami
Dutiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami
Tatiyafhpi Buddham saranam gacchami
Tatiyarhpi Dhammam saranaih gacchami
Tatiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami ’
k I go for refuge to the Buddha (the Teacher)
1 go for refuge to the Dhamma (the Teaching)
I go for refuge to the Sangha (the Taught)
1. Sir Edwin Arnold, The Light of Asia.
2. The Four Sublime States are: unbounded loving kindness {mend),
compassion (karund), sympathetic joy ( mudifa), equanimity ( upekkhd ). See
chapter 8. p. Ill and passim.
3. S. iii. 138.
THE BUDDHA
21
For the second time I go for refuge to the Buddha
For the second time I go for refuge to the Dhamma
For the second time I go for refuge to the Sangha
For the third time I go for refuge to the Buddha
For the third time I go for refuge to the Dhamma
For the third time I go for refuge to the Sangha.’ 1
As a result of the increasing number of monks, monasteries came
into being, and in later times monastic Indian universities like
Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri became cultural centres
which gradually influenced the whole of Asia, and, through it, the
mental life of mankind.
After a successful ministry of forty-five years the Buddha passed
away at the age of eighty at the Sala Grove 2 of the Mallas at
Kusinara (in modern Uttara Pradesh about 120 miles north-east
of Baranasi), with a final admonition to his followers:
‘ Vayadhamma samkhara, appamadena sampadetha ' 3 4
'Subject to change are all component things. Work out your
deliverance with .heedfulness.’*
With only a few followers at the beginning, Buddhism pene¬
trated into many a land, 5 and is today the ‘religion' of over
500,000,000, more than one-fifth of the world’s population.
Buddhism made such rapid^strides chiefly due to its intrinsic
1. Vi nay a Mahdvagga , Khandaka.
2. In a way it is interesting to note that this greatest of Indian Rishis (seers)
was bom under a tree in a park, attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree (a
cutting from the south branch of which brought by Sanghamitta, the Arahat
Theri, daughter of Emperor Asoka of India, third century B.C., still flourishes
at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, and is the oldest recorded tree in the world), set in
motion the ‘Wheel of Truth’ ( Dhammacakka , Skt. Dharnta-cakra ) at the deer park
under trees, and finally passed aw^y under the twin sala trees. He spent most of
his time in the open, in the forests and villages of India.
3. D. 16. The discourse on the passing away of the Buddha ( Parinibbdna -
sutta ), wherein are recorded in moving detail all the events that occurred during
the last months and days of the Master’s life. •
4. The words diligence, vigilance, watchfulness are some renderings for the
pdli word ' appamdda ’.
5. Today Buddhism is found in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Burma, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea,
Taiwan, in some parts of India, Bangaladesh, Malaya and in some parts of
Indonesia. Several Western countries with Buddhist Sangha are now qualifying
to be included in this list.
22
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
worth and its appeal to the reasoning mind, but there were other
factors that aided its progress: never did the messengers of the
Dhamma (Dhammaduta) use any iniquitous methods in spreading
the doctrine. The only weapon they wielded was that of universal
love and compassion. Furthermore Buddhism penetrated to these
countries peaceably without disturbing the creeds that were already
there.
Buddhist missions to which the annals of religious history scarcely
afforded a parallel were carried on neither by force of arms nor by
the use of any coercive or reprehensible methods. Conversion by
compulsion was unknown and repugnant to the Buddha and his
disciples.
‘There is no record khown to me,’ wrote Professor T. W. Rhys
Davids, ‘in the whole of the long history of Buddhism throughout
the many centuries where its followers have been for such lengthened
periods supreme, of any persecution by the Buddhists of the followers
of any other faith.’
Buddhism was thus able to difTuse itself through a great variety
of cultures throughout the world.
2
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
One of the noteworthy characteristics that distinguish the Buddha
from all other religious teachers is that he was a human being with
no connection whatsoever with a God or any other ‘Supernatural’
Being. He was neither God nor an incarnation of God, nor any
mythological figure. He was a man, but a super-man, an extra¬
ordinary man (accariya manussa). He was beyond the human state
inwardly though living the life of a human being outwardly. Just as
he is for this reason called a unique being, man par excellence
(purisuttama).
The Buddha says: ‘Even as, monks, a lotus born and grown in
water, stands above, unsmeared by water, so the Tathagata, monks,
born and growp up in the world, yet lives lord over the world
without coming together with the world .’ 1
Depending on his own unremitting energy, unaided by any
teacher, human or divine, he achieved the highest mental and
intellectual attainments; reached the acme of purity, and was
perfect in the best qualities of human nature. He was an embodi¬
ment of compassion and wisdom, which became the two guiding
principles in his dispensation ( sasana).
Through personal experience he understood the supremacy of
man, and the concept of a ‘supernatural’ being who rules over the
destinies of beings below, he found to be a mere illusion. The
Buddha never claimed to be a saviour who tried to save ‘souls’ by
means of a revealed religion. Through his own perseverance and
understanding he proved that infinite possibilities are latent in man
and that it must be man’s endeavour to develop and unfold these
possibilities. He proved by his own experience that enlightenment
and deliverance lie absolutely and entirely in man’s hand. Being an
exponent of the strenuous life by precept and example, the Buddha
1. S. iii. 138.
23
24
the buddha’s ancient path
encouraged his disciples to cultivate self-reliance thus: ‘You are
your own refuge, who else could refuge be?' 1
It was also the Buddha who for the first time in the world’s
history taught that deliverance could be attained independently
of an external agency, that deliverance from suffering must be
wrought and fashioned by each one for himself upon the anvil of
his own actions.
None can grant deliverance to another who merely begs for it.
Others may lend us a helping hand indirectly, but the highest
freedom is attained only through self-realization and self-awakening
to Truth. Self-realization can come only to one who is free to
think out his own problems without let or hindrance. Each
individual should make the appropriate effort and break the shackles
that have kept him in bondage, winning freedom from the shackles
of existence by perseverance, self-exertion and insight, and not
through prayers and petitions to a Supreme Being. The Buddha
warns his disciples against shifting the burden to an external agency,
a saviour, a God or Brahma, directs them to the ways of discrimi¬
nation and research, and urges them to gel busy with the real task
of developing their inner forces and qualities. He says: ‘1 have
directed you towards deliverance. The Dhamma , the Truth, is to be
self-realized.’ 2
Buddhist monks are not priests who perform rites of sacrifice.
They do not administer sacraments and pronounce absolution.
An ideal Buddhist monk cannot and does not stand as an inter¬
mediary between men and ‘supernatural’ powers; for Buddhism
teaches that each individual is solely responsible for his own'libera-
tion. Hence, thenTTTno need to win the favour of a mediating
priest. ‘You yourselves should strive; the Tathagatas only show
the path.’ 3
The path is the same Ancient Path trodden and pointed out by
the Enlightened Ones of all ages. It is the Noble Eightfold Path
leading to enlightenment and highest security.
Another distinguishing characteristic is that the Buddha never
preserved his supreme knowledge for himself alone. To the Buddha
such a wish is utterly inconceivable. Perfect renlightenment, the
discovery and realization of the Four Noble Truths (Buddhahood),
is not the prerogative of a single being chosen by Divine Providence;
nor is it a unique and unrepeatable event in human history. It is
an achievement open to anyone who earnestly strives for perfect
1. Dhp. 160. 2. M. 38. 3. Dph. 276.
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
25
purity and true wisdom, and with inflexible will cultivates the
N oble Eigh tfold Path. «•» ^
Those who cultivate the path and reach the highest stage of
realization (arahatta), the final liberation from suffering, have
been solemnly declared by the Buddha to be his equals as far as the
emancipation from defilements and ultimate deliverance is con¬
cerned :
‘Victors like me are they, indeed.
They who have won defilements’ end.’ 1
The Buddha, however, also made clear to his disciples the
difference between a fully Enlightened One and the Arahats, the
Accomplished Saints:
‘The Tathagata, O disciples, while being an Arahat, 8 is fully
Enlightened. It is he who proclaims a path not proclaimed before,
he is the knower of a path, who understands a path, who is skilled
in a path. 8 And now his disciples,are way-farers who follow in his
footsteps. That, disciples, is the distinction, the specific feature which
distinguishes the Tathagata, who being an Arahat, is Fully En¬
lightened, from the disciple who is freed by insight.’*
When communicating the Dhamma to his disciples the Mastei
made no distinction whatsoever amongst them; for there were
1. Afv 26.
2. Sanskrit arhat ‘the consummate one’, ‘The Worthy One’. One of the titles
applied exclusively to the Buddha find the perfected disciples. As the books
reveal, the first application of the term to the Buddha was by himself. That was
when the Buddha was journeying from Gaya to BaranasI to deliver his first
sermon to the five ascetics. On the way, not far from 5Jaya, the Buddha was met
by Upaka, an ascetic, who, struck by the serene appearance of the Master, in¬
quired: ‘Who is thy teacher? Whose teaching do you profess?’
Replying in verse, the Buddha said:
‘I, verily, am !he Arahat in. the world,
A teacher peerless am I...*
He used the word for the second time when addressing the five ascetics thus:
*1 am an Arahat , a Tathagata, fully enlightened.’.
The word is applied only to those who have fully destroyed the taints. In this
sense, the Buddha was the first Arahat in the world as he himself revealed to
Upaka.
3. MaggaHhu, maggavidu, maggakovido.
4. S . iii. 66.
26
the buddha’s ancient path
no specially chosen favourite disciples. Amongst his adherents all
those who were Arahats, who were passion-free, and had shed the
fetters binding them to renewed existence, had equally perfected
themselves in purity. But there were some outstanding ones who
were skilled in different branches of knowledge and practice, and
because of their mental’endowments, gained positions of distinc¬
tion, but special favours were never granted to anyone by the
Master. Upali, for instance, who came from a barber’s family, was
made the chief in matters of discipline (vinaya) in preference to
many Arahats who belonged to the class of the nobles and
warriors.
There is not even an indication that the Master entrusted the
dispensation (sasana) to any particular disciple before he passed
away; not even to his two chief disciples, Sariputta and Maha
Moggallana. He did not appoint anyone as his successor. In this
connection it is interesting to note that the Buddha made clear to
his disciples, before he passed away, that he never thought of con¬
trolling the Order. Addressing the monks round his death-bed the
Master said:
‘The doctrine and the discipline (Dhammci-vinaya) which 1 have
set forth and laid down for you, let them after I am gone be the
teacher to you.’ 1
Even during his life time it was the Dhamma-vinaya that controlled
and guided the monks. He was no potentate. The Buddha’s Ancient
Path, the Eightfold Path, is the teaching for free men.
The Buddha appeared at a time when autocracy was prevalent
in India. But his teaching was somewhat of a threat to such auto¬
cratic government. He did not, however, interfere with the politics
and the government of the country; for he was never an interferer
in things where interference was useless, but that did not deter
him from giving voice to his democratic thoughts and views. The
Buddha’s teaching definitely encourages democratic ideas and
institutions. Though the Buddha wisely refrained from interfering
with the then existing governments, * lie made the sangha, the
community of monks, an absolutely democratic institution.
As the Marquess of Zetland, a former Viceroy of India, said:
%
‘It is probable that the tendency towards self-government
evidenced by these various forms of corporate activity received
fresh impetus from the Buddhist rejection of the authority of the
1. D. 16, Parinibbdna-sutta.
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
27
priesthood and further by its doctrine of equality as exemplified
by its repudiation of caste. It is indeed to the Buddhist books
that we have to turn for an account of the manner in which
the affairs of these early examples of representative self-governing
institutions were conducted. And it may come as a surprise to
many to learn that in the assemblies of Buddhists in India two
thousand years and more ago are to be found the rudiments
of our own parliamentary practice of the present day. The dignity
of the assembly was preserved by the appointment of a special
officer—the embryo of “Mr. Speaker” in our House of Commons.
A second officer was appointed to see that when necessary a
quorum was secured—the prototype of the Parliamentary Chief
Whip, in our own system. A member initiating business did so in
the form of a motion which was then open to discussion. In some
cases, this was done once only, in others three times, thus anticipa¬
ting the practice of Parliament in requiring that a Bill be read a
third time before it becomes law. If discussion disclosed a difference
of opinion the matter was decided by the vote of the majority, the
voting being by ballot.’ 1
Characteristic, again, is the Buddha’s method of teaching the
Dhamma. The Buddha disapproved of those who professed to have
‘secret doctrines’; saying: ‘Secrecy is the hall-mark of false doctrine.’
Addressing fhe Venerable Ananda, the personal attendant of the
"Master, the Buddha said: ‘I have taught the Dhamma, Ananda,
without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric
doctrine, for in respect of the Truth, Ananda, the Tathagata has
no such thing as the “closed fist” of a teacher, who hides some
essential knowledge from the pupil.’ 8 He declared the Dhamma
freely and equally to all. He kept nothing back, and never wished
to extract from his disciples blind and submissive faith in him and
his teaching. He insisted on discriminative examination and intelli¬
gent inquiry. In no uncertain terms did he urge critical investigation
when he addressed the inquiring Kalamas in a discourse that has
been rightly called ‘the §rst charter of free thought’.
A summary of the Kalama sutta is as follows:
Kesaputta was a small town in the kingdom of Kosala. The
inhabitants of this town were known as Kalamas. When they heard
that the Buddha had entered their town, they came to him for
guidance and said:
1. Legacy of India, Ed. by G. T. Garratt (Oxford, 1937), pp. x, xi.
2. D. 16.
28
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Venerable sir, there are some recluses and brahmins who visit
Kesaputta. As to their own view they expound it in full, but as to
the view of others, they condemn, revile and cripple it. Other
recluses and brahmins, on coming to Kesaputta, do likewise.
Venerable Sir, we doubt and waver as to which of these worthies
speak truth and which falsehood.’
'Yes, Kalamas, right it is for you to doubt, doubt has arisen in a
doubtful matter. Come, O Kalamas, be ye not led by reports or
tradition, or hearsay, nor by what is in a religious text, nor by mere
logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor after re¬
flection on an approval of some theory, nor by seeming possibilities,
nor upon the consideration “this recluse is our teacher”. But, O
Kalamas, when you know for yourselves: “these things are un¬
wholesome, these things are blameable and unprofitable,” then
indeed, do ye reject them.
‘And when you know for yourselves: “these things are whole¬
some, blameless and profitable,” then do you, having undertaken
them, abide therein.’ Then the Buddha questioned them thus: ‘Now,
what think ye, O Kalamas, when greed, hate and delusion arise in
a man do they arise to his profit or to his loss? Are they blameable
or not?’
- To his loss, Venerable Sir, they are blameable.
- Now, what think ye, Kalamas, when freedom from greed, hate
and delusion arise in a man, do they arise to his profit or loss?
Are they blameable or pot?
- To his profit, Lord. They are blameless.
- So then, Kalamas, as to my words to you just now: ‘Be ye not
led by reports — abide therein.’ Such was my reason for saying
them. 1
To take anything on^rust is not in the spirit of Buddhism, so we
find this dialogue between the Master and his disciples:
- If, now, knowing this and preserving this, would you say: ‘We
honour our Master and through respec; for him we respect what
he teaches?’
- No, Lord.
- That which you affirm, O disciples, is it not only that which you
yourselves have recognized, seen and grasped?
- Yes, Lord. 2
1. A. i. 188, sulia 63. Cf. A. i. sutia 66 and A. ii. Bhaddiya suiia 193.
2. M. 47.
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
29
And in conformity with this thoroughly correct attitude of true
inquiry, it is said, in a Buddhist treatise on logic: ‘As the wise test
gold by burning, by cutting it and rubbing it (on a touchstone), so
are you to accept my words after examining them and not merely
out of regard for me.’ 1
Buddhism is free from* compulsion and coercion and does not
demand of the follower blind faith. At the very outset the sceptic
will be pleased to hear of its call for investigation. Buddhism, from
beginning to end, is open to all those who have eyes to see and
mind to understand.
Once, when the Buddha, was dwelling in a mango grove at
Nalanda, Upali, a fervent follower of Nigantha Nataputta (Jaina
Mahavira), 2 approached the Master with the sole intention of
debating with him and defeating him in argument. The subject
was the theory of karma which both the Buddha and Mahavira
professed, although their views on it differed. At the end of the
very friendly discussion, Upali being convinced by the arguments
of the Buddha, agreed with his views, and was ready to become a
follower, a lay disciple (upasaka). Nevertheless cautioning him, the
Buddha said: ‘Of a truth, householder, make a thorough investiga¬
tion. It is good for well-known men like yourself to make a thorough
investigation.’ Upali, however, became more satisfied and delighted
with the Budcfha for thus cautioning him, and took refuge in the
Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha (the Order). 3
This episode clearly explains that the Blessed One was not
anxious to gain followers except through their own conviction — a
lesson this that missionaries should learn.
The Buddha never interfered with another man’s freedom of
thought; for freedom of thought is the birthright of every individual-
It is wrong to force someone out of the way of life which accords
with his outlook and character, spiritual inclination and tendencies.
Compulsion in every form is bad. It is coercion of the blackest kind
to make a man swallow beliefs for which he has no relish; such
forced feeding cannot be good for anybody, anywhere.
The Buddha’s sole intention was to make clear to others that
t
seeing things as they are is not the result of mere belief in, and
fear of, some external power, either human, superhuman or even
1. JHanas&ra-samuccaya, 31.
2. One of the so called six ‘heretics’ or teachers, contemporaries of theBuddha.
For accounts of these teachers read SamaiiHaphala sutta, D . 2, or its translation in
Dialogues of the Buddha , Part I.
3. Upali sutta , M. 56. also read below p. 118.
30
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
infra-human. In the understanding of things, belief and fear do not
play any role in Buddhist thought. The truth of the Dhamma can
be grasped only through insight never through blind faith, or
through fear of some known or unknown being. The history of
religions reveals that it is fear in man, enmeshed in ignorance,
which creates the idea of an omnipotent external agency; and once
that idea is created, men move in fear of the. child of their own
creation, and work untold harm to themselves, and, at times, to
others, too.
Instructing the monks the Buddha says: ‘Those who have mere
faith in me, mere affection in me, they are bound for a good state
of existence (but they do not attain the highest, arahatta, final
emancipation). Those who are striving for Dhamma, who are bent
on the path, they are bound for awakening, for arahatta.' 1
These are clear indications that the Buddha did not want his
followers to recognize anything indiscriminately and without
reason.
Not only did the Buddha discourage blind belief, and fear of the
omnipotent as unsuitable approaches for understanding the truth,
but he also denounced adherence to unprofitable rites and rituals,
because the mere abandoning of outward things, such as fasting
bathing in rivers, animal sacrifice and similar acts, do not tend to
purify a man, do not make a man holy and noble.
We find this dialogue between the Buddha and the brahmin
Sundarika Bharadvaja. Once the Buddha addressing the monks
explained in detail how a seeker after deliverance should train
himself, and further added that a man whose mind is free from
taints, whose life of purity is perfected, and the task done, could be
called one who bathes inwa/dly.
Then Bharadvaja sealed near the Buddha heard these words and
asked him:
- Does the Venerable Gotama go to bathe in the river Bahuka?
- Brahmin, what good is the river Bahukp?
- Indeed, Venerable Gotama, the river Bahuka is believed by
many to be holy. Many people have their evil deeds (papa)
washed aNvay in the river Bahuka.
Then the Buddha made him understand that bathing in rivers
would not cleanse a man of his dirt of evil, and instructed him thus:
l. M. 22.
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
31
‘Bathe just here (in this Docirine and Discipline— Dhamma-
vinaya), brahmin, give security to all beings. If you do not speak
falsehood, or kill or steal, if you are confident, and are not mean,
what does it avail you to go to Gaya (the name of a river in India
during the time of the Buddha)? Your well at home is also a Gaya.’ 1
The Buddha proclaimed a path free from all superstition and
cruelty, that is, he made it impossible for his followers to behave in
any manner detrimental to the welfare of living beings, by prohibiting
all oppression, spoliation and plunder.
What then is Buddhism?
Some prefer to call the teaching of the Buddha a religion, others
call it a philosophy, still others think of it as both religion and
philosophy. It may, however, be more correct to call it a ‘ Way of
Life’. But that does not mean that Buddhism is nothing more than
an ethical code. Far from it, it is a way of moral, spiritual and
intellectual training leading to complete freedom of mind. The
Buddha himself called his teaching 'Dhamma-vmaya', the Doctrine
and the Discipline. But Buddhism, in the strictest sense of the
word, cannot be called a religion, for if by religion is meant ‘action
or conduct indicating belief in, reverence for, and desire to please,
a divine ruling power; the exercise or practice of rites or obser¬
vances implying this...; recognition on the part of man of some
higher unseen power as having control of his destiny, and as being
entitled to obedience, reverence, and worship,’ 2 Buddhism certainly
is not such a religion.
In Buddhist thought, there is no awareness or copviction of the
existence of a Creator of any form who rewards and punishes the
good and ill deeds of the creatures of his creation. A Buddhist takes
refuge in the Buddha (Buddham saranarh gacchami) but not in the
hope that he will be saved by the Master. There is no such guarantee.
The Buddha is only a teacher who points out the way and guides
the followers to their individual deliverance.
A sign-board at the parting of roads, for instance, indicates
directions, and it is leftto the wayfarer to tread along the way
watching his steps. The board certainly will not take him to his
desired destination.
A doctor diagnoses the ailment and prescribes; it is left to the
patient to test the prescription. The attitude of the Buddha towards
1. M. 7.
2. The Short Oxford English Dictionary, 1956.
32
the buddha’s ancient path
his followers is like that of an understanding and compassionate
teacher or a physician.
The highest worship is that paid to the best of men, those great
and daring spirits who have, with their wide and penetrating grasp
of reality, wiped out ignorance, and rooted out defilements. The
men who saw Truth are true helpers, but Buddhists do not pray
to them. They only reverence the revealers of Truth for having
pointed out the path to true happiness and deliverance. Happiness
is what one must achieve for oneself; nobody else can make one
better or worse. ‘Purity and impurity depend on oneself. One can
neither purify nor defile another.’ 1
While lying on his death-bed between the two Sala trees at
Kusinara the eighty-year-old Buddha seeing the flowers offered to
him, addressed the Venerable Ananda thus: They who, Ananda,
are correct in life, living according to the Dhamma —it is they who
rightly honour, reverence and venerate the Tathagata with the
worthiest homage. Therefore, Ananda, be ye correct in life, living
according to the Dhamma. Thus, should you train yourselves.’*
This encouragement of the Buddha on living according to the
Dhamma shows clearly that what is of highest importance is training
in mental, verbal and bodily conduct, and not the mere offering of
flowers to the Enlightened Ones. The emphasis is on living the
right life.
Now when a Buddhist offers flowers, or lights a lamp before the
Buddha image or some sacred object, and ponders over the supreme
qualities of the Buddha, he is not praying to anyone; these are not
ritual, rites, oi acts of worship. The flowers that soon fade,.and the
flames that die down speak to him. and tell him of the imper-
manency (atiicca) of all conditioned things. The image serves him
as an object for concentration, for meditation; he gains inspiration
and endeavours to emulate the qualities of the Master. Those
who do not understand the significance of this simple offering,
hastily conclude: ‘This is idol worship.’ Nothing could be more
untrue. *
Jawaharlal Nehru in his autobiography writes:
‘At Anuradhapura, 3 I liked greatly an old seated statue of the
Buddha. A year later, when I was in Dehra Dun Gaol, a friend in
Ceylon sent me a picture of this statue, and I kept it on my little
table in my cell. It became a precious companion for me, and the
1. Dph. 165. 2. D. 16. 3. In Sri Lanka (Ceylon).
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
33
strong, calm features of the Buddha’s statue soothed and gave me
strength and helped me to overcome many a period of depression.’ 1
P. D. Ouspensky, seeing a Buddha image in a monastery near
Mount Lavinia in Sri Lanka wrote:
‘The face of the Buddha was quite alive; he was not looking
straight at me, and yet he saw me. At first I felt nothing but wonder.
I had not expected and could not have expected anything like it.
But very soon wonder and all other feelings and thoughts dis¬
appeared in new and strange sensations. The Buddha saw me, saw
in me that which I could not see myself, all that was hidden in the
most secret recesses of my soul. And under his gaze, which, as it
were, passed me by, I began to see all this myself. Everything that
was small, superfluous, uneasy and troubled came to the surface
and displayed itself under this glance. The face of the Buddha was
quite calm, but not expressionless, and full of deep thought and
feeling. He was lying here deep in thought and I had come, opened
the doors and stood before him, and now he was involuntarily
judging me. But there was no blame or reproach in his glance. His
look was extraordinarily serious, calm and full of understanding.
But when I attempted to ask myself what the face of the Buddha
expressed, I realized that there could be no answer. His face was
neither cold nor indifferent. On the other hand it would be quite
wrong to say that it expressed warmth, sympathy or compassion.
All this would be too small to ascribe to him. At the same time it
would also be wrong to say that the face of the Buddha expressed
unearthly grandeur or divine wisdom. No, it was a hUman face, yet
at the same time a face whicfi men do not happen to have. I felt
that the words that I could command would be wrong if applied
to the expression of this face. I can onjy say that here was
understanding.
‘Simultaneously I began to feel the strange effect which the
Buddha’s face produced on me. All the gloom that rose from the
depths of my soul seemed to clear up. It was as if the Buddha’s
face communicated its calm to me. Everything that up to now had
troubled me and appeared so serious and important, now became
so small, insignificant and unworthy of notice, that I only wondered
how it could ever have affected me. And I felt that no matter how
agitated, troubled, irritated and torn with contradictory thoughts
1. Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography (John Lane, The Bodley Head,
London) p. 271.
Ill
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
LW
and feelings a man might be when he came here, he would go away
calm, quiet, enlightened, understanding...' 1
As to whether Buddhism is a philosophy, that depends upon the
definition of the word; and whether it is possible to give a definition
that will cover all existing systems of philosophical thought is doubt¬
ful. Etymologically philosophy means to love (Gr. pliilein ) wisdom
(sophia). ‘Philosophy has been both the seeking of wisdom and the
wisdom sought.’ In Indian thought philosophy is termed darsana,
vision of truth. In brief, the aim of philosophy should be to find out
the ultimate truth.
Buddhism also advocates the search for truth. But it is no mere
speculative reasoning, a theoretical structure, a mere acquiring and
storing of knowledge. The Buddha emphasises the practical aspect
of his teaching, the application of knowledge to life—looking into
life and not merely at it.
For the Buddha, the entire teaching is just the understanding of
the unsatisfactory nature of all phenomenal existence and the
cultivation of the path leading away from this unsatisfactoriness.
This is his ‘philosophy’.
In Buddhism wisdom is of the highest importance; for purifica¬
tion comes through wisdom, through understanding.* But the
Buddha never praised mere intellect. According to fiim, knowledge
should go hand in hand with purity of heart, with moral excellence
{vijja-caranasampanna). Wisdom gained by understanding and
development of the qualities of mind and heart is wisdom par
excellence (bhdvanamaya pahna). It is saving knowledge, and not
mere speculation, logic or specious reasoning. Thus it is clear that
Buddhism is neither mere love of, nor inducing the search after
wisdom, nor devotion (though they have their significance and
bearing on mankind),*but an encouragement of a practical applica¬
tion of the teaching that leads the follower to dispassion, enlighten¬
ment and final deliverance.
Though we call the teaching of the Buddha ‘Buddhism’, thus
including it among the 'isms’ and ‘ologies it does not really matter
what we label it. Call it religion, philosophy, Buddhism or by any
other name you like. These labels are of little significance to one
who goes in search of truth and deliverance.
When Upatissa and Kolita (who were later to become Sariputta
1. P. D. Ouspensky, A New Model of the Universe, third edition (Kegan Paul,
London, 1938), pp. 360-72.
2. S. i. 214.
THE BUDDHIST STANDPOINT
35
and Maha Moggallana, the two chief disciples of the Buddha) were
wandering in search of the truth of deliverance, Upatissa saw
the Venerable Assaji (one of the first five disciples of the Master)
who was on his alms-round. Upatissa was greatly struck by the
dignified deportment of the Elder. Thinking it not the right time
to inquire and question, Upatissa followed the Elder Assaji to his
resting place, and then approached and greeted him and asked
about his master’s teaching. 1 The Venerable Assaji, rather reluctant
to speak much, humbly said: ‘I cannot expound the doctrine and
discipline at length, but I can tell you the meaning briefly.’ Upatissa’s
reply is interesting:. Well, friend, tell little or much; what I want
is just the meaning. Why speak many words?’ Then the Venerable
Assaji repeated a single verse which embraces the Buddha’s entire
doctrine of causality:
‘Whatever from a cause proceeds, thereof
The Tathagata has explained the cause.
Its cessation too he has explained.
This is the teaching of the Supreme Sage.’*
Upatissa instantly grasped the meaning and attained the first
stage of realization, comprehending ‘whatever is of the nature of
arising, all that* is of the nature of ceasing’ (yamkifici samudaya-
dhammam sabbam tarn nirodhadharnmarh). 3
No amount of talk and discussion not directed towards right
understanding will lead us to deliverance. What is needed is right
instruction and right understanding. We may even, derive right
instructions from nature, fron? trees and flowers, from stones and
rivers. There are many instances where people gained enlighten¬
ment and release from taints by merely watching a leaf fall, the
flow of water, a forest fire, the blowing out o? a lamp. This struck
a chord in them, and realizing the impermanent nature of things,
they gained deliverance. Yes, the lotus awaits the sunlight, and no
sooner does the sun shine Jhan the lotus opens and brings delight
to all.
Here in this teaching no attempt is made to probe into the
ultimate origin of man and things—to inquire into the. question:
‘Is the universe eternal or not? Is it finite or infinite?’
1. Compare this with the story of Kassapa, p. 55, n. 3.
2. Ye dhammd hetuppabhava—tesarh hetum tathdgato aha
Tesaih ca yo nirodho—evarh vadi maha samano.
3. Vinaya i. 40
36
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
The Buddha was not concerned with such metaphysical problems
which only confuse man and upset his mental equilibrium. Their
solution surely will not free mankind from misery and ill. That was
why the Buddha hesitated to answer such questions, and at times
refrained from explaining those which were often wrongly formula¬
ted. The Buddha was a practical teacher. His sole aim was to
explain in all its detail the problem of dukkha , suffering, the universal
fact of life, to make people feel its full force, and to convince them of
it. He has definitely told us what he explains and what he does not
explain. 1 2 3
Some scholars, however, do not appreciate this attitude of the
Master, they even doubt his enlightenment and label him an
agnostic. Scholars will ever argue and speculate. These are not
questions of today or yesterday, they were raised in the time of the
Buddha. Even Sakuludayi,the Wanderer, for instance, asked about
the past and the future and the Buddha’s reply was categorical:
fc Let be the past, let be the future, I will teach you the Dhanuna:
“When this is, that comes to be.
With the arising of this, that arises,
When this is uut, that Hoes not come to be,
With the cessation of this, that ceases.” ’<•
This in a nutshell is the Buddhist doctrine of conditionality or
Dependent Arising (paticca satnuppada) * And this forms the
foundation of the Four Noble Truths, the central conception of
Buddhism.
1. See p. 38.
2. Imasntim sad idarh hod,
imassuppada idarh uppajjati,
imasmim asati idam na hoti,
imassa nirodha idam nirujjhati. M. ii. 32.
See also the dialogue between the Buddha and Malufikyaputta in A/. 63
3. For the whole formula consisting of the twelve factors, see p. 56.
3
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION
OF BUDDHISM
(The Four Noble Truths)
THE FIRST NOBLE TRUTH
Dukkha: Suffering
The Four Noble Truths realized by the Buddha while seated in
contemplation under the Bodhi tree at Gaya were made known by
him to his erstwhile companions, the five ascetics, when he gave his
first sermon at the deer park at Isipatana (modern Sarnath) near
Benares. These Four Noble Truths form the central conception of
Buddhism.
They are:
1. Dukkha, suffering,
2. Sarnudaya, the arising of suffering,
3. Nirodha, the cessation of suffering,
4. Magga, the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
The word dukkha (or Sanskrft duhkha) is one of those Pali 1 terms
that cannot be translated adequately into English, by one word,
for no English word covers the same ground as dukkha in Pali.
Suffering, ill, anguish, unsatisfactoriness are some favourite render¬
ings; the words pain, misery, sorrow, conflict, and so forth, are also
used. The word dukkha, however, includes all that, and more than
that. Though one likes to ^ave the term untranslated, for conveni¬
ence sake both the words suffering and dukkha will be used wherever
possible. After a perusal of this chapter the reader may be able to
understand what dukkha means in the Buddha’s teaching."
1. Pali is the language or dialect in which the Buddhist texts, or the Buddhist
Canon ( tipifaka ), and the commentaries are written. They were committed to
writing (inscribed on palm leaves) for the first time during the reign of King
Vatthagamani Abhaya (101-77 b.c.) at Alu-vihara, Matale near Kandy in Sri Lanka
37
38
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
In Buddhism awakening from ignorance to full knowledge always
implies the comprehension of the Four Noble Truths. The En¬
lightened One is called the Buddha simply because he understood
the Truths in all their fullness. The whole of his first sermon is
devoted to the formulation of these Truths; for they are the essence
of the Buddha’s teaching. ‘As the footprint of every creature that
walks the earth can be contained in an elephant’s footprint, which
is pre-eminent for size, so does the doctrine of the four Noble Truths
embrace all skilful Dhamma (the entire teaching of the Buddha).’ 1
In the original Pali texts, specifically in the discourses (suttas),
these Four Truths are made clear in detail and in diverse ways.
Without a clear idea of the Truths, one cannot know what the
Buddha taught for forty-five years. To the Buddha the entire
teaching is just the understanding of dukkha, the unsatisfactory
nature of all phenomenal existence, and the understanding of the
way out of this unsatisfactoriness.
Even when the recluses and brahmins of his time misrepresented
him by saying:
‘The recluse Gotama is a nihilist (venayiko) who makes known the
destruction and disappearance of being’, the Buddha, without any
feeling of indignation, or dissatisfaction, emphatically said: ‘For¬
merly (as early as the first proclamation of the Dhamma to the five
ascetics) as well as now, monks, I make known only suffering and
the cessation of suffering (dukkhamceva pahnapemi dukkhassa ca
mrodharh) \ 2
To understand this unequivocal saying is to understand Buddhism;
for the entire teaching of the Buddha is nothing else than the
application of this one principle. It seems to me that what can be
called the discovery,of a Buddha, is just these Four Truths, and the
rest are logical developments and more detailed explanations of
the Four Noble Truths. This is the typical teaching of the Buddhas
of all ages, peculiar to them and none else (Buddhanam samuk-
kamsikd dhammadesana ). 8 The supremacy of the Four Truths in the
teaching of the Buddha is abundantly clear from the message of
the siihsapa grove as from the message of the deer park:
Once "the Buddha was living at Kosambi (near Allahabad) in
the simsapa grove. Then gathering a few leaves in his hand, the
Buddha addressed the monks:
1. M. 28.
2. M. 22.
3. Vinaya Mahavagga ; D. ii.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
39
- What do you think, monks, which is greater in quantity, the
handful of sirhsapa leaves gathered by me, or what is in the forest
overhead?
- Not many, trifling, Venerable Sir, are the leaves in the handful
gathered by the Blessed One, many are the leaves in the forest
overhead.
Even so, monks, many are the things 1 have fully realized, but
not declared qnto you; few are the things I have declared unto
you. And why, monks, have I not declared them? They, monks,
are, indeed, not useful, are not essential to the life of purity, they
do not lead to disgust, to dispassion, to cessation, to tranquillity,
to full understanding, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. That is
why, monks, they are not declared by me.
And what is it, monks, that I have declared?
This is suffering—this have I declared.
This is the arising of suffering—this have I declared.
This is the cessation of suffering—this have I declared.
This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering—this have I
declared.
And why, monks, have I declared these truths? They are, indeed
useful, are essential to the life of purity, they lead to disgust,
to dispassion, to cessation, to tranquillity, to full understanding,
to enlightenment, to Nibbana. That is why, monks, they are
declared by me.’ 1 Thus spoke the Buddha.
The Buddha is known as the peerless physician (bliisakko), the
supreme surgeon (sallakatto anuttaro). He indeed is-an unrivalled
healer. The Buddha’s metltod of exposition of the Four Truths
is comparable to that of a physician. As a physician, he first
diagnosed the illness, next he discovered the cause or the arising of
the illness, then considered its removal 2nd lastly applied the
remedy.
Suffering (dukkha) is the illness; craving (tanha) is the arising or
the root cause of the illness (samudaya); through the removal of
craving the illness is removed and that is the cure (nirodha = nibbana).
A sick man should become aware of his ailment, he should take
notice of it lest it becomes acute, he should then think.of a way of
removing its cause; with this end in view he goes to a physician who
diagnoses and prescribes a remedy. Through the efficacy of the
remedy the patient gets rid of the ailment and that is the cure.
1. S. v. 437.
40 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
Thus suffering is not to be ignored, but to be known (abhinfieyya),
for it is the dire disease. Craving, the cause, is to be removed, to be
abandoned (pahatabba); the Eightfold Path is to be practised, to be
cultivated (bhavetabba); for it is the remedy. With the knowledge of
suffering, with the removal of craving through the practice of the
path, Nibbana’s realization ( saccikatabba ) is ensured. It is the cure,
the complete detachment, the release from craving.
The Buddha’s reply to Sela, the brahmin, who doubted the
Master’s enlightenment is interesting:
‘I know what should be known, what should
Be cultivated I have cultivated,
What should be abandoned that have I let go,
Hence, O brahmin, I am Buddha —the Awakened One.'*
The reply clearly indicates that it was for no other reason than a
perfect comprehension of the Four Truths that the Master is called
a Buddha. The Buddha himself says: ‘Monks, by the fact of under¬
standing, as they really are, these Four Noble Truths, a Tathagata
is called an Arahat, a Fully Enlightened One.’ 1 2
The First Noble Truth: Dukkha: Suffering.
In the early Buddhist scriptures the word dukkha is used in more
than one sense. It is used in the psychological, physical and philo¬
sophical sense according to the context.
To those who try to see things as they really are, the concept of
dukkha (suffering) is no insignificant ,*hing. It is the key-stone in
Buddhist thought. To ignore this essential concept implies ignoring
the remaining three truths. The importance of knowing suffering is
seen in these words of the Buddha:
‘He who sees suffering, sees also the arising of suffering, the
cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the cessation of
suffering.’ J
As these truths are interconnected and interdependent, seeing
one or mote of the four truths implies seeing the others as well.*
To one who denies suffering, a path, treading along which one
gains deliverance from suffering, is meaningless. In brief, denying
1. M. 92: Sn. 558: Thag. 828; Vinaya i. 245.
2. S. v. 433. 3. 5. v. 437. 4. S. v. 437.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
41
one single truth amounts to denying the other three as well, and
that is to deny the entire teaching of the Buddha.
To the staunch materialist who says: ‘I do not want to swallow
all this nonsense,’ this teaching may appear rather jejune, puzzling
and out of place, but to those who strive to cultivate a realistic view
of life, this is no myth, no imaginary tale told to fools.
To those who view the sentient world from the correct angle,
that is with dispassionate discernment, one thing becomes abun¬
dantly clear; there is only one problem in the world, that of suffer¬
ing (dukkha). All other problems known and unknown are included
in this one which is universal. As the Buddha says: The world
is established on suffering, is founded on suffering (dukkhe loko
patitfhito ).*■ If anything becomes a problem there is bound to be
suffering, unsatisfactoriness, or if we like, conflict—conflict between
our desires and the facts of life. And naturally, man’s every
endeavour is to solve the problem, in other words, to remove un¬
satisfactoriness, to control conflict, -which is pain, a wretched state
of mind.
To this single problem we give different names: economic,
social, political, psychological and even religious problems. Do not
they all emanate from that one single problem, dukkha, namely,
unsatisfactorim^s? If there is not unsatisfactoriness, why need we
strive to solve them? Does not solving a problem imply reducing the
unsatisfactoriness? All problems bring about unsatisfactoriness, and
the endeavour is to put an end to them, but they beget each other.
The cause is often not external, but in the problem itself, it is sub-
jective. We often think that ^e have solved problems to the satis¬
faction of all concerned, but they often crop up in other forms, in
diverse ways. It seems as if we are constantly confronted with fresh
ones, and we put forth fresh efforts to solve tkem, thus they and the
solving of them go on incessantly. Such is the nature pf suffering,
the universal characteristic of sentient existence. Sufferings appear
and pass away only to reappear in other forms. They are both
physical and psychological? and some people are capable of endur¬
ing the one more than the other and vice versa.
Life according to Buddhism is suffering; suffering dominates all
life. It is the fundamental problem of life. The world is suffering
and afflicted, no being is free from this bond of misery and this is a
universal truth that no sensible man who sees things in their proper
perspective can deny. The recognition of this universal fact, how-
1. S. i. 40.
42
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
ever, is not a total denial of pleasure or happiness. The Buddha, the
Lord over suffering, revej* denied happiness in life when he spoke
of the universality of suffering. In the Anguttara Nikaya, one of the
five original Collections of Pali, there is a long enumeration of the
happinesses that beings are capable of enjoying. 1
In answering a question of Mahali Licchavi, the Buddha says:
‘Mahali, if visible forms, sound, smell, taste and tactile objects
(these, as you know, are sense objects which man experiences
through his sense faculties), are entirely subject to suffering, beset
with suffering, and entirely bereft of pleasure and happiness,
beings will not take delight in these sense objects; but, Mahali,
because there is pleasure and happiness in these sense objects,
beings take delight in them and cling to them; because of this
clinging they defile themselves.’ 8
Through sense faculties man is attracted to sense objects, delights
in them and derives enjoyment ( assada It is a fact that cannot be
denied, for you experience it. Neither the delightful objects nor the
enjoyments, however, are lasting. They suffer change. Now when a
man cannot retain or is deprived of the pleasures that delight him,
he often becomes sad and cheerless. He dislikes monotony, for lack
of variety makes him unhappy, and looks for fresh delights, like
cattle that seek fresh pasture, but these fresh delights, too, are
fleeting and a passing show. Thus all pleasures, whether we like it
or not, are preludes to pain and disgust. All mundane pleasures are
fleeting, like sugar-coated pills of poison they deceive and harm us.
A disagreeable dish, an unpleasanLdrink, an unlovely demeanour,
and a hundred other trifles, bring pain and dissatisfaction to us—
Buddhist or non-Buddhist, rich or poor, high or low, literate or
illiterate. Shakespeare merely gives voice to the words of the Buddha
when he writes in Hamlet: ‘When sorrows come they come not single
spies, but in battalions.’
Now when man fails to see this aspect of life, this unsteadiness
of pleasures, he becomes disappointed and frustrated, may even
behave foolishly, without sense or judgement and even lose balance
of mind. This is the danger, the evil consequence (adyrmuj. Man¬
kind is frequently confronted with these two pictures of life (assada
and adinava). Yet the man who endeavours to get rid of his deep
fondness for things, animate and inanimate, and views life with a
1. A. i. 80.
2. 5. iii. 69.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
43
detached outlook, who sees things in their proper perspective, whose
cultural training urges him to be calm under all life’s vicissitudes,
who can smile when things go wrong, and maintain balance of
mind putting away all likes and dislikes — he is never worried but
liberated (nissarana). These three, assada, adinava and nissarana,
or enjoyment, its evil consequences and liberation are facts of
experience—a true picture of what we call life.
In answering the question of Mahali the Buddha continues:
‘Mahali, if visible forms, sound, smell, taste and tactile objects are
entirely subject to pleasure, beset with pleasures and not bereft of
pain, beings will not be disgusted with sense objects, but, Mahali,
because there is pain and no lasting pleasure in these sense objects,
they feel disgusted, being disgusted they do not delight in and
cling to them; not clinging, they purify themselves.’*
Now there are these three aspects of suffering: (1) suffering in
its most obvious ordinary form (dukkha-dukkhata ); (2) suffering or
the unsatisfactoriness of conditioned states (samkhdra-dukkhata) ;
(3) suffering caused by change (viparindma dukkhata).*
All mental and bodily sufferings such as birth, ageing, disease,
death, association with the unloved, dissociation from the loved,
not getting what one wants® are the ordinary sufferings of daily
life and are (jailed dukkha-dukkhata. Not much science is needed to
understand this fact of life.
Samkhdra-dukkhata, unsatisfactoriness of conditioned states, is of
philosophical significance. Though the word samkhara implies all
things subject to cause and effect, here in the context of dukkha
the five groups or aggregates (pancakkhandha) are meant. They
are the aggregates of matter (in this case the visible, tangible
body of form), of sensations, of perceptions, of mental formations
and of consciousness* They are knovjn briefly as ndma-rupa,
the psycho-physical entity. Rupa includes the physical aggregate and
nama the remaining four aggregates. The combination of the five
constitutes a sentient being.
A being and the empirical world are both constantly changing.
They come into being and pass away. All is in a whirl, nothing
escapes this inexorable, unceasing change, and because of this tran¬
sitory nature nothing is really pleasant. There is happiness, but very
1. S. iii. 69.
2. D. 33; Samyutta, Jambukhadaka-sutta ; Vism. 499 (The Path of Purification,
Bhikkhu Nanamoli, p. 568).
3. 5. v. 421; Vin. i. 10.
4. The five aggregates are discussed in full on p. 45.
44
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
momentary, it vanishes like a flake of snow, and brings about un¬
satisfactoriness. This is why the Buddha in his formulation of the
Noble Truth of dukkha concluded with the words: ‘In brief the
five aggregates of grasping are dukkha (suffering or unsatisfactory).
This is what is called the unsatisfactoriness of conditioned states
(sarhkhara dukkha).
Viparinama dukkha comes under the category of unsatisfactoriness
due to impermanence. All the pleasant and happy feelings that
man can experience fade away and disappear. As the Buddha says,
even the feelings that a yogi or meditator experiences by attaining
the four meditative absorptions (jhana), come under the category
of viparinama dukkha, because they are transient (anicca), dukkha,
and subject to change (viparinamadhamma). 1 But the dukkha
mentioned here is certainly not the pain and suffering that people in
general endure. What the Buddha points out is that all things
impermanent are unsatisfactory. They suffer change every moment
and this change brings about unsatisfactoriness; for whatever is
impermanent is unsatisfactory ('yadaniccarh tam dukkharh’).* That
is, there is no lasting bliss.
In his formulation of the Noble Truth of Suffering, the Buddha
says: In short, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering.* Accor¬
ding to this teaching suffering cannot be separatedJfrom the five
aggregates. It cannot exist independently of them. The five aggre¬
gates of grasping and suffering are the same and not two different
things. ‘Monks, what is suffering? It should be said that it is the
five aggregates of grasping.’*
The Buddha' says elsewhere: ‘In thjs very body, a fathom long,
with its consciousness and perception 1 declare are the world, its
arising, its cessation and the path that leads to the cessation of the
world.’ 8 Here the word ‘world’ denotes suffering, dukkha.
From the above it becomes clear that to understand properly the
first noble truth, as well as the other three, it is essential to have a
clear idea of the five aggregates (paheakkhandha).
Let us therefore try to understand the significance of the aggre¬
gates. Buddhism speaks of two truths, the apparent or conventional
truth (sammuti sacca) and the ultimate or highest truth (paramattha
sacca). 6 Irf ordinary parlance we speak of a ‘being’, but in the
ultimate sense there is no such ‘being’; there is only a manifestation
of ever-changing psycho-physical forces or energies. These forces
I. M. i. Mahadukkhandha-sulta, no. 13, p. 90. 2. S. iii. 22.
3. S. v. 421. 4. S. iii. 158. 5. A. li. 48.
6. DA. Com. to discourse 9, Pofthapdda-sulta.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
45
or energies form the five aggregates, and what we call a ‘being’ is
nothing but a combination of these everchanging five aggregates.
Now what are the five Aggregates?
1. The first is the Aggregate of Matter (rupakkhandha). Matter
contains and comprises the Four Great Primaries (cattari mahabhu-
tani) which are traditionally known as, solidity, fluidity, heat or
temperature, and motion or vibration (patbavi, apo, tejo, vdyo). 1 In
this context, they are not simply earth, water, fire and wind, though
conventionally they may be so called. In Buddhist thought, especially
in the Abhidhamma, the Higher Doctrine, they are more than that.
Pafhavi or solidity is the element of expansion. It is due to this
clement of expansion that objects occupy space. When we see an
object we only see something extended in space and we give a name
to it. The element of expansion is present not only in solids, but in
liquids, too; for when we see the sea stretched before us even then
we see patbavi. The hardness of rock and the softness of paste, the
quality of heaviness and lightness in things are also qualities of
patbavi, or are particular states of it.
Apo or fluidity is the element of cohesion. It is this element that
heaps particles of matter together without allowing them to
scatter. The cohesive force in liquids is very strong, for unlike solids,
they coalesce even after their separation. Once a solid is broken up
or separated the particles do not recoalesce. In order to join them
it becomes necessary to convert the solid into a liquid by raising
the temperature, as in the welding of metals. When we see an object
we only see an expansion with limits, this expansion or ‘shape’ is
possible because of the cohesive force.
Tejo is the element of het.t or temperature. It is this element
which matures, intensifies or imparts heat to the other three
primaries. The vitality of all beings and plants is preserved by this
element. From every expansion and shape" we get a sensation of
heat. This is relative; for when we say that an object is cold, we
only mean that the heat of that particular object is less than our
body heat, in other words, the temperature of the object is lower
than the temperature of our body. Thus it is clear that the so-called
‘coldness’, too, is an element of heat or temperature, of course in a
lower degree.
Vdyo is the element of motion. It is displacement. This, too,
is relative. To know whether a thing is moving or not we need a
point which we regard as being fixed, by which to measure that
1. M. 28.
46
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
motion, but there is no absolutely motionless object in the universe.
So the so-called stability, too, is an element of motion. Motion
depends on heat. In the complete absence of heat atoms cease to
vibrate. Complete absence of heat is only theoretical, we cannot
feel it, because then we yvould not exist, as we, too, are made of
atoms.
Every material object is made up of the Four Great Primaries
though one or other seems to preponderate; if, for instance, the
element of solidity (pa(havi) preponderates, the material object is
called solid, and so on.
From these Great Primaries which always co-exist are derived
twenty-four other material phenomena and qualities; among these
derivatives (upadayarupa) are included the five sense faculties,
namely, the faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and their
corresponding sense objects, namely, visible form, sound, smell,
taste and tangible things. The aggregate of matter includes the whole
realm of physical substance, both in one’s body and in the external
world.
2. The second is the Aggregate of Feeling or Sensation ( vedanakk-
handha). All our feelings are included in this group. Feelings are
threefold: pleasant, unpleasant and neutral. They arise dependant
on contact. Seeing a form, hearing a sound, smelling an odour,
tasting a flavour, touching some tangible thing, cognizing a mental
object, (an idea or thought) man experiences feeling. 1 When, for
instance, eye, form and eye-consciousness (cakkhu-viHHdna) come
together, it is their coincidence that is called contact. Contact
means the combination of the organ of sense, the object of sense, and
sense consciousness. When these are all present together there is no
power or force that can prevent the arising of feeling.
Such is the intrinsic nature of contact and feeling. It cannot, how¬
ever, be said that all beings experience the same feeling from the
same object. One person may derive a pleasant feeling from a
particular object while another has an unpleasant feeling and still
another a neutral feeling from the same object. This depends on
how the mind and its factors function.' Further, a sense object
which once evoked a pleasant feeling in a man, may produce an
unpleasant or a neutral feeling in him under different circumstances,
and so on. Again, what is pleasant to one sense faculty may be
unpleasant to another faculty; for instance, a luscious fruit
1. These six kinds of feelings are experienced through the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body and the mind, respectively. Mind is regarded as the sixth faculty in
Buddhist thought.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
47
unpleasant to the sight may prove very pleasant to the tongue and so
on. Thus we learn how feeling is conditioned by contact in diverse
ways.
3. The third is the Aggregate of Perception (sannakkhandha) ■
The function of perception is recognition (samjanana) of objects
both physical and mental. Perception, like feeling, also is sixfold:
perception of forms, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily contacts and
mental objects. Perception in Buddhism is not used in the sense that
some Western philosphers like Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza and
Leibnitz used the term, but as a mere sense perception.
There is a certain affinity between awareness (vijanana, which is
the function of consciousness) and recognition (samjanana, the
function of perception). While consciousness becomes aware of an
object, simultaneously the mental factor of perception takes the
distinctive mark of the object and thus distinguishes it from other
objects. This distinctive mark is instrumental in cognizing the
object a second and a third time, and in fact, every time we be¬
come aware of the object. Thus, it is perception that brings about
memory.
It is important to note that perceptions often deceive us. Then
they become known as illusion or perversity of perceptions. (sanna-
vipallasa, see bflow p. 96).
A simile will illustrate the point. A farmer after sowing a field,
will set up a scare-crow to protect the seed and for a time the birds
will mistake it for a man and will not settle. That is an illusion of
perception. Similarly sense and mental objects deceive our mind by
producing a false impression. The Buddha, therefore^ compares
perception to a mirage. 1
When a particular perception, perverted or not, occurs frequently,
it grows stronger and grips our mind. Theij it becomes difficult to
get rid of that perception, and the result is well explained in this
verse of the Sultanipata 2 .
‘Who is free from sense perceptions
In him no r&ore bonds exist;
Who by Insight freedom gains
All delusions cease in him;
But who clings to dense perceptions
And to view-points wrong and false
He lives wrangling in this world.’
1. Marici. See p. 94.
2. Sn. 847.
48
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
4. The fourth is the Aggregate of Mental (Volitional) Formations
(samkharakkhandha). % In this group are included all mental factors
except feeling (vedana) and perception (sanfia) mentioned above.
The Abhidhamma speaks of fifty-two mental concomitants or factors
(cetasika). Feeling and perception are two of them, but they are not
volitional activities. The remaining fifty are collectively known as
samkhdra , Mental or Volitional Formations. Volition (cetana) plays
a very important role in the mental realm. In Buddhism no action
is considered as karma (kamma) if that action is void of
volition. And like feeling and perception, it is of six kinds: Volition
directed to forms, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily contacts and
mental objects.
5. The fifth is the Aggregate of Consciousness (vinnanakk-
handha) 2 which is the most important of the aggregates; for it is the
receptacle, so to speak, for all the fifty-two mental concomitants or
factors, since without consciousness no mental factors are available.
Consciousness and the factors are interrelated, inter-dependent and
co-existent.
Now what is the function of consciousness? Like feeling, percep¬
tion and volitional formations, consciousness also has six types and
its function is varied. It has its basis and objects. As explained above
all our feelings are experienced through the contact of sense faculties
with the external world.
The faculty of mind (manindriya) which cognizes mental objects,
we know, is not something tangible and perceptible like the other
five faculties, which cognize the external world. The eye cognizes
the world of colours (vanna) or visible objects, the ear audible
sounds, and so forth. The mind, however, cognizes the world of
ideas and thoughts. Indriya (faculty) literally means ‘chief* or ‘lord*.
Forms can only be seen by the faculty of the eye and not by the
ear, hearing by the faculty of the ear, and so on. When it comes to
the world of thoughts and ideas the faculty of the mind is lord over
the mental realm. The eye cannot think thoughts, and collect
ideas, but it is instrumental in seeing visible forms, the world of
colours.
It is very important here to understand the function of con¬
sciousness. Although there is this functional relationship between
the faculties and their objects, for instance, eye with forms, ear with
1. ‘Mental formations* is the popular term for the word samkhdra in the list of
the five aggregates. In other contexts samkhdra may signify anything conditioned
and compounded. In this sense all the five aggregates are samkhdra.
2. Loosely the three words viftOdna, citta (thought) and mano (mind) are
synonymous (S'. ii. 94-5), Technically, however, they go in different ways.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
49
sounds and so on, awareness comes through consciousness. In other
words, sense objects cannot be experienced with the particular
sensitivity without the appropriate kind of consciousness. Now
when eye and form are both present, visual consciousness arises
dependent on them. Similarly with ear and sound, and so on,
down to mind and mental objects. 1 Again when the three things,
eye, form and eye-consciousness, come together, it is their coin¬
cidence that is called ‘contact’. From contact comes feeling and so
on (as explained in Dependent Arising or Paficca Samuppada).*
Thus consciousness originates through a stimulus arising in the
five sense doors and the mind door, the sixth. As consciousness
arises through the interaction of the sense faculties and. the sense
objects, it also is conditioned and not independent. It is not a
spirit or soul opposed to matter. Thoughts and ideas which are
food for the sixth faculty called mind are also dependent and
conditioned. They depend on the external world which the other
five sense faculties experience.
The five faculties contact objects, only in the present, that is when
objects come in direct contact with the particular faculty. The
mind faculty, however, can experience the sense object, whether it
is form, sound, smell, taste or touch already cognized by the sense
organs. For instance, a visible object, with which the eye came in
contact in the past, can be visualized by the mind faculty just at
this moment although the object is not before the eye. Similarly
with the other sense objects. This is subjective, and it is difficult to
experience some of these sensations. This sort of activity of the mind
is subtle and sometimes beyond ordinary comprehension.
Thus the whole cosmos becomes a mere mass of sensation. When
we see colour patches and something solid or expanded we make an
entity out of them but in reality it is not so* The mind is merely
giving a certain interpretation to phenomena which exist in the
external world, but which are not necessarily the same as they
appear through the channels of the senses.
As this mind or consciousness lies outside the realm of the physical
world it cannot be submitted to a chemical test; it has neither size,
shape, dimension or bulk. It is invisible, intangible and as such
cannot be discerned by the five senses. It is not under the control
of other factors, but is master of them. And it must clearly be
understood that mind is not an everlasting spirit in the form of a
1. M. 148.
2. See below p. 56.
IV
50
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Self’ or a ‘Soul’ or an Ego-entity. It is neither a spirit opposed to
matter nor a projection, an offspring of matter.
There were many during the time of the Buddha who thought,
and there are many who continue to think that consciousness in
the form of a permanent enduring self or soul exists in man, and
that it continues through life and at death transmigrates from one
life to another and binds lives together.
We see a glaring instance of this in the thirty-eighth discourse of
the Majjhima Nikaya . One of the Buddha’s own disciples, Sati by
name, held the following view: ‘In so far as I understand the
Dhamma taught by the Buddha, it is the same consciousness that
transmigrates and wanders about (in rebirth).’ When Sati inti¬
mated his point of view to the Master, the Buddha questioned him:
‘What is this consciousness, Sati?’ ‘It is that which expresses, which
feels (vado vedeyyo) and experiences the result of good and evil
deeds now here now there.’
‘But to whom, foolish man, have you heard me teaching the
Dhamma in this wise? Have 1 not in many ways explained con¬
sciousness as arising out of conditions, that apart from conditions
there is no arising of consciousness?’
The Buddha then explained
the different types of consciousness and made clear, by means of
examples, how consciousness arises depending on conditions.
These are the five aggregates explained briefly. None of these
aggregates are permanent. They are ever subject to change. Leaving
aside philosophy, and looking at the matter from a purely scientific
standpoint, nothing conditioned and compounded is permanent.
Whatever is impermanent is pain-laden, is sorrow-fraught.
It is not at all astonishing if the reader concludes that this
Buddhist concept of suffering is very uninviting. As the Buddha has
pointed out, all beings crave for the pleasant and the pleasurable.
They loathe the unpleasant and the non-pleasurable. The grieving
ones seek pleasures which those already happy seek more and more.
It is, however, wrong to imagine that the Buddhist outlook on
life and the world is a gloomy one, and that the Buddhist is in low
spirits. Far from it, he smiles as he walks through life. He who
understands the true nature of life is the happiest individual, for
he is not upset by the evanescent nature of things. He tries to see
things as they are, and not as they seem to be. Conflicts arise in
man when he is confronted with the facts of life such as ageing,
illness, death and so forth, but frustration and disappointment do
not vex him when he is ready to face them with a brave heart. This
view of life is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but the realistic
i
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
51
view. The man who ignores the principle of unrest in things, the
intrinsic nature of suffering, is upset when confronted with the
vicissitudes of life, because he has not trained his mind to see things
as they really are. Man’s recognition of pleasures as lasting, leads
to much vexation, when things occur quite contrary to his expecta¬
tions.' It is therefore necessary to cultivate a detached outlook
towards life and things pertaining to life. Detachment cannot bring
about frustration, disappointment and mental torment, because
there is no clinging to one thing and another, but letting go. This
indeed is not easy, but it is the sure remedy for controlling, if not
eradicating, unsatisfactoriness.
The Buddha sees suffering as suffering, and happiness as happi¬
ness, and explains that all cosmic pleasure, like all other conditioned
things, is evanescent, is a passing show. He warns man against
attaching too much importance to fleeting pleasures, for they
sooner or later beget discontent. Equanimity is the best antidote
for both pessimism and optimism. Equanimity is evenness of
mind and not sullen indifference. It is the result of a calm, concen¬
trated mind. It is hard, indeed, to be undisturbed when touched by
the vicissitudes of life, but the man who cultivates equanimity is
not upset.
A mother was asked why she did not lament over the death of
her beloved son. Her answer was philosophical: ‘Uninvited he
came, uninvited he passed away, as he came so he went, what use is
there in lamenting, weeping and wailing?’ 1 Thus people bear their
misfortune with equanimity. Such is the advantage pf a tranquil
mind. It is unshaken by loss,and gain, blame and praise, and un¬
disturbed by adversity. This frame of mind is brought about by
viewing the sentient world in its proper perspective. Thus calm or
evenness of mind leads man to enlightenment'and deliverance from
suffering.
Absolute happiness cannot be derived from things conditioned
and compounded. What we hug in great glee this moment, turns
into a source of dissatisfaction the next moment. Pleasures are
short-lived, and never lasting. The mere gratification of the sense
faculties we call pleasure and enjoyment, but in the absolute sense
of the word such gratification is not happy. Joy too is dukkha, un¬
satisfactory (nandipidukkhd); for it is transient. If we with our
inner eye try to see things in their proper perspective, in their true
light, we will be able to realize that the world is but an illusion
1. Uraga Jat aka. no. 354.
52
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
(mayd) that leads astray the beings who cling to it. All the so-
called mundane pleasures are fleeting, and only an introduction to
pain. They give very temporary relief from life’s miserable ulcers. This
is what is known as suffering (dukkha) produced by change. Thus we
see that dukkha never ceases work, it functions in some form or other
and is always at work—as dukkha-dukkhata, samkhara dukkhata and
viparinama dukkhata , as explained above.
All kinds of suffering man can conceive of come into being, reach
a peak, and cease in the five Aggregates of Grasping. Apart from
the five Aggregates of Grasping, which are constantly changing, no
suffering, gross or subtle, can exist.
Wittingly or not, all beings exert themselves to avoid disharmony
and unsatisfactoriness, and to gain pleasure, joy and happiness.
The exertion goes on continuously, but no lasting happiness is ever
experienced. Pleasure seems to be an interval between two pains.
This is a clear indication that wherever there are the five Aggregates
of Grasping there is dukkha, suffering, unsatisfactoriness. It may be
noted that like happiness, suffering is not lasting, because it too is
conditioned and subject to change.
Sir Edwin Arnold paints this picture of pain in The Light oj
Asia:
‘Ache of birth, ache of helpless days,
Ache of hot youth and ache of manhood’s prime.
Ache of chill grey years and choking death
These fill your piteous time.’
As the Buddha says:
‘A burden, indeed, are the five aggregates.
Happy it is to lay down that burden.’ 1 2
This is Nibbana, the absolute happiness (nibbanam paramcun
sukham).*
The Buddha, the Lord over suffering, did not have a funereal
expression on his face when he explained to his followers the import
of dukkha, suffering; far from it his face was always happy, serene
and smiling for it showed his contented mind:
1. 5. iii. 26.
2. Dhp . 204; M, 75.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
53
‘Happy, indeed, we live.
We who have no burdens.
On joy we ever feed
Like radiant deities .’ 1
He encouraged his disciples not to be morbid, but to cultivate the
all important quality of joy (plti) which is a factor of enlightenment.
The result of this admonition of the Buddha is seen in ‘Psalms of the
Early Buddhists’* in which are recorded the inspired joyful songs
(udana) of the disciples, male and female. A dispassionate study
of Buddhism will tell us that it is a message radiating joy and hope
and not a defeatist philosophy of pessimism.
1 .
2 .
Dhp. 200.
Thera-gathd: Psalms of the Brethren.
Theri-g&tha: Psalms of the Sisters.
4
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
Samudaya: The Arising of Suffering ‘
Before treating a sick man it is essential to discover the cause of
his ailment. The efficacy of the treatment depends on the removal
of the cause. The Buddha discourses on suffering but goes a step
further and points out the arising of suffering thus administering an
efficacious cure. The hasty critic, therefore, is not justified in label¬
ling the Buddha a pessimist. The optimist will be pleased to hear
that in the exposition of the Four Noble Truths there is a way out
of the ‘pessimism’. What then, according to the teaching of the
Buddha, is the Noble Truth of the arising of suffering?
As there is no arbitrary creator who controls the destinies of man
in Buddhist thought, Buddhism does not attribute suffering or the
arising of suffering to an external agency, to ‘supernatural 1
power, but seeks it in the innermost recesses of man himself. In the
first sermon of the Buddha and in many another discourse in the
early scriptures, the second Noble Truth is formulated in the
following words:
It is this craving (‘thirst 1 , tanha 1 ) which causes re-becoming, re¬
birth, accompanied by passionate pleasure, and finding fresh delight
now here, now theref namely, craving for sense pleasures (kama -
tanha), craving for continued existence, for becoming (bhava-tanhd),
and craving for non-existence, for self-annihilation (vibhava-tanha).
Thus it is clear that suffering is the effect of craving which is the
cause. Here we see seed and fruit, action and reaction, cause an$i
effect, a reign of natural law, and this is no great mystery, Now
this most*powerful force, this mental factor, craving or ‘thirst 1 ,
keeps existence going. It makes and remakes the world. Life depends
on the desires of life. It is the motive force behind not only the
present existence, but past and future existence, too. The present
1. In Sanskrit ' trishnd ' which is etymologically the same as ‘thirst’.
54
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
55
is the result of the past, and the future will be the result of the
present. This is a process of conditionality. This force is compared
to a river (tanha-nadl ); for like a river that when in flood submerges
villages, suburbs, towns and countries, craving flows on con¬
tinuously through re-existence and re-becoming. Like fuel that
keeps the fire burning, the fuel of craving keeps the fire of existence
alive.
The Buddha says: ‘Monks, 1 do not see any other single fetter
bound by which beings for a long, long time wander and hurry
through the round of existence, like this fetter of craving (tanha
samyojanam ). Truly, monks, bound by this fetter of craving, beings
do wander and hurry through the round of existence.’ 1
It is important to understand that craving here is not regarded
as the First Cause with a capital ‘F‘ and a capital C'; for according
to Buddhism there is no ‘First Cause’, but beginningless causes
and effects and naught else ruling the universe. Things are neither
due to one single cause nor are they causeless, but as explained in
the formula of Dependent Arising things are multiple-caused*.
Craving, like all other things, physical or mental, is also conditioned,
interdependent and relative. It is neither a beginning nor an end in
itself. Though craving is cited as the proximate cause of suffering,
it is not independent, but interdependent. Dependent on feeling or
sensation arises craving, feeling arises dependent on contact and so
forth.* The following dialogue explains the standpoint of the Buddha
regarding the arising of suffering:
Once a certain ascetic named Kassapa questioned *the Buddha
thus: 3 •
1. Iii, I, ii, v.
2. Also compare A/. i. 51 Sammaditti sutta. From the arising of feeling is the
arising of craving, from the cessation of feeling is the cessation of craving; the way
leading to the cessation of craving is this Noble Eightfold Path itself.
3. It is interesting, or rather strange, to note how Kassapa approached the
Blessed One to put his question: The Blessed One was staying at Rajagaha, and
one forenoon went out for his alnjsround. Kassapa, seeing the Blessed One from a
distance, approached, greeted him and said: ‘We would ask the Venerable
#
Gotama concerning a certain point, if the Venerable Gotama gives us the
opportunity of hearing his reply to our question.’
‘It is not the right time just now for questions, Kassapa, we have entered the
village (for alms),’ said the Buddha. Kassapa, however, repeated his question up
to the third time, and received the same reply. Then said Kassapa: ‘We do not
intend asking many questions from the Venerable Gotama.'
‘Ask, Kassapa, what you will,’ said the Blessed One.
Compare this with the story of Upatissa above, p. 34.
56
the buddha’s ancient path
- Now then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering self-wrought?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then. Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought by another?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought both by
one’s self and by another?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- What then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering wrought neither by
one’s self nor by another, arisen without cause (due to purely
fortuitous circumstances, adhicca samuppanna) ?
- Not so, verily, Kassapa.
- Well then, Venerable Gotama, is suffering non-existent (is there
no suffering)?
- Surely, Kassapa, suffering is not non-existent. Suffering is.
- Then the Venerable Gotama neither knows nor sees suffering.
- Nay, Kassapa, I am not one who neither knows nor sees suffering;
I am one who knows suffering and sees suffering.
- How now, Venerable Gotama, you have answered all my ques¬
tions, as ‘not so, verily, Kassapa’. You affirm that suffering is,
and that you know and see suffering. May the Venerable Gotama
teach me what suffering is?
- The statement, Kassapa, that one and the same person produces
and experiences suffering amounts to the Eternalist Theory
(sassatavada). To say that, ‘one produces and another experiences
suffering’, this, Kassapa, which to one afflicted with feeling
occurs as suffering wrought by another, amounts to the Annihi-
lationist Theory (uccheda xada). The Tathagata, Kassapa, avoi¬
ding these two extremes teaches the Dhamma by the Median Path:
‘Dependent on ignorance (of the true nature of existence), arise
volitional or karma formations.
Dependent on volitional-formations, arises (rebirth) conscious¬
ness.
Dependent on consciousness, arises mentality-materiality (men¬
tal and physical combination).
Dependent on mentality-materiality, arises, the sixfold base
(the five physical sense organs with consciousness as the sixth).
Dependent on the sixfold base x arises contact.
Dependent on contact, arises feeling.
Dependent on feeling, arises craving.
Dependent on craving, arises clinging.
Dependent on clinging, arises the process of becoming.
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
57
Dependent on the process of becoming, arise ageing and
death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. 1 Thus
does this whole mass of suffering arise,’ the anuloma paficca
samuppdda. (This is called the Noble Truth of the Arising of
Suffering or dukkha.)
‘Through the entire cessation of ignorance cease volitional
formations; through the cessation of volitional formations, con¬
sciousness... (and so on). Thus does this whole mass of suffer¬
ing cease’, the patiloma paticca samuppada . 2 (This is called the
Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering.)
Kassapa, being convinced by this exposition of the doctrine,
took refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, entered the
Order, and later became one of the Arahats. 3
Thus this doctrine of Dependent Arising, in its direct order,
makes plain how suffering arises due to causes and conditions,
and how suffering ceases with the removal of its causes and con¬
ditions.
How the Buddha himself expressed this appears in the Anguttara
Nikaya:
‘And what, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Arising of Suffering?
Dependent on ignorance arise volitional formations; dependent on
volitional formations, consciousness... (and so on). Thus does
this whole mass of suffering arise. This, monks, is called the Noble
Truth of the Arising of Suffering.
‘And what, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the
Cessation of Suffering? Through the complete cessation of ignorance
cease volitional formations; through the cessation ftf volitional
formations, consciousness... ^and so on) the whole mass of
suffering. This, monks, is called “the Cessation of Suffering’’.*
It is now quite clear that Dependent Arising (paficca-samuppada)
is an essential corollary to the second and thyrd of the Four Noble
Truths, and is not, as some are inclined to think, a later addition to
the teachings of the Buddha.
1. The Pali equivalents of the factors of the formula are: avijjd, samkhdrd,
vifiUdna, ndma-rupa, salayatana, phassa, vedand, tanhd, updddna, bhava, jdti,
jard-marana; For a detailed «tudy see Dependent Origination by Piyadassi
Thera (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Ceylon).
2. Generally the two Pali words, anuloma and patiloma are translated as
’direct order’ and ‘reverse order’. However, it is not quite correct to say reverse
order, for it means: from the end towards beginning, or in the opposite order.
Both the arising and the ceasing of the factors of dependent arising are from
beginning to end. For instance with the arising of ignorance arise volitional
formations and so on. With the ceasing of ignorance cease volitional formations
and so on,
3. S. ii. 19.
4. A. i. 177.
58 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
This Dependent Arising, this doctrine of conditionality, is often
explained in severely practical terms, but it is not a mere prag¬
matical teaching, though it may appear to be so, owing to the
shortness of the explanations. Those conversant with the Buddhist
Canon (Tipffaka) know that in the doctrine of Dependent Arising
is found that which brings out the basic principles of knowledge
(nano) and wisdom (pound) in the Dhamma. In this teaching of the
conditionality of everything in the world, that is the five aggregates,
can be realized the essence of the Buddha’s outlook on life. So if
the Buddha’s explanation of the world is to be rightly understood,
it has to be through a full grasp of the central teaching summed up
in the dictum: 'Ye dhamma hetuppabhava ...’ (Whatsoever things
proceed from a cause...) referred to above. 1
When the cause and condition of a thing is removed, so does the
effect cease. Following the Buddha’s doctrine of conditionality, this
idea is pithily expressed by Sister Sela, well known for her deep
knowledge of the Dhamma, in this verse:
‘Not-sclf-wrought is this puppet-form.
Nor other-wrought this mass of woe;
Condition-based it comes to be,
Condition-ceased it endeth, lo.’ 8
As we saw above, ‘Not so, verily, Kassapa, not so, verily, Kassapa’
was the Buddha’s answer to Kassapa’s question: ‘Is suffering self-
wrought or wrought by another?’ The answer clearly shows that
the Buddha disapproves of both the self-agency (that suffering is
caused solely by self) and the external agency (that suffering is
caused solely by other than the self).
To say that suffering is solely due to the individual’s own agency
(sayamkdra) is meaningless; for he is in the environment of the
sentient world of beings and surely that environment influences
him in diverse ways. To say that man’s action, his behaviour, is
solely determined by external agency (para-kdra) is also equally
meaningless; for then man’s moral responsibility and freedom of
will’ is denied. The Buddha’s doctrine of the middle path, Depen¬
dent Arising, which avoids the two extremes, explains that all
1. Sec p. 35.
2 . 'Nayidam attakatam bimbam
Nayidam parakataih agham;
He turn paftcca sambhu tarn,
Hetu bhangd nirujjhati. S. i. 134.
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
59.
dhammas, things or phenomena, are causally dependent on one
another and interrelated.
This conditionality goes on uninterrupted and uncontrolled by
self-agency or external agency of any sort. The doctrine of con¬
ditionality (idhappaccayatd) cannot be labelled as determinism,
because in this teaching both the physical environment and the
moral causation (psychological causation) of the individual function
together. The physical world influences man’s mind, and mind, on
the other hand, influences the physical world, obviously in a higher
degree, for as the Buddha says: ‘the world is led by the mind’
(cittern niyati lako ). 1
If we fail to understand the real significance and application to
life of the Dependent Arising, we mistake it for a mechanical law
of causality or even a simple simultaneous arising, a first beginning
of all things, animate and inanimate. As there is no origination out
of nothing in Buddhist thought, Dependent Arising shows the
impossibility of a first cause. The first beginning of existence, of
the life stream of living beings is inconceivable and as the Buddha
says: ‘Notions and speculations concerning the world (loka-cinta)
may lead to mental derangement.’ 8 ‘O monks, this wheel of existence,
this cycle of continuity (sariisdra) is without a visible end, and the
first beginning of beings wandering and hurrying round, wrapt in
ignorance (ovijja) and fettered by craving (tanha) is not to be
perceived . 3
It is, in fact, impossible to conceive of a first beginning. None
can trace the ultimate origin of anything, not even ©f a grain of
sand, let alone of human beings. It is useless and meaningless to
seek a beginning in a beginningless past. Life is not an identity, it
is a becoming. It is a flux of physiological and psychological
changes. *
If one posits a first cause one is justified in asking for the cause of
that ‘First Cause’, for nothing can escape the law of condition and
cause which is patent in the world to all but those who will not see.
A theist, however, who attributes beings and events to an omni¬
potent Creator-God would emphatically say: ‘It is God’s will,
it is sacrilege to question the Authority.’ Does not this. God-idea
stifle the human liberty to investigate, to analyse, to scrutinize,
to see what is beyond this naked eye, and so retards insight?
Let us grant that ‘X’ is the ‘first cause’. Now does this assump¬
tion bring us one bit nearer to our deliverance? Does it not close the
1. s. i. 39. 2. A. ii. 80. 3. S. iii. 149, 151: S. ii. 179.
60
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
door to it? Wc sec a natural law—beginningless causes and effects
—and naught else ruling the universe.
As explained in the Dependent Arising the proximate cause of
craving is feeling or sensation. Craving has its source, its rise in
feeling.
All forms of appetite are included in tanha (craving). Greed,
thirst, desire, lust, burning, yearning, longing, inclination, affection,
household love are some of the many terms that denote tanha which
in the word of the Buddha leads to becoming (bhava-netti ). Becom¬
ing, which manifests itself as dukkha, as suffering, frustration,
painful excitement, unsatisfactoriness, is our own experience.
The enemy of the whole world is lust, craving, or thirst through
which all evils come to living beings It is not only greed for or
attachment to pleasures caused by the senses, wealth and property
and by the wish to defeat others and conquer countries, but also
attachment to ideals and ideas, to views, opinions and beliefs
(dhamma-tanha) which often lead to calamity and destruction and
bring untold suffering to whole nations, in fact to the whole world.
Now where does this craving arise and take root? Where there is
delight and pleasuie, there craving arises and takes root. What arc
delightful and pleasurable? The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and
mind are delightful and pleasurable, because it is through these
avenues, these livefold bases, that man cognizes the sense objects,
the external world, and through the mind door, as the sixth,
entertains ideas and thoughts. There craving arises and takes
root. Forms, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily contacts and ideas are
delightful and pleasurable and ther' craving arises and takes root. 1
Man is always attracted by the pleasant and the delightful, and
in his search for pleasure, he runs after the five kinds of sense
objects; cognizes id<?as and clings to them. He little realizes that
no amount of forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles and mental
objects or ideas will ever satisfy the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and
mind. Beings in their intense thirst for either possession or the
satisfaction of desires, become bound to the wheel of existence, arc
twisted and torn between the spokes of agony, and securely close
the door to final deliverance. The Buddha was most emphatic
against this mad rush, and warned:
‘Pleasure is a bond, a joy that’s brief,
Of little taste, leading to drawn-out pain.
The wise know that the hook is baited.' 1
1. D. 22. 2. Sn. 61.
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
61
The poet only echoes the Buddha’s words when he writes:
‘Pleasures are like poppies spread,
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed;
Or, like the snow fall on the river,
A moment white, then melts for ever .’ 1
Whenever craving for these objects is connected with sense
pleasure it is called ‘Sensuous Craving’ ( kama-tanha ). When it is
associated with the belief in eternal personal existence, then it is
called ‘Craving for Existence and Becoming’ (bhava-tanha). This is
what is known as the View of Eternalism (sassata ditfhi), attachment
to becoming, the desire for continuing to exist for ever. When
craving is associated with the belief in ‘self-annihilation’ it is called
craving for non-existence (vibhava-tanha). This is what is known as
the View of Annihilationism (uccheda-diffhi).
It may be remembered that, craving is conditioned not only by
pleasurable and agreeable feelings, but also by unhappy and un¬
pleasant feelings. A man in distress craves to be rid of it, and longs
for happiness and release. To put it another way, the poor and the
needy, the sick and the disabled, in brief, all ‘sufferers’ crave for
happiness, pleasure and solace. On the other hand, the rich and
the healthy who are already experiencing pleasure, also crave, but
for more and more acute pleasure. Thus this thirst, this craving, is
insatiable, and people pursue fleeting pleasures, constantly seeking
fuel for this life-flame. Their greed is inordinate.
It is only when suffering ^omes, as its consequence, and not
before, that one realizes the viciousness of this poisonous creeper of
craving which winds itself round all who are not Arahats or per¬
fectly pure ones who have uprooted its tap-.»oot, ignorance. The
more we crave, the more we suffer; sorrow is the tribute we have to
pay for having craved.
‘From craving gruJf arises,
From craving arises fear,
For him who is from craving free
There is no giref, then whence comes fear?’*
Wherefore, know this craving as your foe here, that guides you
1. Robert Burns, Tam O'Shanter.
2. Dhp. 216.
62
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
to continued and repeated sentient existence, to rebirth, and thus
builds the ‘House of Being!’
The Buddha said: ‘Dig up the root of craving.’ (Tanhaya
mularh klianatha ). 1
‘As a tree with firm, uninjured
Roots, though cut down, grows up again,
So when latent craving is not rooted out
Suffering again and again arises.’ 2
No sensible man will deny the existence of suffering or unsatis¬
factoriness in this sentient world, nevertheless it is difficult for him
to comprehend how this craving or thirst brings about re-existence.
To realize this one must understand two principal teachings of
Buddhism: karma and rebirth.
If our present birth here is the beginning, and our death is the
end of this life, we need not worry and try to understand the problem
of suffering. A moral order in the universe, the reality of right and
wrong, may not be of any significance to us. To enjoy and avoid
suffering at any cost, may seem to be the sensible thing to do, during
this brief span of life. This view, however, does not explain the in¬
equality of mankind, and in general, man is conscious of a moral
causation. Hence the need to seek the cause of this ill. The Pali
word kanwui (Skt. karma, from the root kr to do) means literally
‘action' or ‘doing'. Not all actions, however, are considered as
karma The growing of hair and nails and ,the digesting of food,
for instance, arc actions of a sort, but not karma . Reflex actions
also are not Karma, but activities without moral significance.
‘Volition, O monks, I declare, is kamma ' (cetancViam bhikkhave
kammahi v a da mi) 3 is the Buddha’s definition. Volition is a factor
of the mind, a psyclu logical impulse which comes under the group
of formations (samkhdra) . So volition is part and parcel of the five
groups of grasping that constitute the ‘individual’. Karma is the
action or seed. The effect or fruit is known as karma-vipaka.
‘Having willed, man acts by deed, word or thought 1 and these
volitions may be good or ill. so actions may be wholesome, un¬
wholesome or neutral according to their results. This endless
play of action and reaction, cause and effect, seed and fruit, continues
in perpetual motion, and this is becoming, a continually changing
process of psycho-physical phenomena of existence (samsdra).
1. Ibid. 337. 2. Ibid. 338. 3. A. iii. 415. See below, p. 93.
4. A. iii. 415.
. THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
63 .
It is clear that karma is volition which is a will, a force, and this
force is classified into three types of craving: Craving for sense
pleasures, for existence and for non-existence . 1 Having willed, man
acts, through body, speech and mind, and actions bring about
reactions. Craving gives rise to deed, deed produces results in turn
bring about new desires, new craving. This process of cause
and effect, action and reaction, is a natural law. It is a law in
itself, with no need for a law-giver. An external agency, power, or
God that punishes the ill and rewards the good deeds, has no place
in Buddhist thought. Man is always changing either for good or for
evil.. This changing is unavoidable and depends entirely on his owri
will, his own action, and on nothing else. This is merely the uni¬
versal natural law of the conservation of energy extended to the
moral domain.’
Not much science is needed to understand how actions produce
reactions, how effects follow causes and seed brings forth fruit, but
how this karmic force, these acts of will, bring fruit in another birth
after the dissolution of this body, is hard to grasp. According to
Buddhism there is no life after death or before birth which is inde-
*
pendent of karma or acts of will. Karma and rebirth go arm in arm,
karma being the corollary of rebirth and vice versa. Here, however,
we must understand that the Buddhist doctrine of karma is not
fatalism, is not a philosophical doctrine that human action is not
free but determined by motives which are regarded as external
forces acting upon the will, or predetermined by God. The Buddha
neither subscribed to the theory that all things are unalterably
fixed, that they happen by* inevitable necessity—that is Strict
Determinism (niyati-vada): nor did he uphold the theory of
Complete Indeterminism (adhicca-samuppannp).
There is no eternal survival in heaven or hell in Buddhist thought.
Birth precedes death, and death also precedes birth, so that the pair
follow each other in bewildering succession. Still there is no soul,
self, or fixed entity that pisses from birth to birth. Though man
comprises a psycho-physical unit of mind and matter, the ‘psyche’
or mind is not a soul or self, in the sense of an enduring entity,
something ready-made and permanent. It is a force, h dynamic
continuum capable of storing up memories not only of this life, but
also of past lives. To the scientist matter is energy in a state of stress,
change without real substance. To the psychologist the ‘psyche’
is no more a fixed entity. When the Buddha stressed that the
1. See above, p. 54.
64
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
so-called ‘being’ or ‘individual’ is nothing but a combination of
physical and mental forces, or energies, a change with continuity,
did he not antedate modern science and modern psychology by
twenty-five centuries?
This psycho-physical organism undergoes incessant change,
creates new psycho-physical processes every instant and thus pre¬
serves the potentiality for future organic processes, and leaves no
gap between one moment and the next. We live and die every
moment of our lives. It is merely a coming into being and passing
away, a rise and fall (udaya-vaya), like the waves of the sea.
This change of continuity, the psycho-physical process, which is
patent to us this life does not cease at death but continues in¬
cessantly. It is the dynamic mind-flux that is known as will, thirst,
desire or craving which constitutes karmic energy. This mighty
force, this will to live, keeps life going. According to Buddhism it
is not only human life, but the entire sentient world that is drawn by
this tremendous force—this mind with its mental factors, good or ill.
The present birth is brought about by the craving and clinging
karma-volitions (tanha-upadatia) of past births, and the craving and
clinging acts of will of the present birth bring about future rebirth.
According to Buddhism it is this karma-volition that divides beings
into high and low. 1 '
‘Beings are heirs of their deeds; bearers of their deeds, and their
deeds are the womb out of which they spring,’* and through their
deeds alone they must change for the better, remake themselves, and
win liberation from ill. It should, however, be remembered that
according to Buddhism, not everything that occurs is due to past
actions. During the time of the Buddha, sectarians like the Nigantha
Nataputta held the v,[ew that whatever the individual experiences,
be it pleasant or unpleasant or neither—all come from former
actions or past kamma .* The Buddha, however, rejected this theory
of an exclusive determination by the past (pubbekatahetu) as un¬
reasonable. Many a thing is the result of our own deeds done in this
present life, and of external causes.
One with an inquiring mind may ask, if there is no transmigrat¬
ing permanent Soul or Self to reincarnate, what is it that is reborn?
The answer is that there is no permanent substance of the nature
of Self of Soul (Atman) that reincarnates or transmigrates. It is
impossible to conceive of anything that continues without change.
1. M. 135. 2. M. 135.
3. M. iii. 214, Devadaha-sutta, D. 2. This view is examined at A. 1 .173.
THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH
65
All is in a state of flux. What we call life here is the functioning
of the five Aggregates of Grasping which we have discussed earlier , 1
or the functioning of mind and body which are only energies or
forces. They are never the same for two consecutive moments, and
in the conflux of mind and body we do not see anything permanent.
The grown-up man is neither the child nor quite a different person;
there is only a relationship of continuity. The conflux of mind and
body or mental and physical energy is not lost at death, for no
force or energy is ever lost. It undergoes change. It resets, re-forms
in new conditions. This is called rebirth, re-existence or re-becoming
(punabbhava ).
Karmic process (kammabhava) is the energy that out of a present
life conditions a future life in unending sequence. In this process
there is nothing that passes or transmigrates from one life to another.
It is only a movement that continues unbroken. The ‘being who
passes away here and takes birth elsewhere is neither the same
person nor a totally different one (na ca so na ca anno).*
There is the last moment of consciousness (cuti citta or vihhana)
belonging to the immediately previous life; immediately next, upon
the cessation of that consciousness, but conditioned by it, there
arises the first moment of consciousness of the present birth which
is called a relinking or rebirth-consciousness (pafisandhi vihhana). *
Similarly the last thought-moment in this life conditions the first
thought-moment in the next. In this way consciousness comes into
being and passes away yielding place to new consciousness. Thus
this perpetual stream of consciousness goes on until existence ceases.
Existence in a way is consciousness—the will to live,* to continue.
According to modern biology, ‘a new human life begins in that
miraculous instant when a sperm cell from the father merges with
an egg cell or ovum within the mother’. TJiis' is the moment of
birth. Science speaks of only these two physical common factors.
Buddhism, however, speaks of a third factor which is purely mental.
According to the Mahatanhasamkhaya-sutta? ‘by the conjunction
of three factors does conception take place. If mother and father
come together, but it is not the mother’s proper season, and the
being to be reborn (gandhabba) does not present itself, a germ of
life is not planted. If the parents come together, and it is the
mother’s proper season, but the gandhabba is not present, then
1. See chapter 3 above. 2. Milindapahha.
3. The third proposition in the formula of‘Dependent Arising’. See above,
p. 56.
4. M. 38.
V
66
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT' PATH
there is no conception. If the mother and father come together, and
it is the mother’s proper season and the gandhabba is also present,
then a germ of life is planted there.’
The third factor is simply a term for the pa{isandlii-vihnana, re-
birth-consciousness. It should be clearly understood that this re¬
birth-consciousness is not a Self or a Soul or an Ego-entity that
experiences the fruits of good and evil deeds . 1 Consciousness is also
generated by conditions. Apart from condition there is no arising
of consciousness.
«
’We give names, such as birth, death, thought-processes and so
on, to a stream of consciousness. There are only thought-moments.
As explained above, the last thought-moment we call death, and
the first thought-moment we call birth; thus births and deaths
occur in this stream of consciousness, which is only a series of ever
♦ ,
continuing thought-moments.
So long as man is attached to existence through his ignorance,
craving and clinging, to him death is not the final end. He will
continue his career of whirling round the ‘Wheel of Existence*. This
is the endless play of action and reaction kept in perpetual motion
by karma concealed by ignorance propelled by craving or thirst.
As karma, or action, is of our own making, we have the power to
break this endless chain. It is through the eradication of ignorance
(avijja) and of this driving force, craving, this thirst for existence,
this will to live (tanha), that the Cycle of Existence (samsara) ceases.
The Buddha explains thus: ‘How is there not re-becoming in the
future? By tjie cessation of ignorance, by the arising of knowledge
(vijja), by the cessation of craving there is thus no re-becoming in
the future.’•
The Buddha on attaining Enlightenment spoke these joyful
words:
‘Repeated births are each a torment.
Seeking but not finding the “House Builder”
I wandered through many a Samsaric birth.
O “House Builder”, thou art seen.
Thou wilt not rebuild the house.
All thy rafters have been shattered,'
Demolished has thy ridge pole been.
My mind has won the Unconditioned (Nibbana),
The extinction of craving is achieved (arahatship)’*
1. This view is discussed at M. 38. See above, p. 50.
2. M. 43. 3. Dhp. 153, 154.
5
THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH
Nirodha: The Cessation of Suffering
In chapters 3 and 4 we discussed suffering and its arising. Let us
now try to understand the meaning of the Cessation of Suffering
(dukkha-nirodha) which is known as Nibbdna (Sanskrit Nirvana).
The etymological meaning of the latter is given as ni + vana,
freedom from craving, a departure from craving, or nir + va, to
cease blowing or to be extinguished.
Though the Pali and Sanskrit etymological meanings may help
us to understand the term, they do not help us to realize the bliss
of Nirvana. Realization, as we shall see in the next chapter, comes
through Virtue (sila), Concentration (samadhi) and Wisdom
(panhd). Nirvana is a dhamma, an experience, that cannot be
explained because of its subtlety. It is known as the Supramundane
(lokuttara), the Absolute, the Unconditioned (asamkhata). Nirvana
is to be realized by the wise, each one individually.
Let alone Nirvana, a simple thing like the taste of sugar cannot
be made known to one who has no previous experience of it by
advising him to read a book on the chemistry of sugar. But if he
puts a small lump on his tongue, he will experience the sweet taste
and no more theorizing on sugar is needed.
‘What is Nirvana?' is a question that a Buddjiist or a non-Buddhist
may prefer to ask at the outset. This is not a question of today or
yesterday. Clever answers may be given and Nirvana explained in
glowing terms, but no amount of theorizing will bring us one whit
nearer to it, for it is beyoild words, logic and reasoning (atakka-
vacara). It is easier and safer to speak of what Nirvana is not, for it
is impossible to express it in words. Nirvana is ineffable and incom¬
municable. In our attempt to explain it we use words tyhich have
limited meanings, words connected with the cosmos, whereas
Nirvana, the Absolute Reality, which is realized through the highest
mental training and wisdom, is beyond any cosmic experience,
67
68
the buddha’s ancient path
beyond the - reach of speech. Then why write about it? It is to
prevent misconceptions about the Buddhist concept of Nirvana.
The Buddha says:
‘It occurred to me, monks, that this Dhatnma I have realized is
deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, beyond
mere reasoning, subtle and intelligible to the wise. But this genera¬
tion delights, revels and rejoices in sensual pleasures. For a generation
delighting, revelling and rejoicing in sensual pleasures, it is hard
to see this conditionality, this dependent arising. Hard, too, is it to
see this calming of all conditioned things, the giving up of all
substance of becoming, the extinction of craving, dispassion,
cessation, Nibbana. And if I were to teach the Dhamma and others
were not to understand me, that would be a weariness, a vexation
for me.’ 1
This is a clear indication from the Buddha himself that the
extirpation of craving (Nirvana) is hard to see, hard to understand.
In his explanation of the Third Noble Truth, in his first sermon,
the Buddha says: ‘This, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation
of Suffering: the complete cessation (nirodho), giving up (cdgo),
abandoning (pa(inissaggo), release (muni) and detachment
(analayo) from that very craving.’*
Though in this definition the word Nibbana is hot mentioned,
‘complete cessation of craving’ implies Nibbana. Elsewhere this
is made clear by the Buddha. ‘Verily, Radha, the extinction of
craving (tanhakkhayo) is Nibbana.'* Replying to a deity he says:
‘The abandoning of craving (tanhaya vippahanena) is Nibbana.'*
Then in the words of the Venerable Gariputta: ‘The subduing and
abandoning of passionate desire (c/iandaraga) for these Fjve
Aggregates of Grasping: that is the cessation of suffering.’ 8
It is clear from the above that nirodha or Nibbana is the cessation,
the extinction of craving (tanha). As we have seen in the preceding
chapter, craving is the arising of suffering which ceases only when
its origin, craving, ceases. With the givmg up of craving one also
gives up suffering and all that pertains to suffering. Nibbana,
therefore, is explained as the extinction of suffering.
It may be noted that though negative terms are often used to
define Nibbana, they do not imply that Nibbana is mere negation
or annihilation of a self. After all negation does not mean an
1. M. 26: S. i. 136. 2. S. v. 421. 3. S. iii. 190.
4. S. i. 39. 5. M. 28.
THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH
69
absolute void, a vacuum, but simply the absence of something.
An Arahat who has realized Nibbana is free from craving. Craving
no more exists in him, and this is not mere nothingness, or annihila¬
tion of self, because there is no self to be annihilated.
It is also evident from the texts that positive terms like Khemam
(Security), Suddhi (Purity), Panitam (Sublime), Santi (Peace),
Vimutti (Release), are used to denote the Unconditioned Nirvana.
Nevertheless, the real significance of these terms is restricted to the
known experiences of the sentient world. All positive definitions
are from our experience of the phenomenal world. A worldling’s
conception of things is samsaric, that is, belonging to existence or
becoming. So all his conceptions concerning Nirvana also are in
terms of becoming, and therefore, he cannot have a true picture of
Nirvana. All his thoughts, concepts and words are limited, condi¬
tioned, and cannot be applied to the Unproduced, Unconditioned,
Uncompounded Nirvana.
Conventionally we speak of positive and negative terms; they
are, like everything else, relative; but Nirvana is beyond both positive
and negative and is not related to anything conditioned. The
Buddha has used the terms of the world knowing their limitations.
Regarding the question, what is Nirvana ? let us hear the words of
the Buddha:
‘There are, monks, two Nibbana elements (Nibbana dhatuyo).
What two? The Nibbana element with a basis remaining
(saupadisesa ) 1 and the Nibbana element without a basis remaining
(anupadisesa). Which, monks, is the Nibbana element with a basis
remaining? Here, monks, a monk is an Arahat, one whose taints
(asava) are destroyed, who has lived the life, done what was to be
done, laid down the burden, attained Arahatship by stages, destroyed
• •
completely the bond of becoming, one who isfree through knowing
rightly. As his faculties have not been demolished he experiences
what is agreeable and disagreeable, he experiences pleasure and
pain. The five aggregates ^remain. It is his extinction of lust, hate
and delusion, monks, that is called the Nibbana element with a
basis remaining (saupadisesa nibbanadhatu).
‘And which, monks, is the Nibbana element without a basis
remaining (anupadisesa nibbanadhatu) ?
‘Here, monks, a monk is an Arahat, one whose taints are
destroyed, who has lived the life, done what was to be done, laid
down the burden, attained Arahatship by stages, destroyed
1. Upadi here means the five aggregates.
70
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
completely the bond of becoming, one who is free through knowing
rightly. All his feelings not being welcomed, not being delighted in
(anabhinanditani), will here and now become cool: it is this, monks,
that is called the Nibbana element without a basis remaining.
These, monks, are the two Nibbana elements.’
This fact the Blessed One declared:
Thus this is said:
These two Nibbana elements are explained
By the Seeing One, steadfast and unattached:
When one element with basis belonging to this life
Remains, destroyed is that which to becoming leads; 1
When one without that basis manifests
In the hereafter, all becomings cease.
The minds of those who know this unconditioned state
Are delivered by destroying that to which becoming leads:
They realize the Dhamma’s e ssenee 2 and in stillness
Delighting, steadfast they abandon all becoming.’ 3
A being consists of the live aggregates or mind and matter.
They change incessantly and are therefore impermanent. They
come into being and pass away, for, ’whatever is of the nature of
arising, all that is of the nature of ceasing’. 4
Lust, hate*and delusion in man bring about repeated existence,
for it is said: without abandoning fust, hate and delusion, one is
not free from birth... 5
One attains arahaLhip, that is deliverance even while alive, by
rooting out lust, hate and delusion. As stated above this is known
as the Nibbana element with a basis remaining (saupddisesa nibb-
dnadhdtu). The Arahat’s five aggregates or the remaining bases are
A a
conditioned by the lust, hate and delusion of his infinite past. As
he still lives his aggregates function: he, therefore, experiences the
pleasant as well as painful feelings that his sense faculties entertain
1. Bhavanetti, a synonym for tanha , craving or thirsr.
2. Dhamma-sara here means arahatship.
3. Id. pp. 38, 39.
4. A/, iii. 280: S. v. 423: S. iv. 47, 107; Vinaya Mhvg.
5. A . ii. i. 6.
THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH
71
through contact with sense objects. But since he is freed from
attachment, discrimination and the idea of selfhood, he is not
moved by these feelings. 1
Now when an Arahat passes away his aggregates, his remaining
bases, cease to function; they break up at death; his feelings are
no more, and because of his eradication of lust, hate and delusion,
he is not reborn, and naturally there is then no more entertaining
of feelings; and therefore is it said: ‘his feeling will become cool
(sltibhavissanti)
This idea is expressed in the Udana thus:
.‘The body broke up, perception ceased,
All feelings cooled, all formations stilled.
Consciousness disappeared.’ 2
This is known as the Nibbana element without a basis remaining
(anupddisesa nibbanadhatu).
From the foregoing the position of the Arahat, the Consummate
One, is clear. When a person totally eradicates the trio, lust,
hate and delusion, that leads to becoming, he is liberated from the
shackles of samsara, from repeated existence. He is free in the full
sense of the word. He no longer has any quality which will cause
him to be rebora as a living being, because he has realized Nibbana,
the entire cessation of continuity and becoming (bhava-nirodha); he
has transcended common or worldly activities and has raised him¬
self to a state above the world while yet living in the world: his
actions are issueless, are karmically ineffective, for they are not
motivated by the trio, by the jnental defilements (kilesa). He is
immune to all evil, to all defilements of the heart. In him there are
no latent or underlying tendencies (anusaya); ‘he is beyond good and
evil, he has given up both good and bad’ 3 : he^s not worried by the
past, the future, nor even the present. He clings to nothing in the
world and so is not troubled. He is not perturbed by the vicissitudes
of life. His mind is unshaken by contact with worldly contingencies;
he is sorrowless, taintless aAd secure (asokam, virajam, khemam).*■
Thus Nibbana is a ‘state’ realizable in this very life (ditthadhamma-
nibbdna). The thinker, the inquiring mind, will not find it difficult to
understand this state, which can be postulated only of the Arahat and
1. Cf. Arahat Sona's statement: ‘sights, tastes, sounds, smells, touches ... do
not cause the steadfast one ( ladino ) to tremble. His mind stands firm and fully
free.’ A. iii. 377.
2. Ud. viii. 9. 3. Dhp. 39. 4. Sn. Mcmgala-sutta 11'
72
THE BUDDHA S ANCIENT PATH
not of any other being, either in this world or in the realms of
heavenly enjoyment.
Though the sentient being experiences the unsatisfactory nature
of life, and knows at first hand what suffering is, what defilements
are, and what it is to crave, he does not know what the total extirpa¬
tion of defilements is, because he has never experienced it. Should
he do so, he will know, through self-realization, what it is to be
without defilements, what Nirvana or reality is, what true happiness
is. The Arahat speaks of Nirvana with experience, and not by
hearsay, but the Arahat can never, by his realization, make others
understand Nirvana. One who has slaked his thirst knows the
release he has gained, but he cannot explain this release to another-
However much he may talk of it, others will not experience it; for
it is self-experience, self-realization. Realization is personal to
each individual. Each must eat and sleep for himself, and treat
himself for his ailments; these are but daily requirements, how much
more when it is concerned with man’s inner development, his
deliverance of the mind.
What is difficult to grasp is the Nibbdna element without a basis
remaining (anupddisesa-nibbdna), in other words, the parinibbdna or
final passing away of the Arahat.
An oft-quoted passage from the Udana runs:
‘Monks, there is the unborn, unoriginated, unmade and un¬
conditioned. Were there not the unborn, unoriginated, unmade and
unconditioned, there would be no escape for the born, originated,
made and conditioned. Since there is the unborn, unoriginated,
unmade and unconditioned, so there is escape for the born, origina¬
ted, made and conditioned. 1
‘Here there is neither the element of solidity (expansion), fluidity
(cohesion), heat and motion, nor the sphere of infinite space, nor the
sphere of infinite consciousness, nor the sphere of nothingness, nor
the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, neither this
world nor the other, nor sun and moon. Here there is none
coming, none going, none existing, neither death nor birth. Without
support, non-existing, without sense objects is this. This indeed is
the end of suffering (dukkha).'*
It is clear from the above that this parinibbdna (the ultimate
Nibbdna) is a state where the five aggregates: form, feeling,
1. Ud. viii. 3.
2. Ud. viii. 1. Also Cf. Sarasutta, Devoid Samyutta.
THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH
73
perception, mental formations and consciousness, and all that per¬
tains to the aggregates have ceased. This, therefore, is a state
where relativity has no place. It is beyond and outside everything
that is relative. It is neither the effect of a cause, nor does it as
cause give rise to an effect. It is neither the path (magga) nor the
fruit (phala). It is the Absolute, the Unconditioned, the Uncom¬
pounded.
Suffering and its arising (cause) which is craving is mundane
(lokiya), but Nirvana not being in the world, stands outside con¬
ditioned things and, therefore, beyond cause and effect. All things
mundane are relative, but Nirvana being that which has no rela¬
tivities is Absolute.
In a very important discourse ( Dvayatanupassand-sutta) 1 wherein
the Dependent Arising and the Four Noble Truths are enume¬
rated, the Buddha addressing the monks says:
‘What the world at large considers Truth (idarh saccamti upanijj-
hayitam) has been viewed as falsehood bythe Noble (Ariya) through
their consummate comprehension, whilst the Noble hail as Truth
what the world deems falsehood,’ and further says:
'Nibbana is no lie (no state unreal)
For it is known as truth by the Noble Ones.
But since they realize that truth
Desireless they pass away.’*
This is not the only instance where the Buddha used Truth as a
substitute for Nibbana, for we find the following:
‘Reality, monk, is a name for Nibbana .’
‘In reality they are released
Destroying craving for becoming.’*
As stated in an equally important discourse ( Dhatuvibhanga-
sutta )* the Arahat who is absolutely calm within (the threefold fire
of lust, hate and delusion fully extinguished, blown out within,
1. Sn. 2. Sn . 758.
3. S. iv. 195: 'yathdbhutam vacanam ti kho bhikkhu nibbanassetam adhi-
vacanam
4. Iti. ii. 12: ‘yathabhute vimuccanti-bhavatanha parikkhaya . Reality,
yathabhuta = nibbana , see Commentary.
5. M. 140.
74
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘paccattam yeva parinibbayati') when experiencing a pleasant, un¬
pleasant or neutral feeling, knows that it is impermanent, that it is
not clung to with the idea of my and mine; that it is not experienced
with feelings of enjoyment (with passion),
‘Whatever feeling he experiences, be it pleasant, unpleasant or
neutral, he experiences it without being attached to it, without
being bound to it (visam-yutto). He knows that with the dissolution
of the body (after the life principle has come to an end) all feelings,
all experiences will become cool, will be tranquillized (sitibha-
vissanti) just as an oil lamp burns dependent upon oil and wick and
through the coming to an end of its oil and wick it goes out for lack of
fuel. Even so when a monk experiences a feeling that the body has
come to an end, he knows, “I experience a feeling that the body
has come to an end”, and when he experiences a feeling that life has
come to an end he knows, “I experience a feeling that life has come
to an end”, and he knows, “with the breaking up of the body
and the coming to an end of life, all feeling, not being delighted
in here and now, will become cool”. Therefore, monk, a person
thus endowed is endowed with this supreme wisdom, because the
knowledge of the destruction of all suffering (dukkha) is the supreme
noble wisdom.
‘This deliverance of his, founded on Truth, is unshakable. False
is that which is unreality; that which is reality (not false), Nibbana,
is Truth (tarn saccam). Therefore, monk, a person thus endowed
is endowed with this supreme Truth, because the Supreme Noble
Truth (paramam ariya sgccath) is Nibbana, which is reality (not
false).’
In the Rat ana-suit a 1 it is said:
*
‘Their past is dead, the new* no more arises,
Mind to future becoming is unattached,
The germ Iras died 3 , they have no more desire for growth,
Those wise (and steadfast ones) go rut as did this lamp.’ 4
This is the position of the Arahat who has passed away (parinib -
»•
]. The Jewel Discourse, Sn. 14.
2. The past and the new k amnia are meant here.
3. Here germ means the rebirth consciousness.
4. It is said that as the Buddha spoke these words he saw the flame of a lamp
go out.
THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH
75
buto). His path, like that of birds in the sky, 1 cannot be traced. It is
therefore wrong to say that the Arahat or the Buddha entered
Nibbana. because it is not a place or a state or a ‘heaven’ where
beings continue to live eternally. Nibbana has no location. The
final passing away of the Buddha or the Arahat is expressed in the
texts as parinibbuto, parinibbayi, meaning fully passed away, fully
extinct, which is a clear indication that it is the cessation of becoming
(bhavanirodha) — the journey's end. Now what that is—what
happens to the Buddha or the Arahat after his passing away—cannot
be theorized, cannot be defined. There is no measure, no dimension.
It is an ‘unanswered’, ‘undetermined’ question (avyakata). The
highest (ultimate) Truth is inexpressible and undeclared
(anakkhata).
When Upasiva questioned whether one who passed away ceased
to exist, or lasted for ever in bliss, the Buddha's answer was cate¬
gorical:
‘Of one who’s passed away there is no measure,
Of him there’s naught whereby one may say aught;
When once all things have wholly been removed.
All ways of saying, too, have been removed.’ 8
In. the absence of an Atta (Atman), Soul or Self, what attains
Nibbana, or who realizes Nibbana is a baffling question. Let us first
try to understand who or what this so-called being is. A being is a
conflux of mind and matter. It is a process that undergoes change
not remaining the same for two consecutive moments, and herein,
there is no permanent something: the complete cessation of this
process—this flux of physical and . psychological categories—is
known as Parinibbana (fully blown out or passed away). No ‘I’ Self
or Soul enters Nibbana, is eternalized or annihilated in Nibbana.
The question of what attains or who realizes Nibbana arises be¬
cause of the strong notion of ‘I’, ME and MINE (ahamkara,
mamimkara) in man, and all the questions are round this ‘I’; but
there is no ‘I’ or Self behind iur actions, mental, verbal and physical.
There is no doer of a deed. There is no thinker of a thought.
Nibbana is, but not the man (being) who realizes it. Phenomena
alone flow on. In conventional language we speak of man, woman,
I, me and so forth, but in the ultimate sense no such individual
1. Dhp. 92,93.
2. Sn. 1076. Compare this with the Buddha’s reply to Vaccha: ‘To say that he
(an Arahat) is reborn does not fit the case; to say that he is not reborn, does not
fit the case.’ M. i. 486. Discourse 72.
76
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
exists. Only a process comes into being and a process ceases. ‘What¬
ever is of the nature of arising, all that is of the nature of ceasing.’ 1
The five aggregates of grasping form the ‘being’. Craving which
is the arising (cause) of suffering arises in the five aggregates of
grasping. The cessation of craving is also within these aggregates.
Thus a process comes into being, and a process ceases, and there is
no permanent Self or ‘I’ that produces the aggregates and finally
extirpates them, much less an external agency. Here there is a
becoming and a cessation of becoming. This is the right view.
The Buddhist Nibbana is called the Supreme Happiness (paramam
sukham) and as we have seen above, this happiness is brought about
by the complete calming, the utter ceasing of all sensations. Now
this saying, indeed, baffles us completely, we who have experienced
so many pleasant feelings with our sense faculties.
The Venerable Udayi, a disciple of the Buddha, was confronted
with this very problem. The Venerable Sariputta addressing the
monks said: ‘It is Nibbana, friends, that is happiness; it is Nibbana,
friends, that is happiness.’ Then the Venerable Udayi asked: ‘But
what, friend Sariputta, is happiness, since herein there is no feeling?’
‘Just this, friend, is happiness, that herein there is no feeling.
This saying of the Venerable Sariputta is fully supported by the
following one of the Buddha: ‘Whatever is experienced, sensed,
felt, all that is suffering’ (yamkinci vedayitam rani dukkhasmm li ). 3
The essential steps of the path to the removal of suffering—to
Nibbana —are pointed out by the Buddha. It is the way of careful
cultivation of the mind so as to produce unalloyed happiness and
supreme rest from the turmoil of life. The path is indeed very
difficult, but if we, with constant heecfulness, and complete aware¬
ness, walk it watching our steps, we will one day reach our destina¬
tion. A child learns to stand and walk gradually and with difficulty.
So too have all great ones, in the march to perfection, moved from
stage to stage through failure to final success.
'Mindful of the yogis of the past
And remembering their ways of life,
Even though today be but the after-time' 1
One may yet attain the Peace perennial.’ 8
1. A/, in. 2«0; 5. iv. 47, 107. 2. A. iv. 414. 3. S. )i. 53.
4. i.e. after the passing away of the Buddha.
5. ' Sarirva pubbake yogi—tesarh vattam anussaram
Kincdpi pacchimo kdlo—phuseyya amatam padam.’ Thag. 947.
6
THE THREEFOLD DIVISION OF
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
While lying on his death-bed, addressing the disciples the Buddha
said: ‘The Doctrine and the Discipline (dhamma-vinaya) which 1
have set forth and laid down for you, let them, after I am gone,
be your teacher.’ 1
From this it is quite clear that the Buddha's way of life, his
religious system, comprises the doctrine and the discipline. Discipline
implies moral excellence, the taming of the tongue and the bodily
actions, the code of conduct taught in Buddhism. This is generally
known as slla, virtue or moral training. The doctrine deals with
man’s mental training, taming of the mind. It is meditation or
the development, of Mental Concentration, samadhi, and Wisdom,
panfia. These three. Virtue, Concentration and Wisdom, are the
cardinal teachings which when carefully and fully cultivated raise
man from lower to higher levels of mental life; lead him from
darkness to light, from passion to dispassion, from turmoil to
tranquillity.
These three are not isolated ‘reactions, but integral parts of the
Path. This idea is crystallized in the clear admonition of the En¬
lightened Ones of all ages—‘Cease from all ev^; cultivate the good;
cleanse your own mind.’ 2
These oft-quoted but ever fresh words convey briefly the Message
of the Master indicating the path to purification and deliverance.
The Path, however, is generally referred to as the Noble Eightfold
Path (ariyo affhamgiko maggo). Though some prefer to call this the
Ariyan Eightfold Path, it may be noted that the term ‘Ariyan’
does not here stand for any race, caste, class or clan. »It simply
means noble or excellent.
1. Mahd Parinibbana-sutta, D. 16.
2. 'Sabba pdpassa akaranam—kusalassa upasampadd,
Sacittapariyodapanam—etarh buddhanasasanam . Dlip. 183.
77
78
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
The Eightfold Path is arranged in three groups: Virtue, Concen¬
tration and Wisdom (s!la, samadhi, pahha). 1 This Path is unique to
Buddhism and distinguishes it from every other religion and
philosophy.
The eight factors of the Path are: 2
a
1. Right Understanding (sammd-diffhi)
2. Right Thought (samma-samkappa)
3. Right Speech (samma-vaca)
4. Right Action (samma-kammanta)
5. Right Livelihood (samma-ajiva)
6. . Right Effort (samma-vayama)
7. Right Mindfulness (sammd-sati).
8. Right Concentration (samma-samadhi)
• •
Referring to this Path, in his First Discourse, 3 4 the Buddha called
it the Middle Path (majjhima patipada), because it avoids two
extremes: Indulgence in sensual pleasures which is low, worldly
and leads to harm is one extreme; self-torture in the form of severe
asceticism which is painful, low and leads to harm is the other.
Living in the palace amidst song and dance, luxury and pleasure,
the Bodhisatta* knew by experience that sense pleasures do not
lead mankind to true happiness and deliverance. Six years of
rigorous mortification, which he, as an ascetic, so zealously prac¬
tised in search of purification and final deliverance, brought him no
reward. It was a vain and useless effort. Avoiding these two
extremes he followed a' path of moral and mental training and
through self-experience discovered the Middle Path consisting of the
three groups.
In this chapter a brief account of the three groups and how they
aim at promoting ancl perfecting a path that consists of eight factors
will be discussed. The factors will be dealt with in their entirety
in the chapters that follow.
It must always be borne in mind that the term path’ JS only a
figurative expression. Though conventionally we talk of treading
a path, in the ultimate sense the eight steps signify eight mental
factors. They are interdependent and interrelated, and at the
1. M. 44. 2. M. 44.
3. Known as ‘Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth’ ( Dhamwcakkappavat -
tana), S. v. 420; Vin. i. 10. See above, p. 18.
4. See above, p. 14, n. 2.
Wisdom Group
(panna)
Virtue Group
( slla)
Concentration
► Group
( samadhi)
THREEFOLD DIVISION OF NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
79
highest level they function simultaneously; they are not followed
and practised one after the other in numerical order. Even on the
lower level each and every factor should be tinged with some
degree of right understanding; for it is the key-note of Buddhism.
Let us first hear these words of the Buddha:
‘O monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating four
things (dhamnul) that we have run so long, wandered on so long
in this round of existence both you and I. And what four? Virtue*
Concentration, Wisdom and Deliverance, But when these four
things, O monks, are understood and penetrated, rooted out is
the craving for existence, destroyed is that which leads to renewed
becoming, and there is no more coining to be.' 1
Further says the Master:
'Concentration (meditation), O monks, supported by virtue brings
much fruit, brings much advantage. The mind supported by
wisdom is wholly and entirely freed from the intoxication of sense
desires, from becoming, wrong views and ignorance." 2
These sayings of the Buddha explain the function and the purpose
of cultivating Virtue, Meditation and Wisdom. Deliverance means
living experience of the cessation of the three root causes of evil,
Greed, Hatred and Delusion or Ignorance (loblia, dosa and inoha),
that assail the human mind. These root causes are eliminated
through training in Virtue, Meditation and Wisdom. ,
Thus it is clear that the Buddha's teaching aims at the highest
purification, perfect mental health, free from all tainted impulses.
Now this deliverance from mental taints, this freedom from ill.
lies absolutely and entirely in a man’s own hhnds, in those of no
one else, human or divine. Not even a Supreme Buddha can re¬
deem a man from the fetters of existence except by showing him
the path.
The path is: Virtue, Concentration and Wisdom, which are
referred to in the discourses as the threefold training (tividha-
sikkha) and none of them is an end in itself; each is a m^ans to an
end. One cannot function independently of the others. As in the
case of a tripod which falls to the ground if a single leg gives way,
so here one cannot function without the support of the others.
1. D. 16. 2. D. 16.
80
the buddha’s ancient path
These three go together supporting each other. Virtue or regulated
behaviour strengthens meditation and meditation in turn promotes
Wisdom. Wisdom helps one to get rid of the clouded view of
things—to see life as it really is—that is to see life and all things
pertaining to life as arising and passing away.
It is now quite clear that in the interplay of doctrine and discipline
(dhamma-vinaya) or knowledge and conduct (vijjd-carana) the two
constitute a single process of growth. ‘As hand washes hand, and
foot washes foot, so does conduct purify wisdom and wisdom
conduct.* 1 This fact may be borne in mind by students of Buddhism,
as there is a tendency, especially in academic circles, to regard the
teachings of the Buddha as mere speculation, as a mere doctrine
of metaphysics without practical value or importance.
The Buddhist way of life, however, is an intense process of
cleansing one’s speech, action and thought. It is self-development
and self-purification. The emphasis is on practical results and not
mere philosophical speculation, logical abstraction or even mere
cogitation.
In strong language did the Buddha warn his followers against
mere book learning thus:
Though he recites the sacred texts a lot, but acts not accordingly
that heedless man is like a cowherd counting others’ cattle (not
obtaining the products of the cow). He shares not the fruits of the
tranquil man.
Though he recites only a little of the sacred texts, but acts in
accordance with the teaching, abandoning lust, hate and delusion,
possessed of right understanding, 'his mind entirely released and
clinging to nothing here or hereafter, he shares the fruits of the
tranquil man,’ a
These are clear indications that the Buddhist way of life, the
Buddhist method of grasping the highest truth, awakening from
ignorance to full knowledge, does no\ depend on mere academic
intellectual development, but on a practical teaching that leads
the follower to enlightenment and final deliverance.
The Buddha w'as more concerned with beings than with inanimate
nature. His sole object was to unravel the mystery of existence, to
solve the problems of becoming. This he did by comprehending in
all their fullness the Four Noble Truths, the eternal verities of life.
1. D. 4.
2. Dhp. 19, 20.
THREEFOLD DIVISION OF NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH
81
This knowledge of the truths he tried to impart to those who
sought it, and never forced it upon others. He never compelled or
persuaded people to follow him, for compulsion and coercion were
foreign to his method of teaching. He did not encourage his disciples
to believe him blindly, but wished them to investigate his teaching
which invited the seeker to ‘come and see’ (ehipassika). It is
seeing and understanding, and not blind believing, that the Master
approves.
To understand the world within, one must develop the inner
faculties, one’s mind. The Buddha says: ‘Mind your mind.T ‘The
wise tame themselves.’2
Today there is ceaseless work going on in all directions to improve
the world. Scientists are pursuing their methods and experiments
with undiminished vigour and determination. Modern discoveries
and methods of communication and contact have produced startling
results. All these improvements, though they have their advantages
and rewards, are entirely material and external.
Within this conflux of mind and body of man, however, there are
unexplored marvels to occupy men of science for many years.
Really, the world, which the scientists are trying to improve, is,
according to the ideas of Buddhism, subject to so much change at
all points on its circumference and radii, that it is not capable of
being made sorrowfree.
Our life is so dark with ageing, so smothered with death, so
bound with change, and these qualities are so inherent in it—even
as greenness is to grass, and bitterness to quinine—that not all the
magic and power of science can ever transform it. The immortal
splendour of an eternal sunlight awaits only those who can use the
light of understanding and the culture of conduct to illuminate
and guard their path through life’s tunnel of c^arkness and dismay.
The people of the world today mark the changing nature of life.
Although they see it, they do not keep it in mind' and act with dis¬
passionate discernment. Though change again and again speaks
to them and makes them unhappy, they pursue their mad career
of whirling round the wheel of existence and are twisted and torn
between the spokes of agony.
After all, a scientist or a plain man, if he has not understood the
importance of conduct, the urgency for wholesome endeavour, the
necessity to apply knowledge to life, is, so far as the doctrine of the
Buddha is concerned, an immature person, who has yet to negotiate
1. D. 16.
vi
2. Dhp. 80.
82
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
many more hurdles before he wins the race of life and the
immortal prize of Nibbdna.
For an understanding of the world within, science may not be of
much help to us. Ultimate truth cannot be found in science. To
the scientist, knowledge is something that ties him more and more to
this sentient existence. That knowledge, therefore, is not saving
knowledge. To one who views the world and all it holds in its
proper perspective, the primary concern of life is not mere specula¬
tion or vain voyaging into the imaginary regions of high fantasy,
but the gaining of true happiness and freedom from ill or unsatis¬
factoriness (dukkha), To him true knowledge depends on the
central question: Is this learning according to actuality? Can it be
of use to us in the conquest of mental peace and tranquillity, of real
happiness?
To understand the world within we need the guidance, the in¬
struction of a competent and genuine seer whose clarity of vision
and depth of insight penetrate into the deepest recesses of life and
cognize the true nature that underlies all appearance. He, indeed,
is the true philosopher, the true scientist who has grasped the
meaning of change in the fullest sense and has transmuted this
understanding into a realization of the deepest truths fathomable
by man—the truths of the three signs or characteristics ( ti-lakkhana ):
Impermanence, Unsatisfactoriness, Non-self (anicca, dukkha,
anatta) y No more can he be confused by the terrible or swept ofF
his feet by the glamour of things ephemeral. No more is it possible
for him to have a clouded view of phenomena; for he has transcended
all capacity* for error through the perfect immunity which insight
(vipassana nana) alone can give.
The Buddha is such a seer, and his path to deliverance is open to
all who have eyes to see and minds to understand. It is different
from other paths to ‘salvation’; for the Buddha teaches that each
individual, whether layman or monk, is solely responsible for his
own liberation.
Mankind is caught in a tangle, inner as well as outer, and the
Buddha’s infallible remedy, in brief, is this: ‘The prudent man full
of effort, established well in Virtue, develops Concentration and
Wisdom and succeeds in solving the tangle. 2
The Buddha’s foremost admonition to his sixty immediate
Arahat disciples was that the Dhamma should be promulgated for the
welfare and happiness of many; out of compassion for the world. 3
1. For a detailed explanation of the Three Signs see below, p. 95.
2. S . i. 13. 3. Vinaya, i. 21.
THREEFOLD DIVISION OF NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH 83
The whole dispensation of the Master is permeated with that salient
quality of universal loving compassion.
Sila or Virtue, the initial stage of the Path, is based on this loving
compassion. Why should one refrain from harming and robbing
other people? Is it not because of love for self and others? Why
should one succour the poor, the needy and those in distress? Is it
not out of compassion for those others?
To abstain from evil and do good is the function of sila) the code
of conduct taught in Buddhism. This function is never void of
loving compassion. Sila embraces within it qualities of the heart,
such as love, modesty, tolerance, pity, charity and happiness at the
success of others, and so forth. Samadhi and Panna, or Concentra¬
tion and Wisdom, are concerned with the discipline of the mind.
As stated above, three factors of the Eightfold Path (Nos. 3, 4
and 5) form the Buddhist code of conduct (sila). They are: Right
Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood.
Right Speech is to abstain (a) from falsehood and always speak
the truth; (b) from tale-bearing which brings about discord and
disharmony, and to speak words that are conducive to concord
and harmony; (c) from harsh and abusive speech, and instead to
speak kind and refined words; and (d) from idle chatter, vain talk
or gossip and instead to speak words which are meaningful and
blameless.
Right Action is abstention from (a) killing, (b) stealing, and (c)
illicit sexual indulgence, and cultivating compassion, taking only
things that are given, and living pure and chaste.
Right Livelihood is abandoning wrong ways of living which
bring harm and suffering to others: Trafficking (a) in arms and
lethal weapons, (b) in animals for slaughter, (c) human beings
(i.e. dealing in slaves which was prevalent ddring the time of the
Buddha), (d) in intoxicating drinks, and (e) poisons, and living by a
profession which is blameless and free from harm to oneself and
others. (These factors will be discussed in detail in the chapters
that follow.)
From this outline of Buddhist ethics, it is clear that the code of
conduct set forth by the Buddha is no mere negative prohibition
but an affirmation of doing good—a career paved with good in¬
tentions for the welfare and happiness of all mankind. These moral
principles aim at making society secure by promoting unity,
harmony and right relations among people.
1. Vism: sllaniddesa.
84
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
This code of conduct (sila) is the first stepping stone of the
Buddhist Way of Life. It is the basis for mental development. One
who is intent on meditation or concentration of mind must develop
a love of virtue; for it is virtue that nourishes mental life and makes
it steady and calm. •
_ •
The next stage in the Path to Deliverance is Mental Culture,
Concentration (samadhi), which includes three other factors of the
Eightfold Path: they are, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and
Right Concentration (Nos. 6,7 and 8).
Right Effort is the persevering endeavour (a) to prevent the arising
of evil and unwholesome thoughts that have not yet arisen in a
man’s mind, (b) to discard such evil thoughts already arisen, (c) to
produce and develop wholesome thoughts not yet arisen, and (d) to
promote and maintain the good thoughts already present.
The function of this sixth factor, therefore, is to be vigilant and
check all unhealthy thoughts, and to cultivate, promote and main¬
tain wholesome and pure thoughts arising in a man’s mind.
The prudent man who masters his speech and his physical actions
through sila (virtue) now makes every endeavour to scrutinize his
thoughts, his mental factors, and to avoid distracting thoughts.
Right Mindfulness is the application or arousing of attention in
regard to the (a) activities of the body (kayanupassana), (b) feefngs
or sensations (vedananupassana) y (c) the activities of the mind
(cittdnupassana) and (d) mental objects (dhammanupassana).
As these factors of the Path are interdependent and co-operating,
Right Mindfulness aids Right Effort and together they can check
the arising of unwholesome thoughts and develop the good and
wholesome thoughts already entertained. The man vigilant in
regard to his action:, verbal, physical and mental, avoids all that
is detrimental to his mental (spiritual) progress. Such a one cannot
be mentally indolent and supine. The well-known discourse on
The Foundations (Establishment) of Mindfulness^ SatipaUhana-sutta)
deals comprehensively with this fourfold Mindfulness. 1
Right Concentration is the intensified steadiness of the mind
comparable to the unflickering flame of a lamp in a windless place.
It is concentration that fixes the mind right and causes it to be
unmoved and undisturbed. The correct practice of Samadhi (con¬
centration or mental discipline) maintains the mind and the mental
properties in a state of balance. Many are the mental impediments
1. See chapter 13 on Right Mindfulness.
IllRIitiFOLD DIVISION OF NOBLL LIGHTFOLD I’Alll
85
that confront a yogi, a meditator, but with the support of Right
Effort and Right Mindfulness the fully concentrated mind is capable
of dispelling the impediments, the passions that disturb man. The
perfectly concentrated mind is not distracted by sense objects, for
it sees things as they really are, in their proper perspective. 1
Thus mastering the mind, and not allowing the mind to master
him, the yogi cultivates true Wisdom (paniia) which consists of the
first two factors and the final stage of the Path, namely. Right
Understanding and Right Thought.
Thought includes thoughts of renunciation (nekkliaimnasaiii-
kappa) good will (avyapacla-samkappa) and of compassion or
non-harm (avihiihsd-saiiikappa). These thoughts are to be cultivated
and extended towards all living beings irrespective of race, caste, clan
or creed. As they embrace all that breathes there are no compromi¬
sing limitations. The radiation of such ennobling thoughts is not
possible for one who is egocentric and selfish.
A man may be intelligent, erudite and learned, but if he lacks
right thoughts, he is, according to the teachings of the Buddha, a
fool (bala) not a man of understanding and insight. If we view
things with dispassionate discernment, we will understand that
selfish desire, hatred and violence cannot go together with t'rue
Wisdom. Right Understanding or true Wisdom is always
permeated with* Right Thoughts and never bereft of them.
Right Understanding, in the ultimate sense, is to understand life
as it really is. For this, one needs a clear comprehension of the four
Noble Truths, namely: The Truth of (a) Dukklia, Suffering or
Unsatisfactoriness, (b) the Arising of Dukklia, (c) the.Cessation of
Dukkha, and (d) the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukklia.
Right Understanding or penetrative Wisdom is the result of
continued and steady practice of meditation or careful cultivation
of the mind. To one endowed with Right Understanding it is
impossible to have a clouded view of phenomena, for he is immune
from all impurities and has attained the unshakable deliverance of
the mind (ukuppa ceto vimujti).
The careful reader will now be able to understand how the three
groups, Virtue, Concentration and Wisdom, function together for
one common end: Deliverance of the Mind (ceto vimuttil, and how
through genuine cultivation of man’s mind, and through control of
actions, both physical and verbal, purity is attained. It is through
self-exertion and self-development that the aspirant secures
1. See chapter 14 on Right Concentration.
86
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
freedom, and not through praying to and petitioning an external
agency. This indeed is the Dhamma discovered by the Buddha,
made use of by him for full enlightenment and revealed to the
others:
‘Virtue, and concentration, wisdom, supreme freedom.
These things the Illustrious Gotama realized.
Thus fully understanding them the Buddha,
Ender of Ill, the Teacher, the Seeing One
Utterly calmed, taught the Dhamma to the monks.’ 1
In spite of the scientific knowledge that is steadily growing the
people of the world are restless and racked with fear and discontent.
They are intoxicated with the desire to gain fame, wealth, power
and to gratify the senses. To this troubled world still seething
with hate, distrust, selfish desire and violence, most timely is the
Buddha’s Message of love and understanding, the Noble Eightfold
Path, referring to which the Buddha says:
‘This is the path itself,
For none other leads
To purity of vision:
If you follow it and so confuse
King Mara, all suffering will end.
Since I have learned how to remove
The arrows, 2 I have revealed the path.
You yourselves should (always) strive,
Tathagatas only teach.
Those who walk in meditation 3
Free themselves from Mara’s bondage.' 4
1. A . r. 2; A. iv. 106; D. ii. 123. In the Path of Freedom, Vimuttimagga.
Colombo, 1961, p. 1, only the first two lines forming the introductory stanza are
found. This is a recent, and only translation in English by the Ven. N. R. M.
Ehara, Soma Thera and Kheminda Thera.
2. Arrows of passionate desire and so forth.
3. Both concentrative calm (samatha) and insight ( vipassand ).
4. Dhp. 274, 275, 276.
7
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
Magga: The Path
RIGHT UNDERSTANDING
( Samma-ditjhi)
‘As this great ocean has but one taste, that of salt, so has this
Dhamma but one taste, that of freedom.’ 1
Freedom, supreme security from bondage, 2 is the clarion call of
the Buddha’s teaching. It is for this end—freedom—that the
Master points out a path.
At the parting of roads a pedestrian gets bewildered, not knowing
the right path to take. He looks round for help, and to his delight,
sees a signboard*with directions. Nqw if he is really intent on reach¬
ing his destination, he will not hesitate—but will proceed with zest
watching his steps. So do people in this cycle of existence (samsara),
get bewildered as long as they do not know the path to freedom.
The Buddha, like the signboard, indicates the sublime path of
understanding and freedom, bet people still cling to the by-paths
that lead deeper into the morass of dukkha, suffering. That is
because they have woven previous habits into the texture of their
being while wandering through the jungles of sarhsaric life.
It is very difficult, indeed, for people to turn away from accus¬
tomed modes of conduct, thought and action. 3 However, if one
wants to conquer the burdensome cares of worldly life, and gain
true happiness and freedom one has gradually to turn away from
things seemingly dear and congenial, and enter the path trodden
by the Supremely Enlightened Ones of all ages and pointed out by
them—the ancient path . 4
1. Uddrta, p. 56. 2. M. 26. 3. S. ii. Discourse 61.
4. S. ii. 106, purdnamaggam, puranamjasam, pubbakehi samma-sambuddhehi
anuydtam.
87
88
the buddha’s ancient path
It is by advancing step by step along the Ancient Path that one
reaches the goal—freedom. One cannot attain freedom all at once.
As the sea deepens gradually, so in the doctrine and discipline of the
Buddha there is gradual training, gradual doing, and gradual
practice. 1 All the practical guidance and instructions given by the
Buddha to remove mental conflicts due to the unsatisfactoriness of
life, and gain final peace and happiness, are to be found on the
Eightfold Path.
To one who views the modern world with dispassionate discern¬
ment, right understanding seems to be a very essential, nay an
indispensable, factor of human life. With the advance of modern
science, people, both in the East and West, seem to have become
more and more materially minded and have almost ignored the
mental realm, the world within, so that they seem to be lop-sided
and even ill-disposed. Slogans and political propaganda seem to
mould man’s mind, and life to be mechanical; man has become
like a puppet controlled by others.
Modern man seems to be enmeshed in all sorts of ideas, views,
opinions and ideologies both wise and foolish. He is film-fed,
television-minded, and radio-trained. Today what is presented by
the newspapers, radio, television, some novels and pictures, by
certain literature on sex psychology, and by sex-ridden films tends
to confuse man, and turn him from the path of rectitude and
understanding.
Wrangling, animosity, petty quarrels and even wars are the out¬
come of wrong ways of thinking and false views propagated by
craving and hate. Today more that, at any other time right under¬
standing is needed to guide mankind through the turmoil of life, to
‘straighten the restless mind as a fletchcr straightens his shaft’, 2
and to conform to justice and rectitude.
From the early Buddhist writings it becomes quite clear that the
Buddha was not a teacher who leaned to the right or left, for his
path was straight. He avoided all extremes, whether of Self Indul¬
gence and Self Mortification; of Eternity or Annihilation; of
Complete Indeterminism (adhiccasamuppanna) or Accidentalism
and Strict Determinism (Niyati-vada) or Fatalism; or of any other
‘ism’ that tends towards extremes. His Way of Life, as he explained
in his firsi sermon, is the Middle Path. It is a teaching that has direct
bearing on the lives of mankind, a practical application, without
bias, prejudice or emotion—the active and practical aspect of the
1. A. iv. 200; Udar.a, p. 54. 2. Dhp. 33.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
89
entire teaching of the Master. It is not mere speculation, philoso¬
phizing and rationalizing, for it entails engaging oneself in the real
task of applying each and every factor of the path 1 to life; in coming
to grips with the true meaning of life, for the sole purpose of freedom
from the taints that haunt the human heart.
The first factor of the path is known as right understanding which
means to understand things as they really are and not as they appear
to be. It is important to realize that right understanding in Buddhism
has a special meaning which differs from that popularly attributed
to it. In Buddhism right understanding is the application of
Insight to the five aggregates of clinging, and understanding their
true nature, that is understanding oneself. It is self-examination
and self-observation. This point we shall discuss presently.
Right understanding is of the highest importance, for the re¬
maining seven factors of the path are guided by it.’ It ensures that
right thoughts arc held and it co-ordinates ideas; when as a result
thoughts and ideas become clear and wholesome, man’s speech
and action are also brought into proper relation. Again it is
through right understanding that one gives up harmful or profitless
effort and cultivates right effort which aids the development of
right mindfulness. Right effort and right mindfulness guided by
right understanding bring about right concentration. Thus right
understanding, which is the main spring in Buddhism, causes
the other limbs of the co-ordinate system to move in proper
relation. 3
Now there are two conditions that are conducive to right under¬
standing: Hearing from others, that is hearing th e‘Sadd/iamma,
the Good Law, from others fparatoghosa) * and systematic (wise)
attention (yoniso-nianasikara). 5 The first condition is external, that
is, what we get from outside, while the second is internal, what we
cultivate (manasikara literally means doing-in-the-mind).
What we hear 6 gives us food for thought and guides us in forming
our own views. It is, therefore, necessary to listen, but only to that
which is conducive to right understanding and to avoid all the
harmful and unwholesome utterances of others which prevent
straight thinking.
The second condition, systematic attention, is more difficult to
1. For the factors, see above p. 78. 2. SeeM. 117. 3. See M. 117.
4. As in the case of Upatissa hearing from Arahat Assaji, see above, p. 35.
5. M, 43.
6. In the past people learnt by hearing and became 'learned', bahussuta;
nowadays people learn mainly by reading and become known as well read.
90
the Buddha’s ancient path
cultivate, because it entails constant awareness of the things that
one meets with in everyday life. The word yoniso-manasikara which
is often used in the discourses is most important, for it enables one
to see things deeply (yoniso, lit. by-way-of womb) instead of only
on the surface. Metaphorically, therefore, it is ‘radical’ or ‘reasoned
attention’. Ayoniso-manasikara , unwise or unsystematic attention, is
always deplored by the Buddha for it never helps one to consider
conditionality, or to analyse the aggregates. Hence the importance
of developing systematic and avoiding unsystematic attention. These
two conditions, learning and systematic attention, together help to
develop right understanding.
One who seeks truth is not satisfied with surface knowledge,
with the mere external appearance of things, but wants to delve
deep and see what is beyond the reach of the naked eye. That is
the sort of search encouraged in Buddhism, for it leads to right
understanding. The man of analysis states a thing after resolving it
into its various qualities, which he puts in proper order, making
everything plain. He does not state things unitarily, looking at them
as a whole, but divides them up according to their outstanding
features so that the conventional and the highest truth can be
understood unmixed.
The Buddha was discriminative and analytical to the highest
degree (vibhajjavddi). As a scientist resolves a limb into tissues and
the tissues into cells, he analysed all component and conditioned
things into their fundamental elements, .right down to their ulti-
mates, and condemned shallow thinking, unsystematic attention,
which tends'to make man muddle-headed and hinders the investiga-
tion of the true nature of things. It is through right understanding
that one sees cause and effect, the arising and ceasing of all con¬
ditioned things. Th? truth of the Dhamma can be only grasped in
that way, and not through blind belief, wrong view, speculation or
even by abstract philosophy.
The Buddha says: ‘This Dhamma is for the wise and not for the
unwise,’ 1 and explains the ways and m^ans of attaining wisdom by
stages, and avoiding false views. Right understanding permeates
the entire teaching, pervades every part and aspect of the Dhamma
and functions as the key-note of Buddhism.
What then is right understanding? It is the understanding of
dukkha or the unsatisfactory nature of all phenomenal existence, its
arising, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation. 2
1. A . iv. 232.
2. D . 22; M. 141.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
91
Thus ignorance of the real nature of life is primarily ignorance of
the Four Noble Truths. 1 It is because of their ignorance of these
truths that beings are tethered to becoming and are born again and
again. Hear these words of the Buddha:
‘Monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating the
Four Noble Truths that we have run so long, wandered so long in
samsara, in this cycle of continuity, both you and I... But when
these Four Noble Truths are understood and penetrated, rooted
out is the craving for existence, destroyed is that which leads to
renewed becoming, and there is no more coming to be.’ 2
In his first proclamation of the Dhamma, addressing the five
ascetics, the Buddha says:
‘So long as my knowledge and vision of reality regarding these
Four Noble Truths, in three phases and twelve aspects was not
fully clear to me, I did not claim to have attained incomparable
supreme enlightenment in the world. But when my knowledge and
vision of reality regarding these Four Noble Truths was clear to
me, then I claimed to have won incomparable supreme enlighten¬
ment in this world.’ 3
These word^ clearly indicate that right understanding in the
highest sense is comprehension of the Four Noble Truths. To grasp
these truths is to understand the intricacies of nature. ‘A person
who fully understands these truths is truly called “Intuitively
Wise”.’ 4
Now right understanding iS of two kinds, mundane and supra-
mundane. An ordinary worldling’s 5 knowledge of the efficacy of
moral causation or of actions and their results fkamma, and kamma-
vipaka) and the knowledge that accords with the Four Noble
Truths (saccanulomikanana) is called mundane (lokiya) right
understanding. It is mundane because the understanding is not
yet free from taints. Thi» may be called ‘knowing accordingly’
(anubodha). But right understanding experienced at the moment
1. Discussed above in chapters 3 and 4.
2. S. v. 431; D. 16; Vin. i. 231. Also see above, p. 79.
3. Mhvg. v. 423.
4. M. 43.
5. A worldling ( puihujjana ) is one who has not yet attained to any of the four
stages of realization. See below p. 92. n. 1.
92
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
of attaining one or the other of the four stages of realization 1 is
called Supramundane (lokuttara) right understanding. This is
what is known as ‘penetration’ (pativedha).
Thus there is right understanding cultivated by the worldling
(puthujjana) and by the Noble Ones (Ariyas). It is at the higher
level that right understanding, in conjunction with the remaining
seven factors, reaches consummation.
Due to lack of right understanding, the ordinary man is blind to
the true nature of life and fails to see the universal fact of life,
dukkha, unsatisfactoriness. He does not even try to grasp these
facts but hastily considers the doctrine as pessimism. It is natural
perhaps, for beings engrossed in mundane pleasures, beings who
crave more and more for gratification of the senses and loathe pain,
to resent the very idea of suffering and turn their backs on it. They
do not, however, realize that even as they condemn the idea of
dukkha and adhere to their own convenient and optimistic view of
things, they are still being oppressed by the ever recurring unsatis¬
factory nature of life.
It is a psychological fact that people often do not want to reveal
their true natures, to unfold what is in the deepest recesses of their
minds, while they apparently wish others to believe that they are hale
and hearty and free from worries and tribulations. It is for this same
psychological reason that many people, wittingly or not. do not want
to speak or hear of the universal malady of dukkha, unsatis¬
factoriness. They love pleasure, imagine that they are in a state of
security and live in a mind-made paradise.
Although-people see and accept change as the salient feature of
existence they cannot rid themselves of the fascination and thrill
which change has for men in general. They cherish the belief that it
is possible to discover a way of happiness in this very change, to find
a centre of security in this circle of impermanence. They imagine
that although the world is uncertain they can make it certain and
give it a solid basis, and so the unrelenting struggle for worldly
improvement goes on with persevering.effort and futile enthusiasm.
This effort to improve themselves and the world in every possible
way, to secure better conditions in every sphere of human living
and ensure against risks, reveals, without a shadow of a doubt,
that there is no real happiness, no real rest in the world. This
j. The first stage of realization is technically known as sotapatti ‘Stream
Entry’; the second stage is ja/tot/dgaw/"Once-Return’; the third is anagarni ‘Non-
Return’; the fourth and the last stage is Arahatta, Arahatship, the stage at which
all fetters are severed and taints rooted out.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
93
unsatisfactory nature of the world, this picture of pain, is clear to all
who have eyes to see and minds to understand. It is right under¬
standing that brings this clear picture of what we call life before
our mind's eye, and this is the realistic view (yathabhutadassanci) in
which there is no question of optimism and pessimism, of looking at
things from the most favourable or unfavourable point of view.
When we turn to Sammaditthi-sutta, the ninth discourse of the
• •
Majjhima Nikaya, one of the five original collections, we find that
the method of gaining right understanding is explained in sixteen
different ways, which can be reduced to the following four: (a)
Explanation by way of Moral Causation, (b) by way of the Four
Truths, (c) by way of Nourishment, and (d) by way of Dependent
Arising. The second and the fourth ways of explanation are almost
identical; for both explain the same characteristic feature, namely,
the process of arising and that of ceasing ( samudaya, nirodha), in
other words, becoming (bhava) and the cessation of becoming
( bhava-nirodha).
Nourishment (ahara) is of four kinds: (a) ordinary material food
(kabalinkaraliara), (b) contact (of sense organs with sense objects,
phassahara), (c) consciousness (viiinandhdra), and (d) mental
volition (manosaiicetanfdidra). 1 It is not necessary here to explain
all the methodsjnentioned in the discourse. 2 3
In its lower stage right understanding urges a man to under¬
stand moral causation (kammassakata iiana), which implies the
understanding of the ten ‘karmically wholesoftie actions' (kusala-
kamnia) and the ten ‘karmically unwholesome actions’ (akusala-
kamma). } Wholesome actions bjing good results,they are meritorious
and lead to happiness here and hereafter. The ten wholesome actions,
therefore, are called ‘Good Courses of Action ' (kusala-kammapatha).
Unwholesome actions give rise to evil consequences, they are
demeritorious and lead to suffering, to painful happenings here
and hereafter. The ten unwholesome actions, therefore, are
called ‘Evil Courses of Action’ (akusala-kammapatha).
The Buddha, in more thin one place, has emphatically stressed
the psychological importance of action (kamma); ‘O monks, it is
volition that I call kamma. Having willed one acts through body,
speech and mind.’ 4 It is the understanding of moral causation that
1. M. i . 48.
2. For a detailed explanation read Right Understanding by Soma Thera
(Buddhist Literature Society, Colombo, 1946).
3. For details see chapters on Right Speech and Right Action.
4. A. iii. 415. See also above, p. 62.
94
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
urges a thinking man to refrain from evil and to do good. He who
acknowledges moral causation well knows that it is his own actions
that make his life miserable or otherwise. He knows that the direct
cause of the differences and inequalities of birth in this life, are the
good and evil actions of each individual in past lives and in this life.
His character is predetermined by his own choice. The thought, the
act which he chooses, that by habit he becomes. Thus he under¬
stands his position in this mysterious universe and behaves in such a
way as to promote moral and spiritual progress. This type of right
understanding on the mundane level paves the way towards the
realization of conditionality and the Four Truths.
Now let us discuss the method of gaining right understanding by
way of the Four Truths. We have seen earlier 1 that the Four
Truths are not separated from the five aggregates, outside of which
they are not to be sought. The understanding of the true nature of
the aggregates implies the realization of the Four Truths. It is,
therefore, very necessary to have a clear idea of the five aggregates
which have been explained in detail in chapter 3 (pp. 45-9).
The Buddha’s analysjs of the so-called being into five ever chang¬
ing aggregates, makes it clear that there is nothing abiding, nothing
eternally conserved, in this conflux of aggregates fkhandha-santati ).
Change or impermanence is the essential characteristic of pheno¬
menal existence. We cannot say of anything, animate or inanimate,
‘this is lasting’; for even while we say it, is undergoing change.
The aggregates are compounded and conditioned and therefore
ever subject \o cause and effect. Unceasingly does consciousness or
mind and its factors change, and just as unceasingly, though at a
slower rate, the physical body also alters from moment to moment,
^de who sees clearly that the impermanent aggregates are imperma¬
nent, has right understanding. 2
The Buddha gives five very striking similes to illustrate the
changing nature of the five aggregates. He compares material
form or body to a lump of foam, feeling to a bubble, perception to a
mirage, mental formations to a plantain-trunk and consciousness to
an illusion, and asks: ‘What essence, monks, could there be in a
lump of foam, in a bubble in a mirage, in a plantain-trunk, in an
illusion?’ Continuing, the Buddha says:
‘Whatever material form there be whether past, future or present;
internal or external; gross or subtle; low or jofty; far or near; that
1. See above, p. 44.
2. S. iii. 51.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
95
material form the monk sees, meditates upon, examines with
systematic attention, he thus seeing, meditating upon, and examin¬
ing with systematic attention, would find it empty, he would find it
unsubstantial and without essence. What essence, monks, could
there be in material form?’ The Buddha speaks in the same manner
of the remaining aggregates and asks: ‘What essence, monks,
could there be in feeling, in perception, in mental formation and in
consciousness?’ 1
Thus we see that a more advanced range of thought comes with
the analysis of the five aggregates. It is at this stage that right under¬
standing known as Insight (vipassana) begins to work. It is through
this Insight that the true nature of the aggregates is grasped and
seen in the light of the three signs or characteristics (ti-lakkhana),
namely: Impermanence, Unsatisfactoriness and No-Self.
The Master explains it thus:
'The five aggregates, monks, are impermanent: whatever is im¬
permanent, that is dukkha, unsatisfactory; whatever is dukkha, that
is without Self. What is without Self, that is not mine, that I am
not, that is not my Self. Thus should it be seen by perfect wisdom
(sammappahnaya) as it really is. Who sees by perfect wisdom as it
really is, his mind not grasping is detached from taints, he is
liberated. 2 Nagarjuna only echoes these words when he says:
“When the notion of an Atman, Self or Soul ceases, the notion of
‘mine’ also ceases and one becomes free from the idea of I and
mine. J
It is not only the five aggregates that are impermanent, un¬
satisfactory and without a Self, but the causes and conditions that
produce the aggregates are also impermanent, unsatisfactory and
without a Self. This point the Buddha makes very clear:
‘Material form, feeling, perception, mental formations and con¬
sciousness, monks, are irrpermanent; whatever causes and con¬
ditions there are for the arising of these aggregates, they too are
impermanent. How, monks, could aggregates arising from what is
impermanent, be permanent?
1. S. iii. 140. 2. 5. iii. 44.
3. ‘dtmanyasati catmiyam kuta eva bhavisyati
nirmamo nirahamkarah samdddtmdtmaninayoh’ ( Madhyamika-kdrikd ,
xviii. 2).
96
THE BUDDHA'S ANCIENT PATH
‘Material form... and consciousness, monks, are unsatisfactory;
whatever causes and conditions there are for the arising of these
aggregates, they too are unsatisfactory. How, monks, could
aggregates arising from what is unsatisfactory be pleasant and
pleasurable?
‘Material form... and consciousness, monks, are without a Self
(anatla); whatever causes and conditions there are for the arising
of these aggregates, they too are without a Self. How, monks, could
aggregates arising from what is without a Self be Self (aita) ?
‘The instructed noble disciple (sutava ariyasavako), monks,
seeing thus becomes dispassionate towards material form, feeling,
perception, mental formations and consciousness. Through
dispassion he is detached, through detachment he is liberated; in
liberation the knowledge comes to be that he is liberated, and he
understands: “Destroyed is birth, lived is the life of purity (lit.
noble life), done is what was to be done, there is no more of this
to come (meaning that there is no more continuity of the aggregates,
that is no more becoming or rebirth).” ’’
By the ceasing of ignorance, by the arising of knowledge, by the
cessation of craving, there is thus no more becoming, no more
rebirth. 1 2
It is always when we fail to see the true nature of‘things that our
views become clouded; because of our preconceived notions, our
greed and aversion, our likes and dislikes, we fail to see the sense
organs and sense objects in their respective and objective natures,
and go after mirages and deceptions. The sense organs delude and
mislead us and then we fail to see things in their true light, so that
our way of seeing things becomes perverted (viparlta dassana).
The Buddha speaks of three kinds of illusion (vipallasa, Skt.
viparydsa) that grip man’s mind, namely: the illusions of perception,
thought and view. 3 Now when a man is caught up in these illusions,
he perceives, thinks and views incorrectly:
(a) He perceives permanence in the impermanent; (b) satisfactori¬
ness in the unsatisfactory (ease and happiness in suffering); (c) Self
in what is not Self(aSoul in the Soulless);(d) beauty in the repulsive.
He thinks and views in the same erroneous manner. Thus each
illusion works in four ways, 4 and leads man astray, clouds his
1. S. iii. 23. Discourses 7, 8, 9 abridged.
2. M. 43.
3. Saiind vipallasa citta-v, ditthi-v.
4. A. ii. 52.
TUP. fOURTIl NOBLC TRUTH
97
vision, and confuses him, This is due to unwise reflections, to
unsystematic attention (ayoniso-manasikara). Right understanding
alone removes these illusions and helps man to cognize the real
nature that underlies all appearance. It is only when man comes out
of this cloud of illusions and perversions that he shines with true
wisdom like the full moon that emerges brilliant from behind a
black cloud.
The Buddha gave full freedom to sceptics and inquirers to doubt
and question what is doubtful and questionable; for there was no
secrecy in his teaching. ‘Monks, the doctrine and discipline set
forth and laid down by the Tathagata, shines when brought to
light, and not when hidden.’ 1 As a result the disciples were not
reluctant to question the Buddlfa on doctrinal points—to question
him point blank.
The Venerable Kaccayana, for instance, approached the Buddha
and asked him:
‘Venerable sir, “right understanding’’, “right understanding”, it
is said. How far is there “right understanding"?'
‘This world (i.e. being) for the most part, Kaccayana, is con¬
cerned with these two (views): existence and non-existence (eter-
nalism and annihilationism). Now he who with perfect wisdom
sees the arising, of the world (of aggregates) as it really is, does not
hold with the view of existence.
‘This world for the most part, Kaccayana, hankers after thoughts
of grasping and habitually clings to objects of sense desire. The
ariya, the noble one, does not harbour thoughts of grasping, and
does not cling habitually to objects of sense desire, Blinking: “this
is my Self (Soul)".
‘That which arises is just suffering (clukklia, that is the five
aggregates of clinging); 2 that which ceases*is suffering (the five
aggregates of clinging). The noble disciple who thus thinks, doubts
not, he is not perplexed. He realizes it on his own, unaided by others.
Thus far, Kaccayana, is right understanding.
‘Everything exists, this ?s one extreme. Nothing exists, this is
the other extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, Kaccayana, the
Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the median path:dependent
on ignorance arise volitional formations, dependent on volitional
formations arises consciousness ... (and so on).Thus does this
1. A. i. 283.
2. ‘Monks, what is suffering? It should be said that it is the five aggregates of
clinging.’ S. ii. 158. See above, p. 44.
VII
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
98
whole mass of suffering arise. 1 Through the complete cessation of
ignorance cease volitional formations ... (and so on).Thus does
this whole mass of suffering cease.’ 2
It should now be clear that this being whom for all practical
purposes we call a man, woman or individual, is not something
static, but kinetic, being in a state of constant and continuous
change. Now when a person sees life and all that pertains to life in
this light, and understands analytically his so-called being as a mere
succession of mental and bodily aggregates, he sees things as they
really are. He does not hold the wrong view of ‘Personality Belief’,
belief in a Soul or Self (sakkaya-ditthi), because he knows through
right understanding that all phenomenal existence is causally
dependent (paticca-samuppanna) , that each is conditioned by some¬
thing else, and that its existence is relative to that condition. He
knows that as a result there is no T, no persisting psychic entity,
no ego principle; no Self or anything pertaining to a Self in this
life process. He is therefore free from the notion of a microcosmic
soul (Jivdtma), or a Macrocosmic Soul (Paramatma).
Thus the realization of the Four Noble Truths dawns through a
complete comprehension, a full penetration, of the five aggregates,
that is through seeing the aggregates as impermanent, unsatis¬
factory and without a Self. Hence the Buddha’s repeated request
to his disciples to understand analytically the so-called being built
up by the aggregates. Many examples of how the disciples gained
deliverance of mind by seeing the true nature of the aggregates
are recorded Jn the Psalms of the Early Buddhists. Mitta Kali, for
instance, tersely states her experience, in this verse:
‘Contemplating as they really are
The rise and fall of aggregates
I rose up with mind free (of taints).
Completed is the Buddha-word.’ 3
These aggregates of mind and body being ever subject to cause
and effect, as we saw above, pass through the inconceivably rapid
moments .of arising, existing and ceasing (uppada, thiti, bhanga)
just as the unending waves of the sea or as a river in flood sweeps to
1 For the whole formula of twelve factors sec above, p. 56.
2. S. ii. 17.
3. Theri-gathd. Verse 96.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
99
a climax and subsides. Indeed human life is compared to a moun¬
tain stream that flows and rushes on, changing incessantly.'
Thus the sum total of the doctrine of change taught in Buddhism
is that all component things that have conditioned existence are a
process and not a group of abiding entities, but the changes occur
in such rapid succession that people regard mind and body as
static entities. They do not see their arising and their breaking up,
but regard them unitarily, see them as a lump (ghana sanna) or
whole.
‘Those ascetics and brahmins, O monks, who conceive a Self in
diverse ways conceive it as either the five aggregates of clinging, or
as any one of them. What five?
‘Herein the untaught worldling . .. considers body as the Self,
Self as possessed of body as included in the Self, Self as included in
the body ... similarly as to feeling, perception, volitional formations,
and consciousness . . . . 2 Thus this is the wrong view. The
“T am” notion is not abandoned .. .
It is very hard indeed for people who are accustomed continually
to think of their own mind and body and the external world with
mental projections as wholes, as inseparable units, to get rid of the
false appearance of ‘wholeness’. So long as man fails to see things
as processes, as movements, he will never understand the Anatta
(no-Soul) doctrine of the Buddha. That is why people imperti¬
nently and impatiently put the question: If there is no persisting
entity, no unchanging principle, like Self br Soul (Atman), what is
it that experiences the results <>f deeds here and hereafter?
1. A. iv. 137. Compare 'nadl soto viya’, like a flowing stream.
A few years after the passing away of the Buddha, Heraclitus taught the
4 Panta RheV doctrine, the flux theory, at Athens, and one wonders if that teaching
was transmitted to him from India. ‘There is no static being,’ says Heraclitus, ‘no
unchanging substratum.’ ‘Change, movement, is Lord of the Universe. Every¬
thing is in a state of becoming, of continual flux ( Panta Rhei).' He continues:
‘You cannot step twice into the same river; for fresh waters are ever flowing in
upon you.’ (A. K. Rogers, A Jtudent's History of Philosophy , London, 1920,
p. 15). But one who understands the root of the Dhamma would go a step
further and say: ‘The same man cannot step twice into the same river; for the
so-called man who is only a conflux of mind and body, never remains the same
for two consecutive moments.’ (Philosophy of Change, Piyadassi Thera,
Dharmodaya Sabha, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1956, p. 7).
2. The idea of a Self is applied to each aggregate in four ways. Thus when
applied to all the five aggregates it become twentyfold. This is what is known as
virhsatiakara sakkayaditthi, or the twenty kinds of self-illusion. (See M. i. 8;
iii. 17; Vbh. 364.) When this self-illusion is removed, the sixty-two wrong views
also are removed. For the sixty-two views see D. i. Brahmajdla sutta,
3. S. iii. 46 sutta 47.
too
the buddiia's ancient path
Two different discourses 1 deal with this burning question. The
Buddha was explaining in detail to his disciples the evanescent
nature of the live aggregates, how they arc devoid of Self, and how
the latent conceit T am’ and ‘mine’ ceases to exist, and then there
arose a thought in the mind of a certain monk thus: ‘Material body
is not self, feeling is not self, perception is not self, mental formations
are not self, consciousness is not self. Then what self do selfless
deeds affect?’
The Buddha, reading the thoughts of that monk’s mind, said:
the question was beside the point’ and made the monks understand,
the impermanent, unsatisfactory and not-self nature of the five
aggregates.
Tt is wrong to say that the doer of the deed is the same as the
one who experiences its results. It is equally wrong to say that the
doer of the deed and the one who experiences its results are two
different persons’; 2 * for the simple reason that what we call life, as
we saw earlier, is a flow of physical and psychic processes or energies
arising and ceasing constantly, and it is not possible to say that the
doer himself experiences the results because he is changing now,
every moment of his life; but at the same time we must not forget
the fact that the continuity of life, that is the continuance of ex¬
perience, the procession of events, is not lost; it continues without
a gap. The child is not the same as the adolescent, the adolescent
is not the same as the adult, they arc neither the same nor totally
different persons (na ca so, na ca anno)} There is only a flow of
bodily and mental processes. Therefore said the ancients:
i
‘No doer of the deed is there,
No one who experiences its result;
Bare phenomena flow on.
This alone is the right view.' 4
What docs this mean? The answer is that there is no permanent T
or ‘mine’ in the form of a Self or Soul in this psycho-physical pro¬
cess. There is a seeing, a feeling, an experiencing, etc., but not an
unchanging never-ending Self or Soul behind the scene. That is all. 5
1. M. iii. 19, Discourse, No. 109; S. iii. 103, Discourse No. 82.
2. A. ii. 70. 3. M Hindu Pari ha. , 4. Vism. xix.
5. For a very comprehensive and brilliant exposition of The Doctrine of No-
Soul: Anatta’, see What the Buddha Taught by Walpola Rahula (Gordon Fraser,
London, 1959), chapter VI.
THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH
101
Before concluding this chapter a challenging question raised by
some against the doctrine of anatta should be answered. Those who
consider the word anatta in Buddhism as something diametrically
opposed to the so-called alia, ask: ‘How can one speak of anatta,
(no Self), if there is no atta, (Self?). They treat them as relative
terms. But we must understand what the Buddha meant by anatta.
He never meant anything in contradistinction to atta. He did not
place the two terms in juxtaposition and say: ‘this is my anatta in
opposition to atta. ’ The term anatta, since the prelix 'an’ indicates
non-existence, abhava, and not opposition, viruddha, means literally
no atta, that is the mere denial of an atta, the non-existence of atta.
The believers in an atta tried to keep their atta. The Buddha
simply denied it, by adding the'prcfix ‘an’. As this concept of an
atta. Self or Soul, was deep rooted in many whom the Buddha met,
he had to discourse at length on this pivotal question of Self to
learned men, dialecticians and hair-splitting disputants. The Sutta
Pitaka, wherein are recorded thousands of discourses of the Buddha,
became so voluminous mainly because of this question of Self. The
careful reader of the discourses will note how the Buddha’s answers
and elucidations concerning this vexed question of Self developed
into lengthy sermons.
From the foregoing exposition of the Buddha it will now be clear
that right understanding, at the highest level, is merely the avoidance
of all wrong views, illusions and perversions which according to
Buddhism are mainly due to the notion of a Self or to belief in an
individuality (sakkaya ditthi): it is the understanding of the arising
and ceasing of the aggregates. Through understanding of the
aggregates, that is through an intellectual grasp of the nature of
the so-called being, dawns the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.
The Buddha’s doctrine of anicca and dukkha (impermanence and
suffering) was not new to the people of India. In the early Upani-
slicds like Chandogya we come across such expressions as ’tarati
sokam atmavid’, ‘knowledge of the Self ferries a person across (the
world of) sorrow’. But what baffled Indian thinkers was the Buddhist
doctrine of anatta (No Self). They were so steeped in the belief of a
Self that when the Buddha denied a Self and discoursed against it,
it was a real shock to them, and they were up in arms to safeguard
the long-standing and central conception of their religion and
philosophy—Self, Atman.
As they failed to understand the meaning of anatta they did not
102
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
hesitate to label the Buddha a nihilist ( venayika)} It was the recog¬
nition that this Self or Soul is an illusion that made the Buddha’s
doctrine so revolutionary. The doctrine of anatta is unique in the
world history of religion and philosophy.
‘The distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism was that it started
in a new line, that it looked at the deepest questions men have to
solve from an entirely different standpoint. It swept away from the
field of its vision the whole of the great soul-theory which had
hitherto so completely filled and dominated the minds of the super¬
stitious and of the thoughtful alike. For the first time in the history
of the world, it proclaimed a salvation which each man could gain
for himself, and by himself, in this world during this life, without
the least reference to God, or to gods, either great or small.
‘Like the Upanishads, it placed the first importance on knowledge;
but it was no longer a knowledge of God, it was a clear perception
of the real nature, as they supposed it to be, of men and things. And
it added to the necessity of knowledge, the necessity of purity, of
courtesy, of uprightness, of peace, and of a universal love, “far-
reaching, grown great, and beyond measure”. ’ 1 2
1. M. Discourse 22. See above, p. 38.
2. The Hibbert Lectures. 1881, Professor T. W. Rhys Davids, p. 28
8
RIGHT THOUGHT
( Samma-samkappa)
Right thought, which is the second factor of the Path, is the out¬
come of right understanding. These two comprise the Wisdom
spoken of in the context of the Noble Eightfold Path. Right thought
is the result of seeing things as they are. Thoughts are all important;
for a man’s words and acts have thoughts as their source. It is
thoughts that are translated into speech and deed. The good or ill
results of our words and actions depend solely on our thoughts,
on the way we think. Hence the importance of learning to think
straight instead of crooked. The oft-quoted but ever-fresh opening
verses of the Dhanimapada, speak to us of the great importance and
significance of thought:
‘Mental states have mind as their fore-runner,
As their chief; and of mind are they made.
If one speaks or acts with a polluted mind
Suffering follows one as the wheel the oxen’s feet?’
>
‘All mental states have mind as their fore-runner,
As their chief; and of mind are they made.
If one speaks or acts with a pure mind
Hhppiness follows one as the shadow that ne’er departs.’
From these w6rds of the Buddha it becomes clear that the beauty
or the ugliness of our words and deeds depend on our own thoughts,
which are real. Thoughts travel swifter than anything we can con¬
ceive of and they roam whither-so-ever they list. Theij influence
on us and the external world is tremendous. Each and every ugly,
vicious and morally repulsive thought pollutes the human heart
and may cause untold harm. Wrong words and deeds are expressions
of a wrong condition of mind. But if man concentrates on right
103
104
THE BUDDHA S ANCIENT PATH
thoughts with right understanding the good results that mind can
produce are immense.
What then is right thought?
It is thoughts of renunciation, of good-will and of not harming or
compassion. 1
Their opposites arc: thoughts of sense desire, of ill-will and of
harm. 2
In the discourse on the Twofold Thought, 3 the Buddha has ex¬
plained in detail how before enlightenment he experienced the
Twofold Thought.
Thoughts of sense desire, ill-will, and harm he put in one category,
those of renunciation, good-will and compassion into the other.
When thoughts of sense desire, ill-will and harm arose in him, he
• •
knew that they led to harming oneself and others, obstructed in¬
tuitive wisdom, caused pain and did not lead to Nibbana . Thus
reflecting he kept on getting rid of such thoughts, driving them away
and making an end of them.
When thoughts of renunciation, good-will and compassion
arose in him, he knew that they led neither to harming oneself nor
others: they developed intuitive wisdom, did not cause pain, and
led to Nibbana .
Continuing the Buddha explains, how, through reflection, he
made his mind firm, how he calmed it and made it unified and con¬
centrated within his subject of meditation. He then tells how, aloof
from unwholesome states of mind, he attained to and abided in
the first jhana (meditative absorption), the second jhana , the third
jhana and the fourth jhana* and how he finally comprehended, as
they really are, the Four Noble Truths.
It is important here to observe how the removal of the three root
causes of all evil, namely lust, hate and delusion, depends upon
right understanding and right thought.
Delusion which is another term for ignorance, as we saw earlier,
js rooted out by right understanding. Sense desire and ill-will
arc wiped out by right thought. Right understanding, and right
thought are both supported by the remaining factors of the Path.
Let us now try to understand the importance of removing evil
] . Nekkhanmia-samkappa ahynptida-samkappa, avihimsd-samkappa. M. 17,
117 and passim.
2. kdma-samkappa, byiipdda-samkappa, vihimsd-samkappa, M. 78, 117 and
passim.
3. Dvedhdvitakka sutta, M . 19.
4. For a description of the jhdnas see below, p. 208, n. 2.
RIGlll THOUGHT
105
thoughts and the method of so doing, which is by the correct
practice of renunciation, good-will and compassion. When a man's
mind is obsessed by lust or hate it is quite impossible for him to sec
things clearly. But the removal of these impediments does not mean
struggling with the baneful thoughts that grip the mind. One must
learn to see such thoughts face to face—how they appear, reappear
end overpower the mind; one must study their nature. Now if a
man allows his mind continually to entertain thoughts of lust and
hate and does not try to control them those thoughts are strengthened
and hold sway over his mind. But if a man is really bent on removing
evil thoughts, he will try gradually to cultivate good thoughts that
will counteract the harmful ones and clear his mind. For instance,
when a man is disturbed by sensuality through seeing, hearing and
so on, thoughts of renunciation will bring him peace of mind.
Similarly, good-will and compassion will soothe a mind that cherishes
ill-will, anger, cruelty and revenge. However, we must admit that
this is no easy task. It needs much determination and effort.
Some consider that since lust or sense desire is a natural impulse
it should therefore not be balked. Others think that it should be put
down by force. From the highest standpoint lust or hate is just a
thought, a mentation (vitakka). Before one allows one's lust to go
its own way, os suppresses it, one must try to look at the thought of
lust itself without any prejudice. Then only will one sec the origin,
the cause, of that thought. Whether one allows it to grow strong,
weakens it or removes it altogether depends on oneself. Again,
when a sense organ comes in contact with some sense object, or the
mind with a mental object, wjiich is disagreeable, then there arises
conflict, which causes anger, revulsion, ill-will or hate.
Thus we see that through a stimulant arising at the sense doors,
lust, hate and other unwholesome thoughts, ’due to delusion, come
into being. When a person is deluded by an external object feeling
arises in him; lie either becomes attached to the sense object or
resents it (uiiHiodhaviroJIwjii mwiu/uw/io). l There is attraction or
repulsion, as in the case ol the atom. It we look round we notice
that human society is often obsessed by these two strong impulses
attachment and resentment. So long as man is mllucnged by these
taints, the vicissitudes of life will continue to oppress him; but when
these taints are controlled, if not eliminated, he will not be too
affected by the changes. One cannot altogether avoid the
I. \f V8.
106
the buddha’s ancient path
vicissitudes of life so long as one lives in the world; nevertheless one
can develop one’s mind and self-mastery to such a pitch that one can
remain undisturbed by the upsets which these changes have brought
about.
The Buddha’s exposition of the Dhamma was methodical. He
would not talk of the Four Noble Truths, the essence of his teaching,
to everyone he met. When he knew that a person was not mature
enough to grasp the deeper doctrine, he would instruct him only
on the simpler side of the Dhamma in a progressive manner: he
would speak to him on charitable giving (dang), on virtue or moral
habits (si la) , on the heavens (these are the simpler aspects), 1 on
the disadvantage, emptiness and impurity of the pleasures of the
senses and on the advantage of renunciation.
When the Master knew that a person’s mind was ready, pliable,
void of hindrances, uplifted, pleased, only then did he explain to
him the Dhamma which the Enlightened Ones themselves have
discovered, the Dhamma peculiar to them: dukka (suffering), its
arising, its ceasing, and the path. 2
From the foregoing it is obvious that a man’s mind can only
grasp the highest Truth if he is ready to give up thoughts of sense
desire. When his mind is released from such thoughts, he realizes
the Truths and gains right understanding. Thus we see how right
thoughts aid right understanding. They are interdependent and
bring about true Wisdom (samma-pahha).
The Buddha speaks of renunciation by personal experience
and not through hearsay. He himself relates the story of his own
renunciation:
‘I too, monks, before enlightenment, while I was still a Bodhisatta
being liable to birth, ageing, disease, dying, sorrow and defilements,
sought what was liabfe to birth, ageing, disease, dying, sorrow and
defilements. Then it occurred to me, monks, why do I, liable to
birth.. . and defilements seek what is likewise liable to birth. ..
and defilements. What if I, being liable to birth.. and defilements,
were to seek the unborn, the supreme security from bondage,
Nibbana ?
‘Then I,' monks, after a time ... in the prime of life, in radiant
•
1 The practice of dana and slla according to Buddhism is instrumental in
causing a good rebirth, i.e. a rebirth in a good state of existence, but it does not
bring about release from suffering, cessation from becoming— Nirvana.
2. Vitiaya Mahdvagga: The pliability and so pn of the mind is brought
about by the release from sense pleasures.
RIGHT THOUGHT
107
youth, cut off my hair and beard, donned a dyed robe and went
forth from home into homelessness (I renounced).’ 1
This is the Noble Quest (ariya-pariyesana ).
Again, this idea is conveyed in the very inspiring discourse 2 on
the ‘Going Forth’ of Gotama, the Bodhissatta, who gave up his
crown and went into solitude. As the discourse says, one day he
entered the city of Rajagaha for his alms round. King Bimbisara
looking down from his palace saw the Bodhisatta walking the streets
bowl in hand, with measured steps and down-cast eyes. Struck by his
mien the King sent men to find out where he would go and stay.
On receiving their report, he hurried to Mount Pandava, met the
Bodhisatta and said:-
‘You are young, in the prime of life, handsome, and you appear
to be a ksatriya.’ 3
‘O Maharaja, by lineage I am a “Kinsman of the Sun’’, a Sakyan.
Such is the stock I left behind me. I do not long for sense pleasures,
knowing their peril and seeing renunciation’s peace I go my way
striving (for Nibbdna the Highest Renunciation). My mind takes
delight in the striving (not in sense pleasures).’
I
From the above, we understand that 'going forth’ (pabbajju) and
separation from the pleasures of sense (nekkhamma) are identical.
The purpose of going forth is to turn away from thoughts of
sensuality (kilesa-kdma) and from the objects of sense ( vailhu-kama).
‘Going forth’ is really self-sacrifice and the urge to do <>o should be
genuine if it is to bear pleasant' fruit.
This is not a course that all can follow, for to leave behind the
world’s attractive and sensuous life is no easy task. It may not be
possible for all to cut themselves off from the world and all it holds.
And the Buddha does not expect all his followers to become ascetics.
‘Hard it is go forth
From home to homelessness;
To take delight in it is hard.’ 4
I. M. 26, 36. 2. Pabbajjd suita. Sn.
3. In India there were four principal castes: Ksairiyas (rulers), Bnihmuuai
(priests), Vaiiyas (householders), Sudras (lowest castes, outcasts). The first three
arc described as higher, or superior castes.
4. Dhp. 302.
108 the buddha’s ancient path
In the Buddha's Dispensation full liberty is granted to the disciples
to leave the Order if they find it difficult to live the monk’s life any
more. There is no coercion and compulsion whatsoever and the
person reverting to a lay life is.not stigmatized.
The Buddha says: ‘Monks, there are two kinds of happiness,
that of a lay life ( gihi sukham) and that of “going forth” (pabbajjd
sukham): that of sensual indulgence (kdina sukham) and that of
renunciation (nekkhamma sukham). Of these, monks, the
happiness of “going forth” and of renunciation are superior.’ 1
This does not imply that the Buddha belittled lay life, he was
only giving expression to his own experience. He had, as a matter
of fact, enjoyed both these happinesses. One thing, however, should
be remembered: whether monk or layman, one has to follow
the same path, namely the Ancient Path, the way of Virtue,
Concentration and Wisdom.
Genuine renunciation, it may be borne in mind, is not escapism.
Those who do not understand the real significance of renunciation,
and those who judge it by bogus ‘recluses’ who lead an indolent,
worthless and parasitical life, hastily conclude that ‘going forth’ or
turning from the world is a sort of escapism, a selfish way of life.
The ideal recluse, the bhikkhu, however, is an altruist of the highest
type who takes least from, and gives much to, society. The
Dliamniapada says: ‘As a bee, without harming the flower, its
colour or fragrance, takes the honey (pollen) even so should the
sage move in the village.’ 2
It is true that, with the passage of time, many changes have taken
place, yet the true Buddhist monk who has given up worldly plea¬
sures, endeavours to lead a life of voluntary poverty and complete
celibacy with the high aim of serving others selflessly within the
bounds of a bhikkhu’s life, and of attaining deliverance of mind.
There are two ways of leading the life of a bhikkhu: one entails
continuous meditation (vipassana-dhura) and the other part-time
meditation and studying and leaching the Dhamma (gantha-dhura ).
It is obligatory on every bhikkhu to uAe up one or other of these
ways according to his temperament, age and environment.
When discussing the question of ‘going forth’, that is becoming a
monk, heimit or recluse, it should not be thought that the practice
of Buddhism is only for monks and not for the laity. The Buddha’s
teaching, the Noble Eightfold Path, is for all—man or woman,
householder or one who has renounced. Can we restrict the
1. A . i .80.
2. Dhp . 49.
RIGHT THOUGHT
109
Dhamnio only to a few recluses? It is certainly true that the monk’s
life is more conducive to the practice of meditation, to the giving up
of harmful thoughts, than the householder's life which is filled with
toil and need. It is not easy to live the ‘noble life’ while a house¬
holder. The life of an ideal hermit who is free from household
worries and other worldly cares, is more congenial to the develop¬
ment of mental peace. This one cannot deny, but that does not
mean that the laity are quite incapable of gaining mental purification.
Far from it, if a person can tame his fickle mind while living a lay
life, if he can refrain from overindulging in pleasures of the body,
from nourishing sexual desires and stimulants, he too is destined to
reach the mental heights which, a hermit enjoys. Of course, it
goes without saying that complete purification and deliverance
comes through complete detachment and renunciation. All these
achievements depend on how his mind works, whether he is layman
or monk.
A man may live in the forest away from the tumult of the town,
but if his mind is not concentrated, if it is in a tumult, and evil
thoughts play havoc with it, he should leave that forest because the
purpose for which he had entered it is not achieved. He should
delight in that forest only if his mind is calm and the taints tend to
disappear. And, on the other hand, if a person can calm his mind
even while living in a village where people's voices are heard, he is
far superior to a forest-dweller whose mind is impure. 1
In this connection the story of the Venerable Meghiya is interest¬
ing. In the thirteenth year of the Buddha’s enlightenment, the
Elder Meghiya was his personal attendant, and they were staying
on a hill called Calika. What follows is a condensed account of the
story.
The Venerable Meghiya being attracted ly a beautiful mango
grove near a river thought of going there to meditate if the Buddha
gave him leave. So he went to the Master and told him of his wish.
‘Wait a little, Meghiya, t^l some other monk arrives, for wc are
alone,’ said the Master. In spite of the Buddha’s warning, a second
and a third time, the Elder repeated his request. Then the Blessed
One replied: ‘Well, what can I say, Meghiya. when ypu talk of
striving for concentration? Do now as you think fit.’
Accordingly the Venerable Meghiya went to that mango grove
to meditate. And while he was there three evil unwholesome
thoughts came to him, namely: thoughts of sense pleasure, ill-will
1. For detailed explanations see M. Discourses
5 and 17.
110 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
and harm. And the Elder wondered thus: ‘It is strange, it is
amazing! I who in faith left home for the homeless state am yet
assailed by these unwholesome thoughts.’
So the elder returned to the Blessed One and told him what had
happened. Then the Master said:
‘Meghiya, for the deliverance of the mind of the immature, five
things are conducive to their maturing: (a) a good friend; (b)
virtuous behaviour, guided by the essential precepts for training;
(c) good counsel tending to dispassion, calm, cessation, enlighten¬
ment and Nibbana; (d) the effort to abandon evil thoughts and
acquire wholesome thoughts; and (e) the acquisition of wisdom
that discerns the rise and fall of things.' 1
Going beyond the pleasures of sense is characteristic of renuncia¬
tion. Renunciation is the very opposite of all that is carnal and
sensual (kdma). It focusses the whole mind naturally on the object
of Nirvana.
In many a discourse the Buddha has explained the characteristics
of sensuality, its danger and disadvantages. In his very first sermon
he defined sensual indulgence as a low, common, ignoble and
worldly thing. Impressing on his disciples the need for giving up
sense pleasures, the Buddha compares them to’ a skeleton, a
(bare) bone, a piece of flesh, a torch of dry grass, a pit of red
hot coals, a dream, borrowed goods, a fruit-tree, a slaughter house,
a sword and a chopping block, a stake, and a snake’s head. They
bring much pain, much disappointment. The danger in them is
great. 2
Further says the Buddha: ‘Impermanent, monks, are pleasures of
the senses, empty, false, unreal; 3 this prattle of fools is made of
illusion . . . Here these evil unwholesome thoughts lead to covetous¬
ness, ill-will and quarrels. 4
To the pleasure-seeker, to the strong materialist, however, this
may appear rather a dull sermon on morals, but to those who try
1. The whole of this discourse is at A. iv. 354; Ud. p. 34 and in brief at Dhp.
com. i. 287. The Elder’s verse (66) is in Thg. It is said that the Venerable Meghiya
was of a Sakya raja’s family. The Dhp. verses (33.34) are as follows:
‘The unsteady fickle mind, hard to guard and hard to control, the wise man
straightens even as a fletcher, an arrow.
‘Like a fish jerked out of its watery abode and cast on land, this mind quakes.
(Therefore) the realm of Mara (passions) should be abandoned.’
2. M. Discourse 22. Cf. this with Potaliya-sutta , M. 54.
3. aniccd, iucchd, musd, mosadhammd.
4. M. Discourse 106.
RIGHT THOUGHT
111
to face facts and see things in their true light, with dispassionate
discernment, this is no lie. Modern psychologists and moralists are
only trying to rediscover what the Buddha said twenty-five centuries
ago, when they probe into the question of sex psychology.
In the threefold classification of Right Thought, thoughts of
good-will and of doing no harm follow. .They correspond with
metta and karuna, lovingkindness and compassion which are among
the four sublime states or brahma-vihara.' Metta and karuna are
two excellent states of mind conducive to noble living. They banish
selfishness and disharmony and promote altruism, unity and
brotherhood. They are thoughts to be cultivated towards all
beings irrespective of race, caste, colour, community, creed. East or
West, and therefore they are known as boundless states (appa-
manvayo), for they are not limited, are not confined to watertight
compartments. They enfold all beings without any partiality or
grading according to rank, quality, position, power, learning, value
and so on which keep men apart. They give security to all living
beings.
As the books point out this pair of virtues can be cultivated not
only as a way of conduct towards fellow beings, but also as a
meditation which then becomes known as the meditative develop¬
ment of the 'Sublime States’ (brahmavihdrabhdvaml). When
I
earnestly and methodically cultivated they lead the meditator to
higher stages of mental development known as jhdna or meditative
absorption.
In his exhortation to Rahula, the Buddha says: ‘Cultivate,
Rahula, the meditation on lovingkindness; for by cultivating
lovingkindness ill-will is banisded. Cultivate, Ruhula, the medita¬
tion on compassion; for by cultivating compassion harm and
cruelty are banished.”
From this it is clear that metta and karuna are diametrically
opposed to ill-will and cruelty respectively. Ill-will or hate, like
sense desire (lust), is also caused by the sense faculties meeting
sense objects. When a mart's eye comes in contact with a visible
object, which to his way of thinking is unpicasant and undesirable,
then repugnance arises if he does not-exercise systematic wise
attention. It is the same with ear and sound, nose and smell,
tongue and taste, body and contact, mind and mental objects.
Even agreeable things, both animate and inanimate, which fill man
1. See above, p. 20, n. i. 2.
2. M. Mahd R&hufov&da-sutta, No. 62.
112
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
with great pleasure.can cause aversion and ill-will. A person, for
instance, may woo another whom he loves and entertain thoughts of
sensual affection, but if the loved one fails to show the same affec¬
tion or behaves quite contrary to expectation conflicts and resent¬
ment arise. If he then fails to exercise systematic attention, if he is
not prudent, he may behave foolishly, and his behaviour may lead
to disaster, even ta murder or suicide. Such is the danger of these
passions.
This is a good example by which to understand the nature of
wrong thoughts (miccha-scriikappa), and how they operate to the
disadvantage of he who holds them. In this case uncontrolled
sensual affection or lust may lead to intense ill-will which brings
about injury, harm and violence’Tesulting in death, sorrow and
lamentation.
‘Whatever a foe to a foe may do—
The wrathful to the wrathful—
The ill-directed mind can do it worse.’ 1
In this connection it is interesting to note the saying of Aryadeva:
‘By the same thing, lust is incited in one, hatred in another, delusion
in the next; therefore, the sense object is without any inherent
meaning (is an empty nothing)' 2 .
It is natural for the worldling to entertain evil and wrong thoughts.
‘Lust penetrates an undeveloped mind, as rain an ill-thatched
house.’ 3 Man’s passions are disturbing. The lust of blinded beings
has brought about hatred and all other sufferings. ‘The enemy of
the whole world is lust, through which all evil comes to living beings.
This lust, when obstructed by some cause, is transformed info wrath.’
Man, therefore, should try to develop and unfold good and right
thoughts—the infinite possibilities—that are latent in human nature.
To do this one need: training in calmness (samadhi-sikkha). It is
through gradual training that one can check the mind and rule it
(cittarh vasarh vattati),* and not become a slave to it and be under its
sway (cittasa vasena vattati). 5 With such training in mind-culture,
one can free onself from the influence oi the objects of sense. Thus
by training in virtuous conduct, developing calmness and getting at
the light of truth, the sage in due course passes away and of him it
1. Dhp. 42.
2. 'Tatraiva rajyate kascid-kascit tatraiva duSyati
Kascin muhyati tatraiva-tasmdt kdmo nirarthakah*. (177).
The Catuhtataka of Aryadeva (Reconstructed and edited by Vidushekhara
Bhattacharya).
3. Dhp. 13.
4. M. 32. 5.* M 32.
RIGHT THOUGHT
1 13
can truly be said: ‘He indeed is the best among conquerors who
conquers himself.’ 1
The victor creates the foe,
The defeated live in pain,
The peaceful dwell in happiness
Neither victors nor defeated.’ 2
Metta (Skt. maitri) is a popular term among Buddhists, yet no
English word conveys its exact meaning. Friendliness, benevolence,
good-will, universal love, lovingkindness are the favourite render¬
ings. Metta is the wish for the welfare and happiness of all beings,
making no restrictions whatsoever. It has the characteristic of a
benevolent friend. Its direct enemy is ill-will (hatred) while the
indirect or masked enemy is carnal love or selfish affectionate
desire (pema, Skt. prema) which is quite different from metta.
Carnal love when disguised as mend can do much harm to oneself
and others. One has to be on one’s guard against this masked
enemy. Very often people entertain thoughts of sensual affection,
and mistaking it for real metta think that they are cultivating metta,
and do not know that they are on the wrong track. If one were
dispassionately to scrutinize such thoughts one would realize that
they are tinged with sensuous attachment. If the feeling of love is
%
the direct result of attachment and clinging, then it really is not
metta.
Carnal love or pema is a kind of longing capable of producing
much distress, sorrow and lamentation. This fact is clearly ex¬
plained by the Blessed One in the discourses, and five verses of the
chapter (16) on Affection in the *Dhammapada emphasize it thus:
From what is beloved grief arises.
From what is beloved arises fear.
For him who is free from what he loves
There is no grief and so no fear.
‘From affect iorf* grief arises ....
From attachment, grief arises ....
From lust grief arises ....
From craving grief arises .... . M
As is well known, to love someone means to develop an attach¬
ment to the loved one. and when the latter is equally fond of you a
1. Dhp. 103.
VIII
2. Dhp 201.
3. Dhp. 212-16.
114
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
bond is created, but when you are separated or when the dear one's
affection towards you wanes, you become miserable and may even
behave foolishly. In his formulation of the Noble Truth of
Suffering, the Buddha says: ‘Association with the unloved is
suffering, separation from the loved is suffering, not to get what one
wants is suffering . . . ’* Metta, however, is a very pure sublime state -
of the human mind; like quicksilver it cannot attach itself to any¬
thing. It is a calm, non-assertive super-solvent among virtues.
It is difficult to love a person dispassionately, without any kind of
clinging, without any idea of self, me and mine; for in man the
notion of T is dominant, and to love without making any distinc¬
tion between this and that, without setting barriers between persons,
to regard all as sisters and brothers with a boundless heart, may
appear to be almost impossible, but those who try even a little will
be rewarded; it is worth while. Through continuous effort and
determination one reaches the destination by stages.
A practiser of metta should be on his guard against callous folk
who are egocentric. It often happens that when a person is gentle
and sincere others try to exploit his good qualities for their own
ends. This should not be encouraged. If one allows the self-
centred to make unfair use of one’s metta, kindliness and tolerance,
that tends to intensify rather than allay the evils and sufferings of
society.
‘Some serve and consort with one for their own gain,
Hard is it to find disinterested friends:
Since impure people think only of their own profit,
Walt alone, like the horn of a rhinoceros.’ 2
The Buddha seems to have been compelled to say this though it
was as unpalatable then as it is today
As metta has the characteristic of non-attachment to any beings,
it is easier to cultivate it when one’s mind is less inclined to carnality
or sensuous attachment. Nekkhamma, as we saw earlier, means
giving up sense pleasures, and mettc, implies friendship without
sensual affection. So we see that nekkhamma and metta harmonize
and support each other. In the early Buddhist writings we find
several discourses that deal with metta, but one of them, the
Discourse on Lovingkindness, 3 is the most popular with most
Buddhists. It is divided into two parts. The first details the
standard of moral conduct required by one who wishes to attain
1 See above, p. 44. 2. Sn. 75. 3. Metta-sutta, Sn.
RIGHT THOUGHT
115 .
purity and peace, and the second the method of practising metta.
Thus it goes:
‘He who is skilled in well-being, and who wishes to attain Peace,
Nibbana, should act thus: He should be able,upright, very upright,
amenable to good counsel, gentle, free from arrogance.
‘Contented, easily supportable, with few duties, of simple liveli¬
hood, controlled in senses, prudent, courteous, and not greedily
attached to families.
‘Let him do nothing that is mean for which the wise might rebuke
him. Happy and safe may all beings be, may they have happy
minds!
‘Whatsoever living beings the‘re be—those trembling with fear
(seekers) 1 or the steadfast (the Attained), 2 the long (or tall), the
stout, the mid-sized, the short, the small, the large.
Those seen and those unseen, those dwelling far and those
nearby, those who are born as well as those seeking birth—may all
beings have happy minds!
‘Let none deceive nor despise another, anywhere. In anger or
ill-will let him not wish another ill.
‘Even as a mother would cherish her only child, with her life,
even thus towards all beings let him cultivate a boundless heart.
‘Let him cultivate boundless love towards all the world—above,
below and all around—unhindered, without anger, without enmity.
‘Standing, walking, sitting or reclining let him develop this mind¬
fulness as long as he is awake; this they say is ‘the Noble Living’ here
(in the Buddha’s Dispensation).^
‘Not falling into wrong views—being virtuous, endowed
with Insight, lust in the senses discarded,—never again verily shall
he return to enter a womb.’
In another discourse 3 the Blessed One speaks of eleven blessings
which a meditator of metta could expect: ‘He sleeps and wakes in
comfort, has no bad dreams^ he is dear to both human and non¬
human beings, the gods guard him; no fire, poison or weapon harms
him; his mind can be quickly conceqirated, his countenance is
happy and serene, he dies without being confused in mind. If he
fails to attain Arahatship, or the Highest Sanctity, here and now,
he will be bom in the world of Brahma.’
1. Thcnc who have not yet attained Arahatship.
2. The Arahats, the Perfect Ones.
3. A. v. 342.
116
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
Vicious thoughts of animosity and cruelty are most detrimental
and harmful to those who harbour them. It is an accepted fact that
both mind and body undergo certain changes when a man is angry.
His heart beats faster with the result that both mental and physical
energy is dissipated. How true is the old saying: ‘Be not angry,
anger makes one age.’ Yes, ‘when a man is angry he looks ugly, he
is in pain, anger clouds his mind and he cannot distinguish between
right and wrong. The angry man knows no .meaning, he fails to
see an idea, he is enveloped in darkness as if blind’. 1 This is the
outcome of anger, hence the need to control it until it can be totally
eliminated.
Metta is the best antidote for anger in oneself. It is the best
medicine for those who are angry with us. Let us extend loving¬
kindness to all who need it with a free and boundless heart.
In the discourses one often finds the following question put by the
Master to his disciples on meeting them: ‘How is it with you, how
are you faring? I trust that you are well, that you are not short of
food. I trust that you are living together on friendly terms, happy
and in concord as milk and water blend, regarding one another
with loving eyes.’ 2
The Buddha was an embodiment of metta; an exponent of loving¬
kindness by precept and example. In the whole of the Buddhist
Canon there is not one occasion when the Buddha showed anger or
spoke an unkind word to anyone—even to his opponents and
enemies. There were those who opposed him and his doctrine, yet
the Buddha never regarded them as enemies. In debate he was
calm and met opposition without heing ruffled, without showing
anger. Saccaka, the controversialist, at the end of a debate with
the Master, could not help saying: ‘It is wonderful, it is marvellous,
good Gotama, while thus being spoken to so insistently, while thus
being violently attacked with accusing words, the good Gotama’s
colour was clear, and his countenance happy like that of an Arahant,
a perfect one, a Supremely Enlightened, One.’ 3
Even when people were scurrilously offensive and reproached
him in strong terms, the Buddha never lost countenance. It is often
mentioned that he smiled (mihitapubbangama). The story con¬
nected with the 320th verse of the Dhammapada is interesting:
On one occasion when the Buddha was staying at Rajagaba, a
heartless individual bribed certain villains to revile the Master when
1 iv. 94.
2. M. 31, 128. A. i. 70 and passim.
3. M. 36.
RIGHT THOUGHT
117
he entered the city for alms. They followed him through the city
shouting: ‘You are a robber, a simpleton, a fool, a camel, an ox, an
ass, you have no hope of deliverance from suffering.’
Hearing these words, the Venerable Ananda, the personal atten¬
dant of the Buddha, was very grieved and said to the Master:
‘Venerable sir, these people are reviling us, let us go elsewhere.’
- Where shall we go, Ananda?
- Let us go to some other city, venerable sir.
- Suppose, Ananda, people revile us there, where then shall we go?
- Then we will go to some other city, venerable sir.
- But suppose people revile us there also. Where then shall we go,
Ananda?
- Then we will go to yet another city, venerable sir.
- Ananda, we should do no such thing; wherever a tumult arises,
even there should we remain until that tumult dies away. When
these uproars have subsided then only should we go elsewhere.
As an elephant on the battle-field endures the arrows shot from a
bow, even so, Ananda, shall I endure abusive speech; most people
are, indeed, ill-natured.'
To what extent the Buddha tried to impress on his disciples the
need to cultivate lovingkindness is abundantly clear from the
following:
‘Monks, if a person were to harbour ill-will even when wild bandits
with a double-handed saw were to dismember him, .he is not a
follower of my teaching. Thus* monks, should you train yourselves:
‘‘Unsullied shall our minds remain, neither shall an ill word escape
our lips, but kindly and compassionate, we will ever abide with
loving hearts and not harbour hate. Wc will radiate lovingkindness
even to them (the bandits) and then we will radiate the whole world
with thoughts of infinite friendliness, without hate, without ill-will!"
That is how you must train ;iourselves, monks.' 1
Admonishing his disciples, the Buddha says:
‘Monks, if others were to speak ill of me or ill of the Dhanuua 01
ill of the Sangha (the Order) you should not on that account enter¬
tain thoughts of enmity and spite, and be worried. If, monks, you
1 M 21 .
118 the buddha’s ancient path
are angry and displeased with them it will impede your mental
development.
‘If you feel angry and displeased, would you then be able to know
the good and ill speech of others?’
‘That would not be so, venerable sir.’
‘Monks, if others were to speak ill of me, or ill of the Dhamma or
ill of the Scmgha, you should then unravel what is untrue and make
it all clear, saying: “For this reason, this is false, for this reason, this
is untrue, this is not in us.” ’*
The Buddha does not believe in overcoming anger by anger. He
emphatically says:
‘Hatred never by hatred
Is appeased in this world;
By love alone is it appeased
This is an ancient law.’ 1 2
Highly developed thoughts of metta seem to possess magnetic
power. By radiating such sublime thoughts it is possible to influence
and win over people. The power of metta as illustrated by the life
of the Buddha can be seen in many a story told of him. Among the
best is that of Roja, the Malla. When the Mallas ( came to know
that the Buddha was to visit their city, Kusinara, for the first time,
they all decided to see him. Roja, however, did not want to accom¬
pany them, but he consented at last though much against his will.
Yet he was drawn to the Buddha as a calf to its mother even before
A
he saw the Master. This was an instance of the psychic power of
metta (metta-iddhi ). 3 The taming of the demon Alavaka, the
ruthless robber Angulimala, the drunken elephant Nalagiri and
several others were alkexamples of the Buddha’s metta.
It is rather amusing to observe that some of his contemporaries,
especially members of other faiths, were frightened of the Buddha
and dared not send their disciples and followers to him, lest they
be converted to his faith. This is clear from the following:
Once Nigantha Nataputta (the Jaina Mahavira) wished to send
his well-known lay disciple, Upali, to the Buddha to refute his words
on a point of controversy. Then Dighatapassin the Jaina, speaking
1. D. 1.
2. Dhp. 5. Semanteme): An old standing principle (porduiko dhammo) followed
by the Buddhas and the saints. (Com.)
3. Vin. Mhvg. Khandaka vi.
RIGHT THOUGHT
PQ
to Nataputta said: ‘To me, venerable sir, it is not at all desirable
that Upali should refute the words of the recluse Gotama. For
the recluse Gotama is deceitful; he knows a magic spell by which
he entices disciples of other sects (Gotamo maydvi avattanim may am
janati).' 1
They perhaps were not aware that it was the Buddha's metia, his
large love and kindliness, that attracted people to him and not any
‘enticing device’.
Through love one adds to the fund of human happiness, one
makes the world brighter, nobler and purer and prepares it for the
good life better than in any other way. There is no ill-luck worse
than hatred, it is said, and no safety from others' hostility greater
than the heart of love, the heart in which hate is dead. . . .
‘If one has developed a love that is truly great, rid of the desire
to hold and to possess, that strong clean love which is untarnished
with lust of any kind, that love which does not expect material
advantage and profit from the act of loving, that love which is firm
but not grasping, unshakable but not tied down, gentle and settled,
hard and penetrating as a diamond but unhurting, helpful but not
interfering, cool, invigorating, giving more than taking, not proud
but dignified, not sloppy yet soft, the love that leads one to the
heights of clean "achievement, then, in such a one can there be no
ill-will at all.
‘Love is an active force. Every act of the loving one is done with
the stainless mind to help, to succour, to cheer, to make the paths of
others easier, smoother and more adapted to’the conquest of sorrow,
the winning of the highest bliss.*
‘The way to develop love is through thinking out the evils of
hate, and the advantages of non-hate; through^hinking out accor¬
ding to actuality, according to karma, that really there is none to
hate, that hate is a foolish way of feeling which breeds more and
more darkness, that obstructs right understanding. Hate restricts,
love releases. Hatred strangle/, love enfranchises. Hatred brings re¬
morse; love brings peace. Hatred agitates; love quietens, stills,
calms. Hatred divides; love unites. Hatred hardens; love softens
Hatred hinders; love helps. And thus through a correct study and
appreciation of the effect* of hatred and the benefits of love, should
one develop love.’ 2
1. M. 56; .1. ii. 190, also read above, p. 29.
2. The iMmpof the l-aw by Soma Thera and Piyadawi Thera (Kandy Huddhist
Publication Society, Ceylon), pp. 20-2.
120
the buddha's ancient path
The third aspect of right thought is Karima, pity or compassion.
Karuna (the same in Pali and Sanskrit) is defined as: ‘The quality
which makes the heart of the good man tremble and quiver at the
distress of others.’ ‘The quality that rouses tender feelings in the
good man at the sight of others’ suffering.’ Cruelty, violence is the
direct enemy of karuija while homely grief is the indirect or masked
enemy. Though the latter may appear in the guise of a friend, it is
not true karuna, but false sympathy; such sympathy is deceitful
and one must try to distinguish true from false compassion. The
compassionate man who refrains from harming and oppressing
others and endeavours to relieve them of their distress, gives the
gift of security to one and all, making no distinction whatsoever.
By precept and example the Buddha was the Great Compassionate
One (Maha Karuriika). He radiated his great compassion towards
all living beings. His actions were never divorced from compassion.
The entire Dispensation of the Buddha is permeated with this
sublime quality of karuna. Goodness and violence cannot co-exist;
goodness constructs while violence destroys. Compassion cannot
be cultivated by one who is obsessed with thoughts of selfishness. It
is the self-sacrificing man who fills his heart with pure thoughts of
pity and wishes to help and serve others. The selfish cannot be of
real service to others; for their selfish motives prevent them from
doing good. No sooner do they become selfish and self-possessed
than they fail to soften their hearts. Hard-heartedness is overcome
by pity, by sympathy. If you remove karuna from the teachings of
the Buddha you remove the heart of Buddhism; for all virtues, all
goodness and righteousness have karuna as their basis, as their
matrix. 1 All the virtues (paraml) that a Bodhisatta or one bent on
enlightenment cultivates, are initiated by compassion. Compassion
is tenderness, a quafity of the heart, while understanding or wisdom
is hard and penetrative. Compassion should be guided by under¬
standing and understanding by compassion. They go hand in hand
and are the back-bone of Buddhism. ,
One must be careful not to confuse compassion with morbid
manifestations of sadness, with feelings of mental pain and with
sentimentality. At the loss of a dear one, man weeps, but that is not
compassion. If we analyse such feelings carefully we will conclude
that they are outward manifestations of our inner thoughts of
selfish affection. Why do we feel sad? Because our loved one has
passed away. He who was our kith and kin is now no more. We feel
1. Karuna nidhanam hi si lam.
■
RIGHT THOUGHT
121
that we have lost the happiness and all else that we derived from
him and so we are sad. Do we not see that all these feelings revolve
round the ‘1’, ‘Me’ and ‘Mine’? Whether we like it or not, self-
interest was responsible for it all. Can we call this karuna, pity or
compassion? Why do we not feel equally sad when others who are
not our kith and kin pass away before our eyes? Because we were
not familiar with them, they were not ours, we have not lost any¬
thing and are not denied the pleasures and comforts we already
enjoy. It will now be clear that our feeling of sadness at the loss of
a dear one is the outcome of our own selfishness: this is a subtle
psychological affair, and all worldlings are subject to such short¬
comings and weaknesses. It is the man with a highly developed
mind who controls such feelings*and tries to see the situation as it
really is, according to karma, to sec things as they are, and not as they
appear to be.
Compassion is surely not a flabby state of mind. It is a strong
enduring thing. When a person is in distress it is the truly com¬
passionate man’s heart that trembles. This, however, is not
sadness; it is this quaking of the heart that spurs him to action and
incites him to rescue the distressed. And this needs strength of
mind, much tolerance and equanimity (upekkha), another of the
four sublime states. 1 2 Those who rush to a conclusion and declare
compassion to Ttc an expression of feebleness, because it has the
quality of tenderness, do not know what they are talking about.
May be according to them persecution is a sign of strength.
The past lives (jatakas) of the Bodhisatta tell us in moving detail
how he endeavoured himself to help others, to succour the forlorn
and relieve them of their distress. Life is precious to all, but the
Bodhisatta, while he was preparing himself for Buddhahood, did
many things that the ordinary man dare not even think of doing.
He even gave his limbs and life as a sacrifice for the sake of others.
The accounts of selfless giving and loving compassion of great men
like the Bodhisatta arc thus recorded in the books:
‘One who to save a limb, rich treasures gave.
Would sacrifice a limb, his life to save.
Yea, wealth, limbs, life and altaway would fling.
Right and its claims alone remembering.”
1. See above, p, 20, n. 2.
2. MahA-Sutasoma jataka, No. 537, Jntaka Storits, Vol V., P T S.
122 the buddha’s ancient path
To such an exceptionally high degree does a Bodhisatta cultivate
karuna.
You are often moved by a sudden cry of pain, or by the sight of
another’s distress. Your heart melts, and you wish to act in accor¬
dance with your kind feelings. You rush to the rescue of the helpless
one, you succour him and relieve him of his distress. You do not
crave selfishly for some remuneration or try to exploit the situation
by depriving him of his belongings. This is true karuna in the finest
sense of the word. If by chance you are rewarded or honoured for
your humanity, then that is a different thing.
It seems to me that it is not quite proper to help others, to be of
service to the poor and the needy, with the sole intention of gaining
‘merit’—reaping in return much prefit and gain. If we approach a
situation with such selfish motives then our good action is tarnished;
we should not be too conscious of the result of our good deeds and
be attached to it. The result will follow us like our own shadow; for
actions have reactions, seed brings forth fruit, cause produces effect.
To know the deed and its due consequence is right understanding,
but to become attached to the results is to invite greed or craving
which is a stumbling block to right understanding, purity and peace.
When we offer food to a starving man we need not think of a
good rebirth in the heavens, a rebirth in a good state of existence,
or expect to reap a good harvest in return; for that is nbt the Buddhist
attitude, or as a matter of fact the right attitude. By such wishful
thinking we only add fuel to the fire of our greedy selfish thoughts.
On close analysis you will see that the only real reason for giving
food to that nan is that lie is hungry. Hunger, as the Buddha says,
is the worst ailment. 1 When we se. that he has eaten, that his
hunger has ceased, and that he feels happy, then we too feel happy
and pleased. Such selfless actions really bring us unalloyed joy.
Gladness at another’s'happiness is the third sublime state known as
Mudila or sympathetic joy. You will now see how the four sublime
states: Lovingkindness, Compassion, Sympathetic Joy and
Equanimity function together support : ng each other.
Thus by selfless giving, by being generous (dana), we cease to be
niggardly and become liberal not only with our wealth, but with
our thoughts—we become more and more broad-minded.
We must thus try to understand the true significance of action
(karma) and result (vipaka) in Buddhist thought.
It is very necessary to be conscious of the good and bad results
of our actions, in order to know how they come to fruition, but we
I. Dhp. 203. Sec also p. 159.
RIGHT THOUGHT
J 23
should not be greedily attached to the result. A correct under¬
standing of the law of karma, and how it operates, incites us to be
just and compassionate.
Compassion is not limited merely to the giving of food and
such material things to the poor and needy, or to giving a qopper to
a beggar. All actions done with a pure motive, free from greed,
false views and pride, are reckoned as genuine acts of kindness.
Imparting knowledge to the illiterate, guiding the muddle-headed
and the uninstructed along the right path, giving strength and
moral support to the weak and fearful, ministering to the sick, etc.,
are all humane actions.
Marvellous, for instance, was the Buddha’s mode of ministering
to the sick. He was the great healer. Not only did he heal the sick
with the charm of his friendship but he also ministered to them out
of compassion. The Commentary to the Dhammapaila 1 records a
touching story: A young man of Savatthi listened to the Buddha,
gained confidence in him and entered the Order. He became
known as Tissa. After a time he fell sick. First small pustules broke
out on his body, gradually became bigger and burst, developing
into ulcers. His fellow monks, being unwilling to look after Tissa.
abandoned him and he was forlorn. The Buddha came to know of
this, went to the; fireplace and set some water to boil. Then the
Blessed One went to where Tissa was and caught hold ol the corner
of the bed on which he was lying. The monks, realizing what the
Master was trying to do, carried the patient with the bed to the
fireplace. There the Master made the monks wash Tissa's garments
and dry them, while he gently cleaned the ulcers and washed the
sick monk. The patient was most refreshed and lay on his bed with
a composed mind. Thereupon the Blessed One explained the
doctrine to him. With a collected mind Tissa*listened and at the
end of the sermon attained the highest stage of sainthood and passed
away. The funeral rites were duly performed and the Buddha
caused the relics to be enshrined in a stupa *
t. Vol. i. 319.
2. ‘To the north-east of the monastery of Jetavana’, wrote General Alexander
Cunningham in his Archaeological Report. 1862-3. ‘there was a stupa bfiilt on the
spot where Buddha had washed the hands and frtt of a sick monk. . . The re¬
mains of the stupa still exist in a mass of solid brick-work, at a distance of 350 feet
from the Jetavana monastery. The ruined mass which is 24$ feet in height, is
built entirely of large bricks 24 by 10 by 3$ inches.which is a sufficient proof of
its antiquity.'
In General Cunningham's map of Savatthi the site of this stupa is marked H.
m the plan. See Archaeological Survey of India (Simla, 1871). p. 341
124
THE BUDDHA*S ANCIENT PATH
No human quality is a prerogative of a particular religion, nation,
race or culture. All those who have eyes to see and minds to under¬
stand will realize that all acts of friendship, pity and large-hearted¬
ness are common to humanity. But alas, when people are misguided
and misled, they speak of and plan ‘just wars’—we even read of
‘holy wars’. War is war, ‘just’ or ‘holy’. It is never peace, all war is
barbarous.
The books mention an incident which once brought the Buddha
to the battlefield. The Sakyans and the Koliyans were on the verge
of war over the waters of the river Rohini. Knowing the disaster
ahead, the Master approached them and asked them which was
more precious, water or human blood. They admitted that human
blood was more precious. The Master spoke to them and the
intended war was prevented. 1
The Buddha is known as one who has dropped the cudgel
(nihita-danda ), one who has dropped the weapon (nihita-sattha).
The only weapon he successfully wielded was that of love and
compassion. He armed himself with truth and loving compassion.
He tamed the ruthless like Alavaka, Angulimala and the drunken
elephant Nalagiri and many another who had harmed him by his
power of love and compassion. Angulimala who was tamed and
who became a disciple of the Master and later an Arahant said in
praise:
‘Some are tamed by cudgels.
Some by goads and some by whips.
With neither club nor weapon,
I by the steadfast one was tamed.’ 2
The Buddha’s disciples as admonished by him wandered forth
‘for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many’ and spread
the Dhamma, the doctrine, without harming any one, and without
any coercive proselytism.
The Buddhist conception of karuna has no compromising limita¬
tions. All beings include even the tiniest creature that crawls at
one’s feet. The Buddhist view of life is such that no living being is
considered as outside the circle of metta and karuna which make no
distinction between man, animal and insect, or between man and
man, as, high and low, rich and poor, strong and weak, wise and
unwise, dark and fair, brahmin and candala or as Christian, Hindu,
Jew, Muslim, Buddhist, etc.; for metta and karuna , as we saw above,
1. A . Com: i. 341; Sn. Com: 357; Therig. Com: 141.
2. Thg. 878.
RIGHT THOUGHT
125
are boundless and no sooner do we try to keep men apart on the false
basis mentioned above, than the feeling of separateness creeps in
and these boundless qualities become limited which is contrary to
the high ideals of the exponent of these virtues.
It was the spirit of love and compassion taught by the Buddha that
touched the heart of Asoka, the great Buddhist Emperor of India in
the third century b.c. Before he became a Buddhist he was a war-
s
like monarch like his father (Bindusara) and grandfather (Cand-
ragupta). Wishing to extend his territories he invaded and con¬
quered Kalinga. In this war thousands were slain, while many
more were wounded and taken captive. Later, however, when he
followed the Buddha’s creed of compassion he realized the folly of
killing. He felt very sad when lie thought of the great slaughter,
and gave up warfare. He is the only military monarch on record who
after victory gave up conquest by war (dig-vijaya) and inaugurated
conquest by righteousness (dharma-vijaya). As his Rock Edict XIII
says, ‘he sheathed the sword never to unsheath it, and wished no
harm to living beings’.
The spread of the Buddha’s creed of compassion throughout the
Eastern world was largely due to the enterprise and tireless efforts
of Asoka the Great. The Buddha-law made Asia mild and non-
aggressive. C<wi we say that the same mildness, and non-aggressive¬
ness still prevail in Asian countries as they did in the past? One
doubts, and why? Modern ‘civilization’ is pressing hard on Asian
lands. It is an accepted theory that with the rise and development
of this so-called civilization, man’s culture (which is the outcome of
inner development) deteriorates and he changes for the worse.
With the march of modern science very many changes have taken
place, and all these changes and improvements, being material
and external, tend to make modern man moft: and more worldly-
minded and sensuous with the result that he neglects, or purposely
ignores, the qualities of the heart, and becomes self-interested and
heartless. The waves of materialism seem to influence mankind
and affect their way of thinking and living. People are so bound by
their senses, they live so exclusively in the material world that they
fail to contact the good within.
If only the love and compassion that fhrob through the teachings
of the Buddha ruled man's action today we should not be living in
this atmosphere of suspicion, fear, jealousy, arrogance, greed, hate
and delusion that makes this world more and more an armed camp
and drives us steadily to the brink of Armageddon.
126
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
It is a religious view of life, a life of love and understanding
that is needed to establish complete mental harmony and well¬
being. Today more than at any other time we need the light of the
Dhamma.
9
RIGHT SPEECH
(Samma-vaca)
All religions and philosophies advocate morals or ethics of some
kind or other for man’s own well-being and for the good of the
society in which he lives. These ethical codes are not of the same
level or category, but they vary. What is moral to some, may not
be so to others; what one condemns as immoral may be recognized
as moral by another. Principles of right and wrong behaviour
depend, at times, on the background of the different people of the
world—their geograpical, economic and social conditions, and so
on. Thus the criteria of the principles of morality differ.
It looks as if with the passage of time people seem to think that
some of the mftrals laid down by religious teachers are outdated,
and in their enthusiasm for a gay life they do not hesitate to put
aside principles of behaviour if they consider them a hindrance.
They then adopt new modes of conduct which, later, become con¬
ventions, and once that has occurred, no one cares.to speak ill
of them. Nevertheless there ;«re many moral principles which all
people, irrespective of colour, race or religion, are expected to follow.
The moral code taught in Buddhism is ver^ vast and varied and
yet the function of Buddhist morality or slla is one and not many. It
is the control of man’s verbal and physical actions, his behaviour;
in other words, purity of speech and action. All morals set forth in
Buddhism lead to this end—' irtuous behaviour, yet slla is not an end
in itself, but a means, for it aids samadhi or concentration. Samadhi.
on the other hand, is a means to the acquisition of paUfld, true
wisdom, which in turn brings about deliverance of mim>, the final
goal of the teaching of the Buddha. Virtue, Concentration and
Wisdom therefore is a blending of man’s emotions and intellect
It is to this end that the Master directs his disciples.
The Buddha’s attitude towards life is not merely rational, but a
127
128
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
practical realization of all that is good—ethical perfection as well as
mental deliverance. This implies that the Master wants us to culti¬
vate good emotions and abandon the bad. The emotional aspect
should be developed though that alone does not lead us to final
emancipation. Good emotions should always be blended with right
understanding. So it is clear that Virtue, Concentration and Wis¬
dom are the three strands of the rope by the aid of which the pru¬
dent man reaches the highest goal and proclaims his achievements
by saying: ‘Done is what is to be done’ (katam karaniyam). Thus the
Dhamma guides the follower through pure living and right under¬
standing to the attainment of freedom from all ill.
In this chapter we shall discuss right speech. In the next two
chapters right action and right livelihood will be dealt with respec¬
tively. As these three are in the slla group, the entire Buddhist code
of morality spoken of in the context of the Eightfold Path, a few
words may not be out of place to explain briefly the sllas as ex¬
pounded in Buddhist writings.
The final emancipation, the highest goal, in Buddhism, is not
attained at once. It is a gradual process, a gradual training. As the
discourses often point out mental purity is gained after a thorough
training in virtuous behaviour. Mental purity and attainments are
not possible without moral purity. The Buddha exhorts his disciples
first to establish themselves in virtue or moral habits before entering
on the path of meditation and wisdom . 1 Hence the need to start
from the very beginning. The starting point in the Dispensation of
the Buddha is slla, virtuous behaviour. Standing on the firm ground
of slla one should endeavour to master the fickle mind.
The Buddha points out to his disciples the ways of overcoming
verbal and physical ill behaviour. Having tamed his tongue, having
controlled his bodily actions and made himself pure in the way he
earns his living, the disciple establishes himself well in moral habits
(silava). Thus he trains himself in the essential precepts of restraint
observing them scrupulously and seeing danger in the slightest fault . 2
While thus restraining himself in wora and deed he tries to guard
the doors of the senses , 3 for if he lacks control over his senses un¬
healthy thoughts are bound to fill his mind. Seeing a form, hearing
a sound and so on, he is neither attracted nor repelled by such
sense objects, but maintains balance, putting away all likes and dis¬
likes. This control of the senses he practises with zest.
1. See above, p. 82.
2. Pdtimokkhasamvara , M. 107.
3. Indriyagu t tadvd ra ,
RIGHT SPEECH
129
He eats moderately 1 and mindfully: not for self-indulgence, not
to beautify the body, but to keep it unharmed for living the holy
life (brahma cariya). He is devoted to wakefulness 2 and cleanses his
mind of taints . 3 This behaviour or mode of living applies to a monk
and not to the layman.
Now if the disciple is earnest and mindful he will advance without
faltering and start the more difficult task of meditation, gaining con-
centrative calm (sainatha) by taking a subject that suits his tempera¬
ment 4 and continuing with it without stopping. Gradually, little by
little, from moment to moment 3 he purifies his mind by overcoming
the hindrances 6 which obstruct meditation. Thus he who strives
heedfully gains control over his fickle mind. With his speech, actions
and sense organs under subjugation and his mind under control, he
has now gained self-mastery. Thus training himself in Virtue and
Concentration (slla-sikkha and samadhi-sikkha), he now tries to
gain true Wisdom or Insight by seeing all things as they really are
(yathabhutam). Viewing things as they are implies, as we discussed
above , 7 seeing the transient, unsatisfactory and no-self-nature of all
conditioned and component things. To such a meditative disciple
of the Buddha the ‘world’ is not the external or the empirical world,
but the human body with its consciousness. It is the world of the
five aggregates»of clinging. It is this that he tries to understand as
impermanent, unsatisfactory and without Self or Soul. It is to this
world of body and mind that the Buddha referred when he said to
Mogharaja: ‘Ever mindful, Mogharaja, see the world as void (suHna)
—having given up the notion of a Self (underlying it) ; 8 —so may one
overcome Mara (death).’
Now when a disciple thus trains himself in wisdom (pannasikkha)
he rightly understands, ‘whatever is transient is not worth rejoicing
at, is not worthy of one’s regard, not worth clinging to ’. 9
He does not consider the five aggregates of clinging, the five
sense organs and their corresponding sense objects as ‘mine’, as T
or ‘my Self’ and understands the Master’s admonition:
‘What is not yours, monks, put it away; putting it away will be
for your good and welfare. What, monks, is not yours? Body,
1. Bhojane mattaftftutd. 2. Jdgariyimaruyutto. 3. See A. ii. 38.
4. For temperaments and subjects of meditations sec chapter 14, p. 212.
5. Dhp. 239. 6. See below p. 206. 7. Chapter 7. p. 93.
8. Att&nudiHhimuhacca. lit. pulling out, removing the notion of an atta. Self or
Soul. Sn.
9. Af. 106.
IX
130
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
O monks, is not yours, put it away; putting it away will be for your
good and welfare. Feeling is not yours... perception is not yours
... volitional formations are not yours ... consciousness is not yours,
put it away; putting it away will be for your good and welfare.’ 1
Thus comprehending things as they really are, thus realizing the
true nature of the five aggregates of clinging, he ‘lives independent,
clinging to nothing in the world’ 2 —the world of the aggregates and
of senses—and lives experiencing the bliss of Nirvana , the Supreme
Happiness. This, in short, is the way by which the aryan (noble)
disciple by gradual training attains his goal.
The reader will note that in this self-purification and self-mastery
for final Deliverance, by gradual training, there is no coercion and
compulsion by any external agency, there are no rewards and
punishments for deeds done or left undone: no ablution by holy
water, 3 neither offerings to any deity, nor worship of gods, the sun
or fire. And why? Because purity and impurity depend on oneself.
Things external whether animate or inanimate cannot and do not
grant us purification and deliverance.
‘Neither nakedness nor matted hair, nor filth, nor fasting, nor
lying on the ground, nor dust and soot nor squatting can purify a
being who is still perplexed.’ 4
Let us now go into details with regard to sila, the Buddhist code
of morality. In the first discourse of the Digha Nikaya , another
original collection in Pali, we find a very long and comprehensive
account of the silas which we shall not discuss here.
Among the items of right behaviour the lowest are the paftcaslla,
the five precepts for training, the AB.C of Buddhist ethics. These
are the basic principles for the lay follower.
They are:
1. I undertake the l training precept to abstain from killing any¬
thing that breathes. 5
2. I undertake the training precept to abstain from taking what
is not given.
3. I undertake the training precept to abstain from sexual mis¬
conduct.
1. S. iii. 32; S. iv. 81.
2. Satipatthana sutta, see chapter 13, p. 189.
3. See above, p. 30.
4. Dhp. 141. Even today in India one meets people who follow this kind of
useless practice for purification.
5. Including oneself.
RIGHT SPEECH
131
4. I undertake the training precept to abstain from speaking
falsehood.
5. I undertake the training precept to abstain from liquor that
causes intoxication and heedlessness.
Sir Edwin Arnold in The Light of Asia states the five precepts in
these words:
‘Kill not—for pity’s sake—lest ye slay
The meanest thing upon its upward way.
Give freely and receive, but take from none
By greed, or force, or fraud, what is his own.
#
Bear not false witness, slander not nor lie;
Truth is the speech of inward purity.
Shun drugs and drinks, which work the wit abuse;
Clear minds, clean bodies, need no Soma juice.'
Touch not thy neighbour’s wife, neither commit
Sins of the flesh unlawful and unfit.’
These sllas ±are to be kept and acted on in one’s daily life, they
are not for mere recitation, for lip-service or for applying to others.
‘He who knoweth the precepts by heart, but faileth to practise
them,
Is like unto one who lighteth a lamp and then shuUethhis eyes.' 2 3
Buddhism does not demand of the lay follower all that a member
of the Order is expected to observe. But whether monk or layman,
moral habits are essential to the upward patV One who becomes
a Buddhist by taking the three refuges 1 is expected, at least, to
observe the five basic precepts which is the very starting point on
the path. They are not restricted to a particular day or place, but
are to be practised throughout life everywhere, always. There is
also the possibility of their being violated by all save those who have
1. Soma, ‘name of the plant avestan haomm, the juice of which was the most
important ingredient in Vedic sacrificial offerings and formed the beverage of the
gods*.
2. Quoted in Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrine edited by W. Y. F vans-Went/
(London, 1935). p. 65.
3. For the formula see above, p. 20,
132 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
attained at least the first stage of sanctity (sotapatti). Nevertheless
when a transgression occurs it is useless to repent for one’s weak¬
nesses and shortcomings, for repentence will not do any good to or
help oneself or others. It will only disturb one’s mind. Again it
may be observed that according to Buddhism wrongdoing is not
regarded as a ‘sin’, for that word is foreign to the teaching of the
Buddha. There is no such thing as ‘breaking the Buddha’s laws',
for he was not a lawgiver or an arbitrator who punished the bad and
rewarded the good deeds of beings, hence there is no repentance,
sorrow or regret for ‘sin’. The doer of the deed is. responsible for
his actions; he suffers or enjoys the consequences, and it is his
concern either to do good, or to be a transgressor. It must also
be stated that all actions, good or 1 ill, do not necessarily mature.
One’s good karma may suppress the evil karma and vice versa.
As the formula clearly shows, there are no laws or command¬
ments. Voluntarily you promise to observe the training precepts
and there is no compulsion or coercion; you yourself are responsible
for your actions. If you violate what you have undertaken to keep,
it is very necessary then to make a firm determination not to repeat
but to correct your weakness and try hard not to lapse again. A
careful thinker ought to realize that the sole purpose of keeping
these precepts is to train oneself, to control one’s impulses, evil
inclinations and wrong acts, and thus pave the path to purification
and happiness, give security to society and promote cordiality. On
close analysis we know that the observance of these precepts is the
only way to lessen our lust (greed), hate and delusion, the root causes
of all evil in society. For instance, the first precept cannot be trans¬
gressed without entertaining thought's of hate and cruelty, in the
case of the third it is specifically lust, the second and the fourth may
be due to both greed and hate, and the fifth to greed, while delusion
is behind all the five precepts.
It is important to note that to take intoxicating liquor causes
delusion. It prevents clear thinking, lessens one’s power of reasoning
and brings about negligence, infatuatioh and a host of other evils.
A drunkard is not responsible for his actions and may commit any
crime. Hence, the violation of this one precept may lead a man to
break all thie others. Says the Buddha:
‘Give up this base of all evil
Which lead to madness.
To abuse of mind.’ 1
1 . Sn. 399 .
RIGHT SPEECH
133
Now one may argue that to drink in moderation is harmless, but
there is a saying:
‘First a man takes a drink,
Then the drink takes a drink,
Then the drink takes the man.
And so it is always better to bear in mind the Buddha’s warning:
‘Be mindful, self-controlled and serene.’ Let us shun drugs and
drinks which blind one to both the truths of life and the path to
deliverance.
Remember that the third and fifth precepts have an affinity,
they support each other and both bring ‘enjoyment’ (rasassada).
Sometimes in the Pali canon the fifth precept is omitted thus in¬
cluding it in the third as in the case of the moral code mentioned
in the Eightfold Path. Then there are the ten ‘precepts, or items for
training’ which are meant for the novices (samaneras ).* They are
formed by adding five to those already mentioned. 2 They are:
6. I undertake the training precept to abstain from untimely
eating.
7. I undertake the training precept to abstain from dancing,
singing, music and unseemly shows.
8. I undertake the training precept to abstain from the use of
garlands, perfumes, beauty creams and embellishment.
9. I undertake the training precept to abstain from the use of
high and luxurious couches.
10. I undertake the training precept to abstain from accepting
gold and silver.
There are also the eight training precepts observed by lay
followers on special days, that is on full moon or the new moon days,
etc. They are formed by combining the sivcnth and eighth, and
omitting the tenth precept.
- A person who keeps the precepts is, in the Buddha’s phrase, a
1. A sdmanera is one who f*is entered the Order, but is not yet a bhikkhu. *
full fledged monk, who observes the essential (jxitimokkha) precepts which arc 220
(227) in number. See Vin. suttavibhanga, or Book of the Discipline, I. B Homer,
Parts I, 2, 3, P.T.S. A novice also does not observe the vassa, the rams of three
months, July-Octobcr, which a bhikkhu is expected to observe* A novice is
given bhikkhu or higher ordination when he Ikis reached the age of twenty. But
sometimes age alone would not do. If he lacks in intelligence, has not studied the
Dliam/iia and Vinaya sufficiently to lead a bhikkhu's life etc., he is not a fit
candidate. Sec also preceding chapter, p. 107.
2. The third precept, however, is changed into: ‘I undertake the training
precept to abstain from unchastity (abrahmaeanyd i'
134
the buddha’s ancient path
i 1
good or worthy man (sappurisa), and if in addition he encourages
another to observe them, he is still more worthy. 1
In the Noble Eightfold Path, under the factor of right speech,
four abstentions are mentioned: Abstention from falsehood, slander,
harsh speech and idle chatter.
Though these training precepts are worded negatively, it should
not be thought that the Buddhist code of conduct is mere negative
prohibition. It is necessary first to remove the weeds and prepare
the field before sowing. Similarly it is very necessary for man first
to strive to purify his speech and bodily actions and then to do good.
We must admit that our mind is often tainted with unwholesome
thoughts. It burns with the three fires of greed, hate and delusion
and is in an unhealthy state. Natufally the manifestations of such
unhealthy thoughts in the form of verbal and physical acts, cannot
be healthy, hence the need first to check the evil, to abstain from
loose behaviour. Abstention urges a man to do good, to be pure in
speech and deed. Often people who are fond of doing much good
to others, find it difficult to abstain from doing certain unbecoming
things. This needs great strength of mind, effort and determination
On the other hand, it is because of one’s pity and sympathy, which
are not negative virtues, that one abstains from harming others and
from lying because of one’s love for truth, and so on.
A careful reader of the Buddha's discourses will find that the
Master has also stated the precepts in positive terms thus:
'Giving up killing, he abstains from taking the life of any living
being; laying aside stick and sword, modest and merciful, he lives
kind and compassionate to all living beings. Abstaining from taking
what is not given, taking (only) what is given ... he dwells purified
from thievish tendencies. Giving up slander ... he lives reconciling
those at variance, ancl strengthening those who are friendly,
delighting and rejoicing in concord he speaks words conducive to
reconciliation. Giving up harsh speech, he says what is gentle,
pleasing to the ear, affectionate .... Giving up idle chatter, he
speaks at the right time in accordance with facts, to the purpose,
in agreement with the doctrine (Dhamma) and discipline, words
worthy of treasuring (in the heart), seasonable, appropriate, dis¬
criminating and to the point. v
Thus we see how the Master has also stressed the positive aspect in
J. A. ii. 217.
2. M. 27, 38,51, D. 1. and passim.
RIGHT SPEECH
135
V
unmistakable language. The striving one, earnestly bent on the
path of purification, however, wastes no time in profitless specula¬
tion, but “admonishing and inciting himself he follows the sign¬
posted path’.t
There is nothing vague in the teaching of the Buddha. Knowing
evil as evil and good as good, why should one hesitate to avoid the
wrong and tread the right path? For the Buddhist to give up evil
and dogoodis ineluctable if he has understood his Master’s teaching:
“The giving up of all evil,
The cultivation of the good
The cleansing of one’s mind
This is the Buddha's teaching.’ 1 2 *
As this very important verse indicates, before doing good, it is
essential to cease from evil. When a man has done both, and has
thus strengthened himself in moral behaviour, he can then, if he
likes, try the more difficult task of disciplining his mind through
meditation. The attempt, however, so to train the mind without a
background of morality, without regulated behaviour, is a mere
hope and imagination that can never be realized.
The Noble Eightfold Path, in Buddhism, is the one and only
way for purification. Says the Buddha:
“Action, J knowledge, 4 5 Dhanuna- and noble moral life, by these
arc beings purified, not by lineage nor by wealth.’ 6
‘Whatsoever there is of evil, connected- with evil, belonging to
evil—all issue from the mi«d (literally, mind precedes them
all: nianopubbangania). Whatsoever there is of good, connected
with good, belonging to good all issue from Jhc mind.’ 7
‘When the mind or thought is guarded, bodily action also is
guarded; verbal action is also guarded.’
‘When the mind is unguarded, bodily action is also unguarded,
verbal action also is unguanAd.'*
1. 7 hg. 637. 2. See above p. 77, n. 2
3. Action or kamma here means volition or ihc will fof the Pall'
imaggacetanii). Com.
4. Vijj'i, that is wisdom for the Path. Com
5. Dhanuna here indicates concentration ( \amuMi I. Com this stan/a m brief
speaks of the threefold division of the Path: Virtue, Concentration and W isdom
through which mankind gains true purification
6 .S\ i 71; M 147 7 A i ll
S i i. 261 ,w ui 1(0
136
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
The origin of all these actions is either greed, ill-will and delusion
or non-greed, non-ill-will and non-delusion. Actions done under the
influence of the first trio are not profitable, they are blameworthy,
they result in pain and they lead to further actions, not to the
cessation of action. Actions done under the influence of the second
trio are profitable and praiseworthy, they bring happiness and lead
to the ending of further action, not to the arising thereof. 1
Thus there are three ways of doing good and evil conditioned by
three different mental factors, and they bring about results or
reactions in accordance with the deed done. In this case the mind
may be compared to a reservoir which needs attention to keep' the
water intact and pure. If the reservoir is neglected and the water
becomes contaminated, the man who drinks it from the tap is in
trouble. If, knowing that the water is bad, he keeps the tap turned
off, he will not suffer even though the reservoir is polluted. As he
cannot keep the tap closed for ever, it is his duty to see that the
reservoir is cared for so that he can turn on the tap and drink the
water. Man’s mind, which is like a reservoir, has two outlets, speech
and physical action. What is in the mind escapes through these
outlets. If the thoughts are pure, their possessor experiences good
results; if they are impure he experiences unwholesome results.
If he refrains from allowing evil thoughts to escape through the two
channels, his speech and bodily actions will not be polluted, for
those two channels are securely closed, nevertheless the mind, the
reservoir, is unprotected. He must make a genuine effort to watch
his mind so that its contents are not polluted, and for this he needs
meditation or concentration. Though his mind is thus concentrated,
collected and guarded, still it is ndl in a state of security, so he
needs wisdom, insight knowledge, to keep it free from pollution.
Once this has been achieved his mind is rendered immune from
all taints, defilements and pollution.
From this simile it is possible to understand that though slla or
virtuous behaviour which guards verbal and physical actions is
the starting point of the Path, it is nodbtheless so essential to man’s
development and purification.
With this brief general introduction to the Buddhist moral code,
let us now consider Right Speech. What a wonderful thing is
speech, for just a word can change a man’s whole outlook towards
1. A. i. 263, sutta 107, 108.
RIGHT SPEECH
137
good and evil. Axe we not really fortunate in this gift which is
denied to animals? Yet how few of us care to use it for our own
and others’ welfare. Much trouble and misunderstanding could be
avoided if only people would be more thoughtful and gentle in what
they say and more accurate and sincere in what they write.
Speech is a gift of great value since through it we can express
thoughts and ideas which can be shared with others. But if the
tongue, which is boneless and pliable, is allowed to become unruly,
it can play havoc. Is it not responsible for much strife and trouble
from squabbles between families to wars between nations? If man
could but tame his tongue, would not the world be a far better
place to live in?
Speech should not be dominated by unwholesome thoughts—by
greed, anger, jealousy, pride, selfishness and so on. Much talk
certainly prevents calmness and right thinking, and a glib tongue
leads to all four types of wrong talk. Says the Buddha: 'Monks,
there are these five disadvantages and dangers in garrulous speech:
the glib talker utters falsehoods, slanders, speaks harsh and idle
words, and after death is reborn in an evil state of existence.’ 1
1. In the context of right speech the first virtue is to abstain from
falsehood and speak the truth. Such a person, as the Metta sutla
says, is straight, nay transparently straight (uju, suju). 1 He is sincere,
upright and dependable. He does not stray from the truth to win
fame, or to please another. He may seem strict, but ‘truth is one,
for there is no second’ 3 . 'The Buddha did not say one thing one
day and the contrary the next.’ 4 ‘Because he speaks as he acts and
acts as he speaks, he is called Tathagata.’ 3 The Master is also
known as Saccanama, 'he whose name is Truth’.
The Buddha was so emphatic with regard to this evil of lying,
that his first lesson to little Rahula, the *ven-year-old novice,
seems to have been on the worthlessness of falsehood (we know that
children of tender age, wittingly or not, often speak falsely).
Once the Blessed One visited little Rahula. The latter got a scat
ready and water for washing the feet. The Master washed his feet
and sat down. Little Rahula paid obeisance to the Blessed One
and sat at one side. Then the Master, having poured a little water
into a vessel, said: •
1. A. iii. 254. 2. See above, p. 115. 3. Sn. 884.
4. ’ Advrjjhavacand Buddha, Bv. p. 12 verse 110: cf. A. iii, 403 ‘How. when I
have definitely declared it, can there be an alternative ( dvtjjham)T
5. D. iii. 135, sutta 29.
6. He joined the Order at the age of seven.
138 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
- Do you, see, Rahula, this little quantity of water left in the
vessel?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- Even so, Rahula, insignificant is the recluseship of those who are
not ashamed to lie.
Then the Master having thrown away the water addressed the
novice:
- Do you note, Rahula, that little quantity of water thrown away?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- Even so, Rahula, discarded, indeed, is the recluseship of those
who are not ashamed to lie. °
Then the Master overturned the water vessel and addressed the
novice:
- Do you, Rahula, see this vessel that has been overturned?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- Even so, Rahula, overturned, indeed, is the recluseship of those
who are not ashamed to lie.
Then the Master having uprighted the vessel addressed the novice:
- Do you, Rahula, see this water-vessel that is void, empty?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- Even so, Rahula, void and empty is the recluseship of those who
are not ashamed to lie . . . Even a so, Rahula (citing the simile
of a king’s elephant) of anyone who is not ashamed to lie, I say
that there is no evil that he cannot do. Wherefore, Rahula, thus,
indeed, should you Vrain yourself: ‘Not even for fun will I tell a
lie.’ 1
2. Slander or tale-bearing (pisunava^a) is the next evil that the
tongue can commit. The Pali word means literally ‘breaking up of
fellowship’. To slander another is most wicked for it entails making
a false statement intended to damage someone's reputation. The
slanderer often commits tw*/ crimes simultaneously, he says what
is false because his report is untrue and then he back-bites.
In Sanskrit poetry the back-biter is compared to a mosquito which
1 . M 61 .
RIGHT SPEECH
139
though small is noxious. It comes singing, settles on you, draws
blood and may, if a female, give you malaria. Again the tale¬
bearer’s words may be sweet as honey, but his mind is full of
poison.
Let us then avoid tale-bearing and slander which destroy friend¬
ships. Instead of causing trouble let us speak words that make for
peace jind reconciliation. 1 Instead of sowing the seed of dissension,
let us bring peace and friendship to those living in discord and
enmity. ‘Be united; wrangle not,’ said the Buddha. ‘Concord alone
is commendable’ ('samavayo eva sadhu’) 1 was inscribed by Asokaon
stone. Since we depend on one another, we must learn to live
together in peace, friendship and harmony.
3. The next virtue is to abstain from harsh words and be pleasant
and courteous. What we say can bring gain or loss, praise or blame,
good repute or ill, misery or happiness. A gentle word can melt
the hardest heart, while a harsh word can cause untold agony.
We should think twice before we speak ill of anyone, for it is an
attempt to damage his character, his good name. But it does not
matter if, when praising another, we slightly overpaint the picture,
for this does not lead to unpleasantness and heart-burning. As the
Buddha says:
'It# man’s mouth a hatchet grows
With which fools will cut themselves
When they utter evil words.’ 1
In the Buddha's day a festival called ‘Simpletons' Holiday
( Balanakkhaita) was sometimes held in which only’the simple
minded took part. For a we£k they smeared their bodies with
ashes and cowdung and wandered about abusing and shouting
coarsely at people. Even friends, relatives, *iscetics and monks
were not spared. People would fling them a few coppers to be rid
of them. The devout followers of the Buddha besought the Master
not to enter the city until the ^festival was over. Then the Buddha
said: ‘Foolish and uninstructed dolts are offensive like that, but
the wise cultivate mindfulness and attain the Deathless Nibbana.'*
Man's speech often indicates his character. A harsh word, an
unpleasant gesture, a crooked smile, ma^ turn a good-natured man
into a criminal, a friend into a foe.
I. \f 27, 38 and passim. 2. lniCription.no. 12. 3 X i 149
4 Dhp. Com. I. 256.
140
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Speak not harshly to anyone,
For those accosted will retort;
Painful is vindictive talk,
You may receive blows in exchange.’ 1
One of the past stories of the Bodhisatta tells how he weaned his
otherwise good mother from harsh speech. It is said that she was
rude and ill-tongued, but that her son, aware of the weakness, did
not want to hurt her by speaking too plainly. One day the Bod¬
hisatta, who was then king of Benares, went to a park with his
mother and retainers. On the way a blue jay screeched so discor¬
dantly that all covered their ears and cried: ‘What a harsh call,
what a screech! Don’t let us hear that again.’ Now it happened
later that when the Bodhisatta was strolling in the pleasance with
his mother and retainers, an Indian cuckoo called so sweetly that
the people were happy and hoped that it would sing again.
This was the moment for which the Bodhisatta had been waiting.
He said: ‘Mother dear, the jay’s cry was dreadful and we covered
our ears rather than listen to it. No one delights in a coarse language.
Though dark and without beauty the cuckoo won the love and
attention of all with its pleasing call. One’s speech, therefore, should
be friendly and restrained, calm and full of meaning... .’ Thus
exhorted by her son, the mother became refined, in speech and
elegant in manners.2
Pleasant and courteous speech attracts and is an asset to society,
yet how often is beauty marred by rude talk. ‘The language of the
heart, the language which comes from the heart, is always simple,
graceful and full of power.’ 3
4. The fourth and last virtue concerned with right speech is to
abstain from frivolous talk or gossip which brings no profit to any¬
one, anywhere. People are too fond of idle talk, of maliciously dis¬
paraging others. The papers in their gossip columns are just as
bad. Men and women with time on their hands indulge in endless
chatter, amusing themselves at the expense of others. As J. L.
Hollard says: ‘Gossip is always a personal confession either of
malice or imbecility. It- is a low, frivolous and too often a dirty
business in which neighbours are made enemies for life.’ The
Buddha’s golden advice is: ‘When, monks, you have gathered
together there are two things to be done, either talk about the
Dhamma (the Doctrine) or keep nobly silent.’ 4
1. Dhp. 133. 2. /of. no. 269.
3. C. N. Bovee, Wisdom of the Ages, p. 374.
4. M. 26; Ud. p. 31.
RIGHT SPEECH
141
The Buddha was very critical of idle chatter, scandal and rumour
for they disturb serenity and concentration. ‘Better than a thousand
sentences—a mere jumble of meaningless words—is one sensible
phrase on hearing which one is pacified.’ 1
A sage is sometimes called by the Pali word muni which means
one who keeps silent. Yes, ‘silence is golden’ so do not speak unless
you are sure you can improve on silence.
‘Much talking is a source of danger,
Through silence misfortune is avoided.
The talkative parrot in a cage is shut,
While birds that cannot talk fly freely.’ 2
#
‘One does not become a wise man just by talking a lot; 2 neither
is he versed in the doctrine (Dhammadltara) because he speaks
much.’ 4 And lest one should misunderstand the silence of the
muni, the Buddha also says: ‘To keep silent does not turn a foolish
ignoramus into a sage (muni) ’ 3
In conclusion let us listen to the discourse on ‘Good Speech’: 6
‘The good say: 1. Noble speech is apt;
2. Speak the Dhamma 7 not a-dhamma :
3. Say what is pleasant, not unpleasant;
4. Speak what is true, not lies.
Speak only words that do not bring remorse
Nor hurt another. That is good speech, indeed
Truth is immortal speech, it is an ancient law.
In truth, weal and Dhamma the sages are established
The Buddha's words of peace to Nibbana lead.
To suffering’s end. Such words are good indeed.’
1. Dhp. 100. 2. See Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrine, p. 61
3. Dhp. 238. 4. Dhp. 25’). 5. Dhp. 268. 6. Subhdsito-sutla. Sn
7. Dhamma here implies speech full of meaning and free from gossip,
a-dhamma is its opposite.
10
RIGHT ACTION
( Samma -kamman ta)
Right action is the second member of the morality group in
Buddhism. It is abstinence from three wrong actions: killing,
stealing and sexual misconduct. As we discussed in the preceding
chapter, it inculcates compassion to all living beings; the taking
only of things that are given; and living a pure and chaste life.
These then are the first three of the five basic precepts, the other
two being abstinence from lying and intoxicants. Not much science
is needed to understand that these basic training precepts, while
moulding the character of the individual who observes them, pro¬
mote harmony and right relations with oneself and others. By such
moral conduct one gives others fearlessness, security and peace. All
morality, or the good life, is founded on love and compassion,
melta and karuna, which we discussed at length in the chapter on
Right Thought. A person without these two salient qualities cannot
really be ca'led a man of morals. Verbal and physical acts not
tinged with love and compassion ctnnot be regarded as good and
vvholesome. Surely one cannot kill, steal and so forth with thoughts
of love and a good conscience, but one is driven by thoughts of
cruelty, greed and ignorance.
It is necessary to cultivate a certain measure of mental discipline,
because the untamed mind always finds excuses to commit evil in
word or deed. ‘When the thought is Unguarded, bodily action also
is unguarded; so are speech and mental action.’ 1
Says the Buddha:
‘A fool is known by his actions and so is a sage. By conduct is
knowledge made bright.
‘One endowed with three qualities should be known as a fool.
With what three? With wrong bodily behaviour, wrong speech and
1. A. i. 261.
142
RIGHT ACTION
143
wrong thought. A fool should be known as one endowed with
these three qualities.
‘One endowed with three qualities should be known as a sage.
With what three? With right bodily behaviour, right speech and
right thought. A sage should be known as endowed with these
three qualities.
‘Sq, monks, you should train yourselves thus: We shall live
having given up the three things endowed with which a man is
known as a fool, and shall practise three things endowed with which
a man is known as a sage. Thus, monks, should you train yourselves.’ 1
Conduct builds character. No one can bestow the gift of a good
character on another. Each ore has to build it up by thought,
reflection, care, effort, mindfulness and concentrated activity. Just
m
as in the mastery of an art one has to labour hard, so to master the
art of noble conduct on which a good and strong character depends,
one must be diligent and on the alert. As William Hawes says:
‘A good character is, in all cases, the fruit of personal exertion. It is
not inherited from parents, it is not created by external advantages,
it is no necessary appendage of birth, wealth, talents or station:
but it is the result of one’s own endeavours.’ If we would acquire a
sterling character we ought to remember the Buddha's words of
warning agaiirtt negligence and day-dreaming. ‘Be vigilant, he
ever mindful .'*
In the training of character the first thing necessary is to practise
restraint (samyania). If, instead, a man gives himself up to sense
pleasures, his good conduct and character will fall away—on this
all teachers of religion and psychology agree. Those who are in¬
toxicated with pleasures and are driven by the urge to enjoy them¬
selves, cannot be properly educated until they have learned to
control their minds.
Restraint comes through reflection on virtue and its advantages.
The young especially should develop a love of \ irtue, for it nourishes
mental life. An unrestraintd mind dissipates itself in frivolous
activity. Character is something we have to build up. to forge on
the anvil of our resolution.
The training precepts, however, are in no sense commandments.
The Buddha was no arbitrary law-givef. There is no coercion or
compulsion in Buddhism. The acceptance of the precepts by
laymen or monk is voluntary.
I. A. i. 102.
2. D. ii. 120.
144
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
It is interesting to see how the Buddha trained his disciples. Kesi,
a horse-trainer, once visited the Blessed One,- and the following
dialogue ensued:
- ‘You, Kesi, are a trained man, a trainer of horses to be tamed.
How do you train a horse to be tamed.
- I train a horse to be tamed, venerable sir, by mild ways and
harsh ways, also by both ways.
- Suppose, Kesi, a horse to be tamed, does not submit to your
training, then what do you do with that horse?
- In such a case, venerable sir, I kill him. For what reason? Lest he
bring discredit to my teacher’s clan. Now, venerable sir, the
Blessed One is a peerless trainer of men to be tamed. How,
venerable sir, does the Blessed One train a person to be tamed?
- I too, Kesi, train a person to be tamed by mild ways and harsh
ways, also by both ways. This, Kesi, is the mild way: Thus is
good conduct in body; thus is the result of good conduct in body.
Thus is good conduct in speech; thus is the result of good conduct
in speech. Thus is good conduct in thought; thus is the result of
good conduct in thought. Thus are the devas (deities) and thus
are the humans.
And this, Kesi, is the harsh way: Thus is evil conduct in body;
thus is the result of evil conduct in body. Thus is evil conduct in
speech; thus is the result of evil conduct in speech. Thus is evil
conduct in thought; thus is the result of evil conduct in thought.
Thus is hell, thus the realm of animals, thus is the realm of the
petas (ghosts).
And this,'Kesi, is the way of both the mild and the harsh:
... (as above) ... ”
- But suppose, the person does not submit to your way of training,
then what do you, ''enerable sir, do to that person.
- In that case, Kesi, I kill him.
- But surely the Blessed One does not deprive another of his life!
Nevertheless, the Blessed One says: ‘I kill him, Kesi!’
- It is true, Kesi, that the Tathagata 'does not deprive another of
his life, nevertheless, if the person does not submit to the training
by mild ways and harsh ways, and both ways, then the Tathagata
thinks tnat he needs not be spoken to and admonished by his
fellow monks who are wise. It kills a man in the Ariyan Discipline,
Kesi, when both the Tathagata and his fellow monks think that
he need not be spoken to and admonished.’ 1
1. A. ii. Ill, sutta 111.
RIGHT ACTION
145
This dialogue clearly tells us that the Buddha did not believe in
imposing commandments on his followers, but as a compassionate
teacher he pointed out to them what was right and what was wrong
and the consequences.
‘I say: “Monks, do ye give up evil.” Evil can be abandoned. If it
were nbt possible to give up evil, I would not say so. Since it can be
done, I say unto you: “Monks, do ye give up evil.”
‘If this giving up of evil led to loss and pain, I would not say:
“Give up evil.”
‘Monks, do ye cultivate the good. Good can be cultivated. If it
were not possible to cultivate good, I would not say so. Since it
can be done, I say unto you: “Monks, do ye cultivate the good.”
‘If cultivation of the good led to loss and pain, I would not say:
“Cultivate ye the good.” But since it leads to welfare and happiness,
therefore do I say: “Monks, do ye cultivate the good.” ’
It is left to the individual to make the necessary effort to translate
into action the precepts he has undertaken voluntarily. The training
administered and the support that others give by way of precept
and example, are of no avail if he is indifferent and slothful. The
responsibility lies in his own hand.
‘According to the seed that’s sown
So is the fruit ye reap therefrom.
The doer of good (will gather) good,
The doer of evil, ^vil (reaps).
Sown is the seed and planted well.
Thou shalt enjoy the fruit thereof.’ 1
1. The first precept to abstain from killing and to extend com¬
passion to all beings does not entail any restriction. ‘All beings’, in
Buddhism, implies all living ireatures, all that breathe. It is an
admitted fact that all that live, human or animal, love life and
loathe death. As life is precious to all, their one aim is to preserve it
from harm and to prolong it. This applies even to the.smallest
creatures that are conscious of being alivd. As it is said: ‘Whoever
in his search for happiness harasses those who are fond of happiness,
will not be happy in the hereafter.’ 2
1. S. i. 227: The Kindred sayings , I, p. 293.
2. Dhp. 131.
x
146
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
The happiness of all creatures depends on thejr being alive. So to
deprive them of that which contains all good for them, is cruel and
heartless in the extreme. Is it therefore surprising that those who
would kill others bring on themselves the hate and ill-will of those
they seek to slay?
‘All fear punishment,
Life is dear to all;
Comparing one with others
Kill not nor cause to perish. 1
‘As I am so are^they
As they are so am I;
Comparing one with others
Neither slay nor cause to kill.’ 2
Not to harm and kill others is the criterion of a Buddhist and of
all who feel. Those who develop the habit of being cruel to animals
are quite capable of ill treating people as well when the opportunity
occurs. When a cruel thought gradually develops into an obsession
it may well lead to sadism. As the Buddhist books point out: ‘Those
who kill suffer often in this life and may come to a terrible end.
After this life the karma of their ruthless deeds will for long force
them into states of woe. Should such destroyers of life be born in
prosperous families with beauty and strength and other happy
bodily attributes, still their karma will dog them to an early grave.’
On the other hand: ‘Those who> show pity towards others and
refrain from killing will be born in good states of existence and if
reborn as humans, -.will be endowed with health, beauty, riches,
influence, intelligence, etc.’ 3
Right Action— samma-kammanta is no other than samma-
kamma. The doctrine of kamma is one of the principal tenets of
Buddhism. It is our own volitional actions that we call kamma. If
one understands the operation of kamma and the result of volitional
acts (kamma-vipaka) one may not be tempted to evil and unwhole¬
some actions which will come home to roost so that ‘suffering
follows as the wheel the feet of the ox’. 4
It is interesting to note that during the last few years investiga-
1. Dhp. 130.
2. Sn. 705.
3. See A. iii. 40 and M. 135 ( Culakammavibhariga-sutta ). 4. Dph. 1.
RIGHT ACTION
147
tions have been made into karma and rebirth. Many convincing
accounts can be found in two most interesting books by Miss Gina
Cerminara. Here is an extract from her Many Mansions (p. 50). 1
‘The Cayce life readings are fascinating because they trace human
affliction and limitations of the present to specific conduct in the
past apd thus bring the abstract notion of karma into sharper and
more immediate focus.... A College professor who had been born
totally blind, heard about Cayce_ and applied for a physical
reading ... which outlined four previous incarnations.... It was
in Persia that he had set in motion the spiritual law which resulted
in his blindness in the present. He had been a member of a barbaric
tribe whose custom was to blind'their enemies with red-hot irons
and it had been his office to do the blinding
Yes, the world seems to be imperfect and ill-balanced. Amongst
us human beings, let alone the animal kingdom, we see some born
in misery, sunk in deep distress and supremely unhappy; others
are born into a state of abundance and happiness, enjoy a life of
luxury and know nothing of the world’s woe. Again a chosen few
are gifted with keen intellect and great mental capacity, while
many are wrapt in ignorance. How is it that some of us are blessed
with health, beahty and friends, while others are pitiful weaklings,
destitute and lonely? How is it that some are born to enjoy long
life while others pass away in the full bloom of youth? Why arc
some blessed with affluence, fame and recognition, while others
are utterly neglected? These are intricate problems that demand a
solution.
If we inquire we will find that these wide differences are not the
work of an external agency or a superhuman tjeing, but are due to
our own actions and reactions, so that we arc responsible for our
deeds whether good or ill. We make our own karma.
Thus it is incumbent on all men of understanding to stop hurting
and harming others and to cultivate a boundless heart full of pity
and benevolence. Killing is killing whether done for sport, or food
or—as in the case of insects—for health. It is useless to try to defend
oneself by saying ‘I did it for this good reason or that.’ Ifis better
to call a spade a spade. If we kill we must be frank enough to admit
it and regard it as something unwholesome.
Then, with regard to the question of vegetarianism, meat eating
1. Many Mansions ; The World Within by Gina Cerminara fWilli&m Sloan*
Associates, Inc. New York, 1950).
148
the buddha’s ancient path
is not prohibited in Buddhism. If you have neither seen, heard,
nor suspect that an animal was killed especially for you, then its
meat is acceptable, but not otherwise. There is no rule or injunction
in the teaching of the Buddha that a Buddhist should live wholly or
even principally on vegetables. Whether or not meat is eaten is
purely an individual concern, but those who consume fertilized
eggs, however, break the first precept.
2. The second training precept under Right Action is to abstain
from stealing and to live honestly taking only what is one’s own by
right. To take what belongs to another is not so serious as to
deprive him of his life, but it is still a grave crime because it deprives
him of some happiness. As no $ne wants to be robbed, it is not
difficult to understand that it is wrong to take what is not one’s own.
The thought that urges a person to steal can never be good or whole¬
some. Then robbery leads to violence and even to murder.
This precept is easily violated by those in trade and commerce,
for all kinds of fraud and dishonesty come under the second pre¬
cept. A man can use both his pen and his tongue with intent to
steal. There can be no peace or happiness in a society where people
are always on the look-out to cheat and rob their neighbours.
Sometimes it is thought that poverty leads to theft. There is some
truth in it, but if people are lazy and workshy, o. if they misuse
their talents, they become poor. They are then tempted to rob the
rich, while others may consider theft an easy means to living a gay
life. And so crime increases. It is the duty of governments to
reduce poverty by remoying unemployment.
Theft may take many forms. Forcinstance, if an employee slacks
or works badly and yet is paid in full, he is really a thief, for he
takes money he has,pot earned. And the same applies to the em¬
ployer if he fails to pay adequate wages. So, as Carlyle said: ‘Make
yourself an honest man, and then you may be sure that there is
one less rascal in the world.’
3. The final training precept here-of Right Action is to abstain
from wrong sexual behaviour. What is needed is more self-control
rather than sermons and books on the subject. In the chapter on
Right Thought we discussed at length sense indulgence with
reference to renunciation. Here we shall try to understand in brief
what, according to Buddhism, sexual wrong is. Let us first listen
to the opening discourse of the Anguttara Nikaya, another original
collection in Pali:
‘Monks, I know not of any other single form by which a man's
RIGHT ACTION
149
heart is attracted as it is by that of a woman. Monks, a woman’s
form fills a man’s mind.
‘Monks, I know not of any other single sound ....
I know not of any other single smell....
I know not of any other single flavour....
I know not of any other single touch ... by which a
man’s heart is attracted as it is by that of a woman. A woman’s
sound, smell, flavour, and touch fill a man’s mind.
‘Monks, I know not of any other single form, sound, smell,
flavour and touch by which a woman’s heart is attracted as it is by
the form, sound, smell, flavour and touch of a man. Monks, a
woman’s mind is filled with these things.’
Here is a sermon on sex explained in unmistakable language, the
truth of which no sane man dare deny. Sex is described by the
Buddha as the strongest impulse in man. If one becomes a slave to
this impulse even the most powerful man turn into a weakling;
even the sage may fall from the higher to a lower level. The sexual
urge, especially in youth, is a fire that needs careful handling. If
one is not thoughtful and restrained, it can cause untold harm.
There is no fire like lust.’ 1 ‘Passions do not die out: they burn
out.’
Since the Bu'ddha was a practical philosopher he did not expect
his lay followers to lead ascetic lives. Indeed, he called them ‘en-
joyers of sense pleasures’ (gihl kamabhogl). Being well aware of
man’s instincts and impulses, his appetites and urges, the Master did
not prohibit sexual relations for the laity as he had done for monks.
But he warned man against wrong ways of gratifying the sexual
appetite. He went a step further and recommended the observation
of the eight precepts 2 with special emphasis og the third one for the
laity during days of retreat (uposatha) or as the occasion demanded.
If a person makes up his mind to live an unmarried life he should
make a real effort to be chaste in body, speech and thought. If he is
not strong enough to remai.I single, he may marry, but he should
refrain from such sexual relations as are wrong and harmful. As the
Buddha explains in the discourse on ’Downfall’: J
‘If a person is addicted to women (given to a life of debauchery),
is a drunkard, a gambler, and squanders all his earnings—this is a
cause of his downfall.
I. Dhp. 262. 2. See above, p. 133.
3. ParAbhava-sutta 16, 18. 20.
150
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Not satisfied with one’s own wives, if one has been with whores
and the wives of others—this is a cause of one’s downfall.
‘Being past one’s youth, to take as wife a girl in her teens, and to
be unable to sleep for jealousy—this is a cause of one’s downfall.’
*
Speaking of women the Buddha says tersely: ‘Loose or immoral
behaviour is the taint of a woman.’ 1 ‘Best among wives is she that
pleases the husband.’ 2 ‘The wife is the comrade supreme.’ 3
Goldsmith writes: ‘The perfect wife is much more serviceable in life
than petticoated philosophers, blustering heroines, or virago
queens. She who makes her husband and her children happy is a
much greater character than the ladies described in romance whose
whole occupation is to murder mankind with shafts.’
Bhikkhu Sllacara (Mr. McKechnie) writing on the third precept
says:
‘At every moment it is our minds that make us what we are. And
in this matter of sex, mind plays a very important part; indeed, we
might say that if the mind were completely under our control here,
there would be little or no need for vigilance elsewhere.
‘If we look about us we can see to what a pass lack of mental
control in this matter of sex has brought the human race. Consider
the “lower animals” as we are pleased to call them, And their sexual
behaviour. Which really is lower here, the animal, or the man?
Which acts in a normal, regular manner as regards sexual behaviour?
And which runs off into all manner of irregularities and perversities?
Here it is the animal that is the higher creature, and man that is the
lower. And why is this? It is simply because man who possesses the
mental capacity which, rightly used, could make him master over
his sexual impulsion, has actually used his mental powers in such
deplorable passion as to make himself more a slave to those
impulsions than are the animals.’ 4
The Buddha’s explanation of the titird precept in the forty-first
discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya and elsewhere, is interesting and
important. The discourse deals with all the ten wholesome and un¬
wholesome actions. What follows is a slightly condensed version of it.
Answering a question of the brahmin householders of Sala as to
why some beings after their death are born in an evil and others in a
good state of existence, the Master said: “Householders, some beings
1. Dhp. 242. 2. S. p. 7. 3. S. i. 37.
4. The Five Precepts (Colombo).
RIGHT ACTION 151
after death go to a state of woe owing to their not having lived a
life of Dhamma, a life of righteousness, and harmony.’
Now when the brahmins did not fully understand what the
Buddha said and asked him to explain in detail, the Master replied:
‘Householders, some are cruel and merciless to living beings.
Some take what is not given. Some abuse the pleasures of the senses,
having sexual relations with those (virgins) protected by a mother,
father, parents, a brother, sister or relations, with those who have a
husband, with those whose use (in this way) deserves punishment
and even with those who are engaged .’ 1
Such, householders, is the th/eefold practice of a-dhamma, of
unrighteousness and disharmony in regard to the body.
The Buddha went on to describe the fourfold practice of a-dhamma
in speech, namely lying, slandering, harsh words and idle chatter.
He then said:
‘Householders, some are covetous; they covet another’s property
thinking: “O that what belongs to others might be mine”; some are
malevolent, polluted in mind, and think: “let these beings be killed,
slaughtered, annihilated or destroyed, or let them not even live”;
and some are of wrong view, of perverted outlook and think: “There
is no (result) from gifts and offerings; no result from deeds well or
ill done; there is neither this world nor a world beyond. (To those
in the world beyond there is not this world, to those here, there is
not a world beyond, Com.) There is no (result from good or bad
behaviour to) mother and father; there are no beings who spon¬
taneously arise (this denies the existence of devas or deities); there
arc no recluses and brahmins who are of good conduct, who live
righteously and proclaim this world and the “world beyond, having
realized super-knowledge (this denies the existence of omniscient
Buddhas).” Such, householders, is ihe three-fold practice of
a-dhamma, of unrighteousness and disharmony in regard to thought ’
Then the Buddha went on to explain the threefold practr > of
Ohamma, of righteousness and harmony in regard to body, speech
and thought— the opposite o, a»l that, v* mentioned above.
It is good to bear in mind that as h religious teacher, the Buddha
pointed out to Indian society tin ugh; and wrong way in ethics and
1. Lit. ‘adorned with tl.e r-ioxi.d of ,ii*ajriiient'.
152 THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
morals, and the evil consequences of immoral and loose behaviour,
but he never interfered in sexual matters, neither did he meddle
with institutions or policies because these were the concern of a
government. In his own kingdom, that is in his Dispensation, how¬
ever, the attitude of the Buddha was different; at times he was strict
with his disciples. As guide and teacher, he often advised the mem¬
bers of the Order to be of good conduct, seeing terror even in minute
faults, and to be decent, quiet and modest so that the displeased
might have pleasure and the happiness of those who were already
pleased might be increased. 1
To those who joined him and entered the Order to lead an ascetic
life, the Buddha gave special admonition. To the monks, sexual
relations of any kind are forbiddep, with good reason. But a monk
is at liberty to put away the robes and return to lay life if that of
a monk is too trying, and he finds it hard to delight in renunciation.
In such cases the Master gave advice and explained things like an
affectionate father, but never compelled his followers to lead the
ascetic life against their wishes because these are psychological
problems and must be so treated. One of the benefits obtained from
meditation and other practices recommended by the Buddha to
the members of the Order, is for the purpose of sublimation—the
elimination of pathological conditions that may spring up as a
result of abstinence from indulging in the senses.
Two verses in the Dhammapada (246, 247) enumerate the training
precepts and in a word make plain the evil consequence of their
violation:
‘Whoever in this vjorld takes life,
Speaks what is not truth,
Takes what is not given,
Goes to other’s wives,
Indulges in drinking
Intoxicating liquors)
He even in this world
Digs up his own root.’ 2
In this and in the preceding chapter we have discussed in detail
the five precepts (panca-slla ), the minimum moral obligation
1. Vinaya; A. iii. 67, also see below, p. 161.
2. Of prosperity and happiness.
RIGHT ACTION
153
expected of a layman who becomes a Buddhist by taking as his
refuges the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha} In conclusion, it
may not be out of place to mention briefly the advice given by the
Buddha to little Rahula, the novice, who was his own son:
- What do you think, Rahula, for what purpose is a mirror?
- For/he purpose of reflecting, venerable sir.
- Even so, Rahula, after repeated reflection should bodily actions
be done; after repeated reflection should verbal and mental
actions be done.
Then the Buddha goes on to say that if, on reflection, one realizes
that a bodily act tends to harm oneself, others or both then it is
unwholesome and productive of pain, and should on no account be
performed. If on reflection one realizes that a bodily act tends to
harm neither oneself, nor others nor both it is wholesome and
productive of happiness, and should be performed. Similarly with
regard to one’s verbal and mental actions.
Continuing the Master says:
‘Whosoever, Rahula, in the distant past—recluses or brahmips—
purified their bsdily, verbal and mental actions—they all did so
after repeated reflection. Whosoever, in the distant future—recluses
or brahmapas—shall purify their bodily, verbal and mental actions
—they all too, will do so after repeated reflection. And whosoever,
in the present time—recluses or brahmapas—purify their bodily,
verbal and mental actions—the^ all do so after repeated reflection.
Therefore, Rahula, thus must you train yourself: ‘‘We will
purify bodily action after repeated reflection; we will purify verbal
action after repeated reflection : we will purify* mental action after
repeated reflection”—thus must you train yourself Rahula.
The careful reader of this condensed account of the discourse will
understand how well the Buddha brings out the psychological im¬
portance of man’s actions, his kamnxa, which in the ultimate sense is
volition or cetana, and the Buddhist view of self and others. ‘As
I am, so are they’ is the criterion to be adbpted in all we do.
The tendency in man to give way to his desires, his longings and
inclinations, is very strong. But too often he does not reflect enough
I. See above p. 20.
2 M 61.
154
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
before taking action, so that the results turn out to be not what he
intended. In this discourse, reflection, thinking arising from medita¬
tion, is stressed by the Master. The advice to Rahula, the novice,
though given twenty-five centuries ago, is indeed apt today. Space
and time are no impediment to good counsel when it embodies
eternal principles.
11
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
( Samma-ajlva)
The third and the last member of the morality group is right liveli¬
hood which entails not dealing inarms and lethal weapons, animals
for slaughter, human beings, intoxicating drinks, and poison.
Though the Buddha mentioned only these five, there are, as we
know, many other wrong ways of earning a living. We must bear in
mind that the Buddha was addressing Indian society in the sixth
century B.C., which consisted for the most part, even as it does today,
of farmers, herdsmen and traders, It is interesting to note that there
are, in the Buddhist Canon, sections which graphically depict the
life of the farmer and the herdsman. The second and fourth dis¬
courses of the % Sutta-nipata (Discourse Collection. The Harvard
Oriental Series, vol. 37) bear ample testimony to this fact. India
was an agricultural land and its government was not ‘democratic’.
Most of the states were feudal being under a raja as in the case of the
Buddha’s own clan, the Sakyas, but there were also republics such
as that of the Licchavis which were goverried by a senate of elders
and leading men. In the kingdoms, the raja was the ruler to whom
all were subservient and owed their allegiance. Life seems to have
been quiet compared with that in many lands today. Since the
ways of earning a living were limited, the Buddha only warned
against five of them.
We must not think that thp Buddha spoke only to the common
people on the evil consequences of wrong and the advantages of
right living. In the Nikayas. notably in the Digha and Ahguttara,
we find sermons on the life that the ruler or administrator ought to
lead. It is stated categorically that the kjng should rule righteously
(dhammena) and not unrighteously (a-dhammena). Rulers in
addition to keeping the same precepts as their subjects were expected
to possess all the wholesome qualities that go to make a good head of
155
156
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
i
the state. The Buddhist books mention Ten Duties or Principles of
a king (dasa-raja-dhamma): Generosity in giving, morality, self-
sacrifice or unselfishness, honesty, gentleness, not being given to
luxurious living, self-restraint, no anger, no violence, patience
and agreeability. 1 As the Buddha points out, it is the ruler who
should first establish himself in dhamma , in piety and righteousness,
avoiding the vices, and so give the lead to his subjects. He sa>s: ‘If
he who is reckoned best among men does not live righteously, need
we speak of the others? They will follow suit. If the raja is un¬
righteous the whole realm lives in woe.... If he lives aright, the
others emulate him and the whole realm lives in happiness.’ 2
Never resting on his laurels, the king or ruler is expected to be
kind and dutiful to his subjects: ‘like a benevolent father to his
children’. 3 The king given to self-indulgence, and intoxicated with
the thought of authority (issariyamadamatta), is not praised, but
looked down upon. 4 In order to be just, honest and upright to all,
without partiality or favouritism, the ruler is expected to avoid the
four wrong ways of treating people: that is with desire, anger,
fear and delusion. 5
In this respect, Asoka the Great of India, who, because of his
exemplary life, later became known as Dhammasoka , or Asoka the
Righteous, may be regarded as one of the most just, wise and
benevolent rulers of all time. This is shown by his edicts:
‘All men are my children.’
‘Just as I want my own children to enjoy all prosperity and
happiness in Ihis life and the next, so I want the same for all men.*
‘The world should be comforted by me. From me the world
should receive happiness not sorrow.’ 6
‘There is no duty higher than to promote the happiness of the
whole world.’
‘Work I must for the good of the whole world.* 7
It can be said without a trace of doubt that King Asoka, who
followed the advice of the Buddha for the righteous administration
of a country, was a model ruler and, as H. G. Wells wrote: ‘amidst
1. Dana, si fa, pariccdga, ajjava, maddava. tapa, akkodha, avihimsd, khanit,
avirodha. Jdt. I, 260.
2. A. ii. 74. 3. D. ii. 178. 4. 5. i. 100.
5. Chanda, dosa, bhaya, moha. These four are called agati or wrong ways of
treating people.
6. Edict I.
7. Edict II.
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
157
the tens of thousands of monarchs ... that crowd the columns of
history the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star’. 1
That was twenty-three centuries ago. Singe then things seem to
have changed for the worse and people to care less and less for the
welfare of their fellows. They do not hesitate to use any means to
grab the things they crave for even to the extent of depriving others
of life itself.
‘In this modern world right livelihood can be one of the most
difficult rules to obey. So many kinds of work are harmful to society
and are unworthy of a true Buddhist. There are the arms and nuclear
warfare industries; the drink trade; occupations involving the
slaughter or vivisection of animals; yellow journalism; dishonest
advertising and publicity; and business that includes usury. Bud¬
dhism is not a narrow-minded religion. It regards human frailties
with understanding and sympathy. Yet the sincere Buddhist cannot
profess one code of morality and earn his livelihood in an occupa¬
tion with another, debased code.’ 2
The precept about right livelihood was designed to bring true
happiness to the individual and society and to promote unity and
proper relations among people. Unjust and wrong ways of living
apply to individuals, families and nations. A wrong and unrighteous
way of life bri«gs in its train much unhappiness, disharmony and
trouble to the whole society. When a person or community succumbs
to the evil of exploiting others, it interferes with the peace and
harmony of society. It is sheer selfishness and greed that prompt a
man to adopt wrong and unlawful ways of life. Such folk are utterly
indifferent to loss and pain caused to their neighbours and to
society. Therefore says the Buddha: 'Neither for one’s own nor for
others’ sake should one do any evil. One should not covet a son,
wealth or a kingdom, nor wish to succeed by flnjust means. Such a
man is indeed virtuous, wise and righteous.’ 3
The Buddha was not unaware of the burdens borne by a layman
with a wife and children, hence he did not expect from him the
same ethical conduct as he did from the monks. But he emphatically
stressed that the layman should strive hard to observe at least the
five training precepts, the minimum moral obligation of the ordinary
person, and that he should try to carrna living by right‘means, by
right conduct (dhamma-cariya) and thereby support his wife and
1. The Outline of History (Cawel & Co., London, 1934), p. 402.
2. Mind Unshaken. John Walters (Rider and Company, 1961), p. 47.
3. Dhp. 84
158
the buddha's ancient path
children. What is earned by unjust and unrighteous means—by
killing, stealing, cheating, through dishonesty and deceit, cannot
be regarded as right living. Ethically it is unrighteous living
(a-dhamma-cariya), an uneven life, a life of disharmony (visama-
cariya).
The Buddha does not disparage the layman, but sympathizes
with his frailties and shortcomings. Society after all consists not only
of ascetics and recluses who have left home to be homeless, but of
lay men and women who form the bulk of society, which ultimately
is an assemblage of ‘sociological units’ so that the welfare or ill-
fare of society depends on the individuals. If the individuals are
good and lead a decent life, society naturally cannot be bad.
Some of the discourses like Sigalu-sutta 1 which is rightly called the
layman's code of discipline (gihi-vinaya), Vyagghcipajja-sutta , 2 etc.
given by the Buddha especially for the laity, clearly show the
Master’s concern for both the material welfare and spiritual develop¬
ment of his lay disciples. In the d iscourse to young Sigala the Master
explains in plain language the full duties of a layman to all with
whom he has relations: The reciprocal duties of parents and child¬
ren; teacher and pupil; husband and wife; friends and relatives;
master and servant; and duty to the religious, that is to recluses and
brahmins. In this way the Buddha encourages the Jayman to live
a righteous life, doing his duty 10 the best of his ability and leaving
nothing undone.
Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, commenting on the Sigalu-sutta
says:
The Buddha’s doctrine of love and good-will between man and
man is here set forth in a domestic and social ethics with more com¬
prehensive detail than elsewhere. . . . And truly we may say even
now of this Vinaya, c/r code of discipline, so fundamental are the
human interests involved, so sane and wide is the wisdom that
envisages them, that the utterances are as fresh and practically as
binding today and here as they were l hen at Rajagalia. “Happy
would have been the village or the clan on the banks of the Ganges,
where the people were full of the kindly spirit of fellow-feeling, the
noble spirit of justice which breathes through these naive and simple
sayings.” 3 Not less happy would be the village or the family on the
banks of the Thames today, of which this could be said.’ 4
1. D. 3i. 2. A. ii.
3. T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism (London, 1907), p. 148.
4. Dialogues of the Buddha, part iii, p. 168.
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
159
As we well know, after attaining full enlightenment the Buddha
did not all the time confine hims elf to a cell, but wandered from
town to town and village to village through the highways and by¬
ways of India. He moved more with the commoner than with the
aristocrat. Kings and princes came to him for guidance and in¬
struction, but the Master went to the poor, lowly and lost to help
them. He knew the people, from the lowliest walks of life to the
highest, and was well aware of the political, social and economic
conditions of India during his time. That being so he did not restrict
his sermons and discussions to matters of high philosophy and
advanced psychology. As a practical teacher of infinite compassion
and understanding he was mindful of the social and economic well¬
being of the masses and always wished by his advice to alleviate the
misery of people, and see that they lived without too much un¬
happiness. It is true that real happiness is derived from a life of
purity and peace; but it is obvious that without a certain degree
of material and economic security no moral and spiritual progress
can be achieved.
So far as a monk is concerned there are four requisites (catu
paccaya) for progress on the path to purity and freedom. They are
robes, food, a lodging and medicine. These are the bare necessities
without which^io human being can live. Basically they are also the
fundamental needs of a layman.
It was the Buddha’s custom to ask the monks on meeting them:
‘How is it with you; how are you faring? I trust you are well, and
that you are not short of food.’ 1 There is the touching tale 2 of a
herdsman who in looking for a lost ox, missed his midday meal. On
his way back, fatigued and hufigry, he went to the Buddha to listen
to him preaching. The Blessed One however, knowing that the man
had not eaten all day, inquired from the people if he could first be
fed. The Buddha knew that it was profitless to preach to any man
without first satisfying his hunger. It was on that occasion that the
Master said:
‘Hunger is the greatest malady,
The aggregates are the greatest ill.
Knowing this as it is (the wise know)
Nibbana, the bliss suprethc.’ 2
Although the Buddha did not attach much importance to material
1. M. 31, A. i. 70 and passim. See above p. 116.
2. Dhp. Com 3. Dhp. 203
160
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
progress in the modern sense, nor to mundane welfare, he did not
entirely ignore it, because it is the basis for man’s mental or spiritual
progress as pointed out above. So the Buddha was very outspoken
with regard to certain aspects of material conditions and social
welfare.
It is an admitted fact that poverty is the main cause of crime. If
people are deprived of the four requisites mentioned above, the
bare necessities, or if these are scarce, especially food, people’s
minds are not at rest. They cannot and do not think of moral
behaviour, or give a thought to righteous living. Necessity has no
law, and they stoop to unjust and unrighteous ways of gaining a
subsistence. Owing to lack of economic security, and of money,
people are led to commit theft and other crimes. The Ku(adanta -
sutta 1 states how in order to raise the social and economic conditions
of a country, the farmers and traders should be given the necessary
facilities to carry on their farming and business, and that people
should be paid adequate wages. Thus when they have enough for
their subsistence and are economically secure, crime is lessened and
peace and harmony prevail.
In another discourse the Buddha explains to Anathapipdika, the
banker, who founded for him the Jetavana monastery, the four
kinds of happiness a layman ought to enjoy. The fir^t is ownership,
or economic security, so that he has sufficient means (atthi-sukha)
acquired lawfully by his own efforts, without resorting to the five
trades detailed above; the second is the joy of wealth (bogha-sukha)
or happiness gained by the judicious expenditure of lawful wealth;
the third is the bliss of not being in debt (anana-sukha) t the joy and
satisfaction that comes with the thought: ‘I owe nothing to anyone’:
the fourth is the bliss of being without blame (anavajja-sukha),
which is the satisfaction derived from the thought; T am blessed
with blameless acts of body, speech and mind.’ 2
All these discussions and sermons in Buddhism go to show that
the layman as a member of society should work hard to earn a living
and strengthen his economic and social position lest he becomes a
burden to himself and others, but at the same time he should avoid
wrong and unrighteous ways of living and not deviate from the path
of duty and rectitude.
The Buddha’s instructions and advice on right livelihood are
addressed both to the layman and to the members of the Sangha .
He has clearly explained to his disciples that the monk’s life should
1 . D. 5. 2. A. ii. 69, sutta 62.
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
161
be absolutely pure and free from fraud. The Master is indeed very
emphatic on this matter, for he says:
‘Monks, whatsoever monks are cheats, stubborn, babblers, cun¬
ning, passionate, proud, uncalmed—such monks are no followers
of mine. They have fallen away from this Dhamma-vinaya (Doctrine
and Discipline), nor do they grow, increase and prosper in this
Dhamma-vinaya.’ 1 Further says the Master: ‘Monks, this holy life
(brahmacariyam) is lived neither to cheat people nor for scheming,
nor for profit and favour, nor for the sake of honour. It is not for
gossiping and prattling, nor with the intention: “let people know me
as so-and-so.” But, monks, this holy life is lived for the sake of
restraint, for abandoning, for dispassion, for cessation.’ 2
As the discourse on ‘Going *Forth' 3 points out, the Buddha
himself gives the lead and example to his disciples when he says:
‘Leaving home I gave up
All evil words and acts,
Pure was my livelihood.’
The question of abstention from the five kinds of wrong trades
does not arise in the case of the monk, for he should not be in
business, and he has not the responsibility and care of a family
life. He has left home and is simple in his ways, with few wants. As
the Buddha says, it is the duty of the devout layman to provide him
with the four requisites: Robes, food, lodging and medicine. 4
The monk, as one who has entered upon the holy life, should
avoid all wrong means of living, for if he is'not clean and pure in this
he cannot follow the path ofpurification with any degree of con¬
fidence and satisfaction. Hence the Buddha says:
‘Verily one path is for gain, but that whi<*h leads to Nibbana is
quite another. Let the monks, the disciples of the Buddha, having
understood it thus, not delight in worldly favours and honours, hut
cultivate detachment.”
With this chapter we close the discussion on the Morality (stln)
Group of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the two immediately preced¬
ing chapters we dealt with Right Speech and Right Action which
with Right Livelihood form the Buddliist Moral Code'or Ethics.
This fact is again made clear in a succinct statement of the Buddha
in the seventy-eighth discourse of the Sfajjhima Nikava.
I A ii. 2(\ w ilia 25. 2 .! ii. 2<‘>, i utta 2<S.
V Piihhajjii-utlla sn v 407 t 4 ii r>s. tuna H 1 5 Php ?S.
162
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Which, householder, are the wholesome moral habits (kusalasi-
Icm) ? Wholesome deeds of body; wholesome deeds of speech; and,
I declare that included in moral habits, is complete purity of liveli¬
hood. These are called wholesome moral courses. And what is the
origin of these courses?... It is in the mind (thought, cifta ).. . .
Which mind? For there are many different minds (thoughts). That
mind (thought) which is free from attachment, anger and delusion.
From this are the wholesome Moral Courses derived. . . .
Words and acts are thoughts manifested. In Buddhism both
motive and effect should be taken into consideration. However good
the motive may be, if the effect is not going to be healthy, we should
refrain from such misguided words* and deeds.
12
RIGHT EFFORT
( Samma-vayama)
Modern man is involved in much more rush and tension than in
the past. His expression, speech and movements seldom show calm
or relaxation. If you stand at the corner of a busy street and scan
the faces of the people hurrying feverishly by, you will notice that
many of them are restless. They carry with them an atmosphere of
stress, are mentally disturbed and not calm. Is it wrong to say that
this rush and tension are mainly due to modern civilization? When
the external world is so busy, man’s ‘world within’ also tends to be
restless so that his inner calm and peace are lost. He seems to seek
happiness outside instead of inside himself, but happiness does not
depend on the external world, on modern civilization. Yet history
has proved again and again, and will continue to prove, that nothing
in this world is lasting. Nations and civilizations rise, flourish and
die away, and thus the scrolls of time record the passing pageant,
the baseless vision and the fading flow that is human history. Man
has brought the external worlcl under his sway, while science and
technology seem to promise that they can turn this world into a
paradise. But man cannot yet control his miad, he is no better for
all his scientific progress.
Man is bom with impulses that make him swerve from the path
of peace and rectitude, and modern civilization stimulates many of
these impulses strongly. As the Buddha says:
‘All is burning, all is in flames. And what is the '‘all" that is
in flames, that is burning? The eye is burning. Visible objects arc
burning. Eye-consciousness is burning. Eye-contact is burning
Feeling whether pleasant or painful or neither pleasant nor painful
that arises with eye-contact as its condition, that too is burning.
‘With what are they burning? With the fire of craving, with the
fire of hate, with the fire of delusion. They are burning with birth,
163
164 the buddha's ancient path
ageing and death, with sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and woe.
Similarly,
‘The ear is burning ....
The nose is burning ....
The tongue is burning_
The body is burning.
The mind is burning. . . . Mental objects are burning. Mind-con¬
sciousness is burning. Mind-contact is burning. Feeling.... is
burning. . . .
‘Seeing thus the wise become dispassionate towards the eye,
visible objects, eye-consciousness, eye-contact and feeling.... become
dispassionate towards ear, nose, tongue, body and the mind;
become dispassionate towards mental objects, mind-consciousness,
mind-contact and feeling .... Through dispassion greed fades away.
With the fading away of greed, his mind is liberated. When his
mind is liberated, there comes the knowledge that it is liberated...
A fire keeps burning so long as there is fuel. The more fuel we add,
the more it burns. It is the same with the fire of life. We keep on
feeding our senses to satisfy their appetite. It is true that our senses
need food, that they should not starve, but it is vital to give them
the proper food and to lessen the greed of each sense faculty. Unless
this is done there will be no control of conflicts, no harmony and
peace of mind. If we want mental progress we must make the neces¬
sary effort to guard our thoughts; for evil thoughts are ever ready
to creep in and overwhelm the lazy man. As the Dhammapada
says: ‘The man who lives brooding over pleasures, unrestrained in
the senses, immoderate in food, lazy and inert—him verily Mara 1 2
overthrows as wind a’weak tree.’ 3
The control of thoughts and senses is not easy. It is hard to deprive
the mind of unwholesome thoughts, to check evil inclinations and
curb impulses, but we must do this difficult thing if we wish to
ease the tension and the mental itch that is ever ready to sap the
mind until man and mind are destroyed.
Like the tortoise that promptly draws in all its limbs on sensing
i
1. Vi nay a Mahdvagga, khandaka .
2. The word Mara is used in the sense of passions (kilesa). Mara often
implies the Buddhist personification of all that is evil; i.e. all that bind man to the
round of existence.
3. Dhp . 7.
RIGHT LFFORT 165
danger, so should the sage try to guard and control his sense doors
and sexual appetite.
But how does a person control his senses? Is it by shutting his
eyes and ears, by not sensing the sense objects? Certainly not. The
Buddha once talked with a certain brahmin youth, Uttara, a pupil
of Parasariya:
- Uttara, does, P&rasariya, the brahmin, teach control of (lit. the
development of) the senses' to his disciples?
- Good Gotama, the brahmin Parasariya does teach control of the
senses to his disciples.
- But in what way does Parasariya, the brahmin, teach control of
the senses to his disciples?
- As to this, good Gotama, one should not see material form with
the eye, nor hear sounds with ear. It is thus, good Gotama,
that the brahmin Parasariya teaches control of the senses, toliis
disciples.
- In that case, Uttara, the blind and the deaf must have controlled
their senses. For a blind man, Uttara, docs not sec material
form with his eyes, nor a deaf man hear a sound with his
cars.
The brahmin youth was silent, and knowing this the Master said
to the venerable Ananda:
‘In one way, Ananda, does the brahmin Parasariya teach control
of the senses. In the noble (ariya) discipline, however, Ananda. the
incomparable control of the senses (is taught ) dillercntly.
•And what, Ananda, is the incomparable control of the senses?
Herein, Ananda, to a monk seeing form wirti the eye. there arises
liking and disliking, and both liking and disliking. He knows thus:
“Arisen in me has liking and disliking, and both liking and disliking
That too is conditioned, grqss and causally dependent. But what¬
ever equanimity there is, that is peaceful and sublime. - ’ So the
liking and disliking and both the liking and disliking that arose in
him are extinguished and equanimity remains. As if a man w ho has
opened his eyes should close, or havi.sg closed should open them,
even so with the same speed and case do the liking and disliking
and both the liking anti disliking vanish, so that equanimity
remains.
I InJny |J Nui \ I warn.
166
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
‘Hearing a sound with the ear_
Smelling an odour with the nose....
Tasting a flavour with the tongue....
Feeling some tangible thing with the body....
Cognizing a mental object with the mind there arise (in him)
liking and disliking and both liking and disliking ... (as before)...
and equanimity remains.’ 1
The mental force that plays the greatest havoc today is tanha, the
strong, excessive greed which is ever driven by ignorance. This lust,
this thirst of blinded beings, has caused hatred and all other suffering.
It is not nuclear weapons but lust, hatred and delusion that are
most destructive to man. Bombs'and weapons are created by his
lust to conquer and possess, by his hatred that leads to killing, by
his delusion both to conquer and destroy. The thirst for fame, power
and domination has brought untold agony to mankind. If man
makes no effort to check the longings that are ever ready to sway
his mind, he will become a slave to that mind. He is then no longer
superior to the beast, for they both eat, sleep and satisfy their
sexual appetite. The beast cannot, however, develop spiritually, but
man is otherwise. He possesses latent qualities which can be de¬
veloped, brought to the conscious level and used foj his own and
others’ welfare. If a man lacks this quality of examining his own
mind, of developing wholesome thoughts and discarding repulsive
ones, his life lacks drive and inspiration. Hence the Buddha’s
constant advice to his followers to be vigilant and alert in con¬
trolling evil thoughts and cultivating healthy ones.
I
‘Arise! Sit up! Train yourself strenuously for peace of mind.’ 2
‘This doctrine, monks, is for the energetic, strong and firm in
purpose, and not for the indolent.’ 2
‘Monks, what is there that the sincerely zealous cannot achieve?’
‘Verily, let skin, sinews and bones jemain; let flesh and blood
in the body dry up; yet shall there be no decrease of energy till
that which is to be won by manly strength, energy and effort is
attained.’ 4
Thus did the Buddha rouse his disciples to action.
The verses of the Elder Abhibhu, later approved by the Buddha,
give great encouragement and strength to strivers:
1. M. 152. 2. Sn. 332. 2. A. iv. 234. 4. M. 70. I. 481.
RIGHT EFFORT
167
‘Bestir yourselves and make an effort,
Work hard in the Dispensation;
(Then) sweep away the hosts of Mara (the passions).
As an elephant a reed-thatched shed.
Whoso in this Doctrine and Discipline
Shall live in vigilance and heedfulness
Repeated rebirth renounces
And puts an end to suffering.' 1
Effort (vayama) in Buddhism implies mental energy and not
physical strength. The latter is dominant in animals whereas mental
energy is so in man, who must stir up and develop this mental
factor in order to check evil ahd cultivate healthy thoughts. A
follower of the Buddha should never give up hope or cease to make
an effort, for even as a Bodhisatta the Buddha never ceased to
strive courageously. He was the very picture of energy ( vira). As an
aspirant for Buddhahood he was inspired by the words of his pre¬
decessors:‘Be ye full of zealous effort. Falter not! Advance!’ 2 And
in his endeavour to gain final enlightenment, he spared no effort
With determined persistence he advanced towards his goal, his
enlightenment, caring naught even for life.
'Fie on thi$ life! It is better for me to die in this light (with
passions) than to live defeated.’ 3 The Master’s right effort reached
its climax when he sat under the Bodhi Tree for the deep medita¬
tion which ended in Full Enlightenment. From that mnmem as his
life clearly shows, lie was never subject to moral or spiritual fatigue.
From the hour of his enlightenment to his passing away. he strove
tirelessly to elevate mankind*, regardless of the bodily fatigue in¬
voked, and oblivious to the many obstacles and handicaps in his
way. Though physically he was not always well, mentally lie was
ever watchful and vigorous. By precept and example Ihc Buddha
taught a strenuous life.
The foregoing •'onveys ^hc outstanding characteristic of the
Buddha and- his dise nles. The Master has been very emphatic
about this sixth factor ol he Path, right effort, because it was not
in his power to save people. Hv -vas no saviour, and gave no guaran¬
tee that he would save others from shackles of samsata, repeated
existence, but he was ever ready to gum 'hem on the upward path,
to encourage them and give them moral su, oort The idea that
one man can raise another from lower to higher lc ’s and ultimately
t V. i. 157. 2. flv Verse 107. Jdt Com \ Sn 4 '
168
the buddha’s ancient path
rescue him tends to make man weak, supine and foolish. It degrades
him and smothers every spark of his dignity.
This emphasis on right effort by the Buddha explains in unmis¬
takable language that Buddhism is not a doctrine of pessimism, a
teaching for the feeble-minded who look at things from the most
unfavourable point of view, but that it is a true warrior’s religion.
The right effort spoken of by the Buddha is instrumental in
eliminating evil and harmful thoughts, and in promoting and
maintaining good and healthy thoughts.
As a market gardener pulls up weeds before he sows his seed, so
the meditator tries to remove unwanted weeds from his mental
field. If he fails in his weeding nothing worthwhile can be sown
successfully. He then manures the-field and protects it from animals
and birds. So should the meditator watch over his mental field and
nourish it appropriately.
The function of right effort is fourfold, to prevent, abandon,
develop and maintain'.
1. What is the effort to prevent ?
‘Herein a monk puts forth his will to prevent the arising of evil, of
unwholesome thoughts that have not yet arisen. He strives, develops
energy and strengthens his mind (to this end).
‘Herein, a monk, seeing a form, hearing a sound, smelling an
odour, tasting a flavour, feeling some tangible thing or cognizing a
mental object, apprehends neither signs nor particulars (that is, he
is not moved by their general features or by their details). Inasmuch
as coveting and dejection, evil and unwholesome thoughts break
in upon one who dwells with senses unrestrained, he applies him¬
self to such control, hi guards over the senses, restrains the senses.
This is called the effort to prevent.’
2. What is the effort to abandon? *
‘Herein a monk puts forth his will to abandon the evil, unwhole¬
some thoughts that have already arisen. He strives, develops energy
and strengthens his mind (to this end).
‘Herein a monk does not admit sense desires that have arisen, but
abandons, discards and repels them, makes an end of them and
1. Sam vara, pahana, bhd vand, amirakkhana.
RIGHT EFFORT
169
causes them*to disappear. So also with regard to thoughts of
ill-will and of harm that have arisen. This is called the effort to
abandon.’
3. What is the effort to develop?
‘Herein a monk puts forth his will to produce and develop whole¬
some thoughts that have not yet arisen. He strives, develops energy
and strengthens his mind (to this end).
‘Herein a monk develops the Factors of Enlightenment based
on seclusion, on dispassion, on cessation that ends in deliverance,
namely: Mindfulness, Investigation of the Dhamma, Energy, Rap¬
turous Joy, Calm, Concentration and Equanimity. 1 2 This is called
the effort to develop.’
4. What is the effort to maintain?
‘Herein, a monk maintains a favourable object of concentration
(meditation). . . . This is called the effort to maintain.’
These then are the four efforts:
‘To prevent, abandon, develop and maintain
These are the four efforts that he taught.
The Kinsman of the Sun. Herein a monk
With strenuous effort reaches suffering’s end.’ :
The unwholesome thoughts referred to-here arc the three root
causes of all evil, namely: thoughts of lust (craving), hate and
delusion. All other passions gather round these root causes, while
wholesome thoughts arc their opposites.
The sole purpose of this fourfold effort is success in meditation.
The four right efforts arc the requisites for concentration. As wc
saw above’ right effort is included in the group of samadhi or Con¬
centration. As such, right effort is interrelated and interdependent.
It functions together and simultaneously with the other two factors
of the group, namely right mindfulness and right concentration.
Without right effort the hindrances 4 to % mental progress eannot be
overcome. Right effort removes the evil and unhealthy thoughts
that act as a barrier to the calm of absorption, and promotes and
1. Safi, dhumnia~\ua\a, vmya . plti. pa.s\atUihi, sanhulht, upekkhi
2. A li. 15 tunas 13, 14 3. P. 84 4. See p. 206
170 the buddha’s ancient path
maintains the healthy mental factors that aid the development of
concentration.
When the meditator’s mind slackens, it is time for him to summon
courage, whip up effort and overpower indolence. Obduracy of
mind and mental factors is a dangerous enemy of meditation; for
when a man’s mind is inert, slackness arises. This leads to greater
slackness which produces sullen indifference.
The Buddha warns against this flabbiness of character:
‘Who fails to strive when it’s time to strive
Who though young and strong is full of sloth
Who is loose in thoughts 1 and inactive
He does not by wisdon\find the path.’ 2
‘Monks, I know not of any other single thing of such power to
prevent the arising of sloth and torpor, if not already arisen: or,
if arisen, to cause its abandonment, as effort. In whom there is
strenuous effort, sloth and torpor arises not; or, if arisen, is it
abandoned.* 1
Mind culture through these four great efforts is not something
that can be gained overnight. It needs time and the regular practice
of mental exercises. An athlete or body-builder does not stop train¬
ing after a day or two, but goes on with his programme. Regular
exercises without unnecessary strain are the key to physical fitness.
If he only practises by fits and starts, he will never be a good athlete.
When training the mind, the same golden rule should be applied—
regular work and constant pressing on.
One need' not struggle with evil thoughts when doing mental
exercises. It should all be natural. If we try to fight our evil thoughts
we shall not succeed. Instead we should note and watch our thoughts
as they rise, analyse them, and try to ease the tension. The technique
is like that of swimming. If you do not move your limbs you will
sink; if you whir! about, you will no. swim; or like the sleeper—if
you struggle with the thought of sleep, you will never fall off; it
will only be a mental torment to you. You must not make any
effort to sleep. It must come naturally, and you should only relax
any tense muscles.
Again, self-torment is one of the two extremes that the Buddha
1. That is entertaining thoughts of lust, hate, harm, etc.
2. Dhp. 280. 3. A. 1 4.
RIGHT EFFORT
171
wants the meditator to avoid as profitless. It is useless to torture
the body in order to stop the rise of evil thoughts, for such torment
often ends in aversion and frustration. When the mind is frustrated,
callous indifference to meditation follows. All our mental exercises
should be<natural and performed with awareness. ‘Zeal without
prudence is like running in the night.’
As Jhe Buddha points out extremes should be avoided everywhere
by those who wish to gain deliverance through enlightenment—
they should keep to the middle path. In the practice of right effort,
too, one has to follow the same median way.
A .horseman, for instance, watches the speed of his mount and
whenever it goes faster than he wants, he reins it back. On the other
hand whenever the horse shows Signs of slowing down he spurs it
on and thus keeps to an even speed. Even so should one cultivate
right effort, not overdoing it lest one be flurried, and avoiding
slackness lest one becomes slothful. Like the horseman one should
always be balanced. The following illustrates this well..
There is the story 1 of a monk, the venerable Sona-kolivisa, who
was making a violent but unsuccessful effort to exert himself
physically and mentally. Then the following thought occurred to
him while in solitude: ‘The disciples of the Blessed One, live with
zealous effort ^nd I am one of them. Yet my mind is not free of
taints. My family has wealth; I can enjoy my riches and do good;
what if I were to give up the training and revert to the low life,
enjoy the riches and do good?’
The Blessed One reading his thoughts approached him and
asked:
- Sooa, did you not think: ‘The disciples of the Blessed One live
with zealous effort ... (as before) . . . ancfcdo good’?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- And what do you think, Soqa, were you not skilful at the lute
before, when you were a layman?
- Yes, venerable sir.
- And what do you think, Soqa, when the strings of your lute were
over strung was it then in tune and playable?
- No, indeed, venerable sir.
- And what do you think, Soua, when the strings of your lute were
too slack was it then in tune and playable?
- No, indeed, venerable sir.
1. Vinaya Texts it. I ff; A. til. 374-3 sr'ta 55.
172
the buddha's ancient path
- But when, Sona, the strings of your lute were neither overstrung
nor too slack, but keyed to the middle pitch, was it then in tunc
and playable?
- Surely, venerable sir.
- Even so, Sona, effort when too strenuous leads to flurry and when
too slack to indolence. Wherefore, Sona, make a firm determina¬
tion thus: Understanding the equality of the faculties, 1 1 shall
grasp at the aim by uniformity of effort.
- Yes, venerable sir.
The venerable Sona followed the instructions of the Blessed One
and in due course attained perfection and was numbered among
the Arahats.’ 2 ’
The twentieth discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya gives practical
instructions on how to keep away distracting thoughts and is in¬
dispensable to a meditator. The gist of it is as follows. The Buddha
addressing his disciples said:
‘Monks, the monk who is intent on higher thought should reflect
on five things from time to time. What five?
1. If through reflection on an object, evil, unwholesome thoughts
associated with desire, hate and delusion arise in a monk, he should
(in order to get rid of them) reflect on another object which is
wholesome. Then the evil unwholesome thoughts are removed; they
disappear. By their removal the mind stands firm and becomes
calm, unified and concentrated within (his subject of meditation).
‘As a skilled carpenter or his apprentice knocks out and removes
a coarse peg with a fine one, so shoCld the monk get rid of that evil
object by reflecting on another object which is wholesome. Then
the evil unwholesome thoughts associated with desire, hate and
1. The faculties are five in number: Faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration
and wisdom (saddhd, viriya, sati, samadhi and pan ha) M. 70, 77 and passim. On
these faculties see 5. v. 377.
2. This episode occurs in the Commentary to the Thera-gdthd: ‘He received a
subject of study from the Master, but was unable to concentrate, owing to his
meeting people while he stayed in Cool Wood. And he thought: 4i My body is too
delicately reared to arrive happily at happiness. A recluse's duties involve bodily
fatigues.” ' So he disregarded the painful sores on his feet got from pacing up and
down, and strove his utmost but was unable to win. And he thought; ”1 am not
able to create either path or fruit. Of what use is this religious life to me? I will
go back to lower things and work merit.” Then the Master discerned, and
saved him by the lesson on the Parable of the Lute, showing him how to temper
energy with calm. Thus corrected, he went to Vulture’s Peak, and in due course
won arahatship.’ Psalms of the Brethren by Mrs. Rhys Davids (P.T.S., London),
p. 275.
RIGHT EFFORT
173
delusion are removed, they disappear. By their removal the mind
stands firm . . . within.
‘2. If the evil thoughts still arise in a monk who reflects on another
object which is wholesome, he should consider the disadvantages of
evil thoughts thus: “Indeed, these thoughts of mine are unwhole¬
some, blameworthy, and bring painful consequences.” Then his
evil thoughts are removed, they disappear. By their removal the
mind stands firm . . . within.
‘3. If the evil thoughts still arise in a monk who thinks over their
disadvantages he should pay no attention to, and not reflect on
those evil thoughts. Then the evil thoughts are removed, they
disappear. By their removal the mind stands firm . . . within.
‘4. If the evil thoughts still arise in a monk who pays no atten¬
tion to and does not reflect on evil thoughts, he should reflect on
removing the root of those thoughts. Then the evil unwholesome
thoughts are removed, they disappear. By their removal the mind
stands firm . . . within.
‘5. If evil thoughts still arise in a monk who reflects on the re¬
moval of their root, he should with clenched teeth, and tongue
pressed against his palate, restrain, overcome, and control the (evil)
mind with the (good) mind. Then the evil thoughts are removed,
they disappeart By their removal the mind stands firm... within.
‘If through a monk’s reflection on a wholesome object; thinking
over the disadvantages of evil thoughts: paying no attention and not
reflecting on evil thoughts; reflecting on the removal of their root;
restraining, overcoming, and controlling the (evil) mind with the
(good) mind with clenched tc^th and tongutf pressed against his
palate; evil thoughts are removed, and the mind stands firm and
calm, becomes unified and concentrated within (its subject of
meditation), that monk is called a master of the paths along which
thoughts travel. He thinks the thought that he wants to think; he
thinks not the thought that he docs not want to think. He has cut
off craving and removed thi fetter fully; mastering pride he has
made an end of suffering.' 1
It is not onl> during an hour of serious meditation that wc need
this all-important quality of right effort It should bc»cultivatcd
always wherever possible. In all our speech, actions and behaviour,
in our daily life, we need right effort to perform our duties
I. For a detailed account see The Removal of Detracting Thought i by Soma
Thera (Buddhist Publication SK’cicty, Kand>, < cylon). Tor brevity's sake
I omitted all the similes but one.
174
the buddha's ancient path
wholeheartedly and successfully. If we lack this quality of zealous
effort, and give in to sloth and indolence we cannot proceed with
any degree of confidence in the work we have undertaken.
To refrain from greed, anger, jealousy and a host of other evil
thoughts to which people are subject, we need strength of mind,
strenuous effort and vigilance. When free from the rush of city life,
from nagging preoccupation with the world, we are not tempted to
lose control: it is only in society that it becomes an effort to check
such lapses. Any meditation we may have done is immense help
to enable us to face all this with calm.
When developing right effort we must be sincere about our
thoughts. If we analyse them we find that they are not always good
and wholesome. At times they are unwholesome and foolish,
though we may not always express them in words and actions or
both. Now if we allow such thoughts to rise repeatedly, it is a bad
sign ; for when an unhealthy thought is allowed to recur again and
again, it tends to become an obsession. It is, therefore, essential to
make a real effort to keep unwholesome thoughts at bay. When they
occur they should be ignored. Not to notice them is far from easy,
but until we succeed, unhealthy thoughts will always be taking
possession of our minds.
There is, however, one thing to remember. A person bent on
curbing harmful impulses avoids, as far as possible, people who are
obsessed by those impulses, and all talk that leads to them. Try to
avoid people and things that tend to colour your sane and sober
thoughts. Modern society is in danger of being swamped by dis¬
tractions and*temptations which can only be controlled if we under¬
take the difficult task Of steadily trailing our minds.
Since worldly progress, gain and profit depend largely on our own
efforts, surely we should strive even harder to train our minds and
so develop the best that is in us. Since mental training requires the
greatest effort, strive on now. ‘Do not let your days pass away like
the shadow of a cloud which leaves behind it no trace for remem¬
brance.’
As Plotinus says:
‘Withdraw into yourself and look. And if you do not find yourself
beautiful as yet, do as does tne creator of a statue that is to be made
beautiful; he cuts away here, he smooths there, he makes this
line lighter, this other purer, until he has shown a beautiful face
upon the statue. So do you also; cut away all that is excessive,
straighten all that is crooked, bring light to all that is shadowed,
RIGHT EFFORT
175
labour to make all glow with beauty, and do not cease chiselling
your statue until there shall shine out on you the splendour of
virtue, until you shall see the final goodness surely established in
the stainless shrine.’ 1
Man’s mind influences his body profoundly. If allowed to
function viciously and entertain unwholesome thoughts, mind can
cause disaster, can even kill a being; but it can also cure a sick
body. When mind is concentrated on right thoughts with right
effort and understanding the effect it can produce is immense. A
mind with pure and wholesome thoughts really does lead to healthy
relaxed living.
‘Recent research in medicine, in experimental psychology and
what is still called parapsychology has thrown some light on the
nature of mind and its position in the world. During the last forty
years the conviction has streadily grown among medical men that
very many causes of disease, organic as well as functional, are
directly caused by mental states. The body becomes ill because the
mind controlling it either secretly wants to make it ill, or else because
it is in such a state of agitation that it cannot prevent the body from
sickening. Whatever its physical nature, resistance to disease is
unquestionably correlated with the psychological condition of the
patient.’ 2 That even so grossly ‘physical’ a complaint as dental caries
may be due to mental causes was maintained in a paper read before
the American Dental Congress in 1937. The author pointed out that
children living on a perfectly satisfactory diet may still suffer from
dental decay. In such cases, investigation generally <-Jiows that the
child’s life at home or at school is in some way unsatisfactory. The
teeth decay because their owner is under mcr.tal strain.
‘Mind not only makes sick, it also cures. An optimistic patient
has more chance of getting vycll than a patient who is worried and
unhappy. The recorded instances of faith healing include cases in
which even organic diseases were cured almost instantaneously.’’
In this connection it is interesting t<} obserse the prevalence, in
1. Plotinus on the Beautiful, translated by Stephen MscKenna Reproduced
in Mtditation for Btgmners by J. I. Wedgwood.
2. For the physical basis of resistance, see The Saturr of Pnrasr by J F R
McDonagh, f.b.c s.
3. Aldous Huxley, Ends and Sfeans (London, 1946), pp 258, 259
176
THE BUDDHA’S ANCIENT PATH
Buddhist lands, of listening to the recital of the Dhamma for protec¬
tion and deliverance from evil, and for promoting welfare and well¬
being. The selected discourses for recital are known as Partita-
suttas. ‘Partita ' in Pali and 1 paritrana ' in Sanskrit mean, principally
protection. They are meant to describe certain suttas or discourses
(spoken by the Buddha) that are regarded as affording protection
and deliverance from evil. The practice of reciting and listening to
the paritta-suttas began very early in the history of Buddhism. It is
certain that their recital produces mental well-being in those who
listen to them with intelligence and are confident in the truth of
the Buddha’s words. Such mental well-being can help those who
are ill to recover, and it can also help to induce the mental attitude
that brings happiness and to overcome its opposite. Originally in
India those who listened to partita sayings of the Buddha under¬
stood what was recited and the effect on them was correspondingly
great.
According to the Dhamma the mind is so closely linked with the
body that mental states affect the body’s health and well-being.
Some doctors even say that there is no such thing as a purely
physical disease. Unless, therefore, these bad mental states are
caused by previous evil acts (akusala kamma-vipaka), and are
therefore unalterable, it is possible so to change them as to cause
mental health and physical well-being to follow thereafter.
How can bad influences springing from evil beings be counter¬
acted by recital of paritta-suttas? Well, they are the result of evil
thinking. They can, therefore, be destroyed by the good states of
mind induced by listfping with intelligence and confidence to partita
sayings, by reason of the power of concentration that comes into
being through adverting whole-heartedly to the truth of these
sayings. Paritta-sutta fecital is a form of saccikiriya, of depending on
truth for protection, justification or attainment. This means
complete establishment in the power of truth to gain one’s end. The
saying: ‘The power of truth protects a follower of the truth’
(Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacarim) is the principle behind these
sutta recitals. If it is true that virtue protects the virtuous, then a
person whp listens to these sayings with complete confidence in the
Buddha’s words, which spring from complete enlightenment, will
acquire so virtuous a state of mind that he will be able to conquer
any evil influence.
The recital of paritta-sutta also brings material blessings through
the mental states caused by concentration and confidence in listen-
RIGHT EFFORT
177
ing intelligently to the recital. According to the Buddha right effort
is a necessary factor in overcoming suffering . 1 Listening to one of
these recitals in the proper way can also generate energy for the
purpose of doing good and following the path of worldly progress
with diligence.
There is hardly any doubt that listening to these paritta-suttas can
produce in the intelligent and confident listener only wholesome
states which can cure and prevent illness. There is no better medicine
than truth (Dhamma) for both mental and physical ills, which are the
cause of all suffering and misfortune. So the recital of paritta-suttas
may, when they are listened to rightly, bring into being mental con¬
ditions of health necessary for material progress, physical welfare
and well-being.
1. See 5. i. 214.
XII
13
RIGHT MINDFULNESS
( Samma-sati)
It is no exaggeration to say that for us the most important thing
in the universe is ourselves. If, on the other hand, we hold that some
other thing, whether animate or inanimate, is as wonderful, it is
our mind that is responsible for the opinion. In us the most wonder¬
ful and important thing is our mind, our consciousness. If the so-
called individual is compared to a magnet, his mind represents the
magnetic force which, though imperceptible and intangible, can
work wonders. Man’s mind too is like that; it manifests in diverse
ways. It is dominant, pre-eminent and supersedes all existing
forces, for it is beyond the laws of chemistry and physics.
Now if we consider ourselves the most important thing in the
world, it behoves us to protect ourselves and others at the same time.
‘If you hold yourself
Dear, watch yourself well .’ 1
>
The following discourse of 2 the Buddha illustrates the point.
‘Once upon a time-, monks, an acrobat climbed his bamboo pole
and called to his pupil: “Now, boy, climb the pole and stand on
my shoulders.” When the pupil had done so the master said: “Now,
boy, protect me and I will protect y<*u; by thus looking after each
other, we will show our tricks, earn money and come down safe
from the pole.”
‘The pupil, however, said: “No, master, that won’t do. You
protect yourself, and I wilr protect myself. Thus self-protected and
self-guarded we will show our tricks, earn money, and come down
safe from the pole. That is the method!” ’
1. Dhp. 157. 2. 5. v. 168.
178
RIGHT MINDFULNESS 1 7i
The Blessed One continued:
‘Now, monks, just as the pupil said to his master: “I will protect
myself,” so should you practise the Foundations of Mindfulness' (i.e.
mindfulness should be practised for self-protection). “I will pro¬
tect others,” thus the Foundations of Mindfulness should be practised
(i.e. ijiindfulness should be practised to protect others). By pro¬
tecting oneself, one protects others; by protecting others one
protects oneself. And how, monks, by protecting oneself does one
protect others? By repeated practice, by developing, by frequent
occupation with it.
‘And how, monks, by protecting others, does one protect oneself?
It is by forbearance, by harmlcSsness, by lovingkindness and by
compassion.. . . Monks, you must practise foundations of mind¬
fulness, saying; “I will protect myself,” “I will protect others.”
What this discourse indicates is clear to the thoughtful reader.
The emphasis is on mindfulness. The Buddha exhorts us to cultivate
the Foundations of Mindfulness for our own and other’s protection.
Forbearance, harmlessness, lovingkindness and compassion are
virtues through which one brings protection and security to others.
None of these virtues can be cultivated without mindfulness. The
I
person who is mindful is conscious of his thoughts, words and acts.
Right mindfulness guards a man from deviating from the path of
righteousness, and encourages him to do that which is good. Thus
through arousing mindfulness, by repeated practice, by frequent
occupation with it, one protects oneself and others.
To protect oneself is not egoism, not selfish security, but sclf-
discipline, self-training, both moral and mental training. To the
extent that we are mentally strong and confident, so can we help
others. If we arc weak and diffident we can help neither ourselves
nor others. Altruism, as a principle of action, is based on our
character and mental development.
The saying: 4 By protecting oneself one protects others; by pro¬
tecting others one protects oneself,’ removes the dual misconception
that the followers of original Buddhism, of the Thcrqydda, are
selfish and pessimistic. Many in thcir’enthusiasm think that the
genuine meditator who strives to train himself, or the man \\ho
tries
The Buddha's Ancient Path
Piyadassi Thera