← Volver a la ficha del textoQ^SWirttvmi
THE CHRONOLOGY
OF
ANCIENT NATIONS
AN ENGLISH VERSION OF THE
ARABIC TEXT OF THE ATHIB-UL-BAEITA OF ALBtE^Nt,
y
"VESTIGES or THE PAST,"
, OR
5
COLLECTED AND REDUCED TO WRITING BY THE AUTHOR
IN A.H. 390—1, A.D. 1000.
TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH NOTES AND INDEX, BY
De. C. EDWARD SACHAU
PROFESSOE IN THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN.
LONDON :
PUBLISHED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN & IRELAND
By W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE,
PUBLISHERS TO THE INDIA OFFICE.
1879.
LONDOK :
PBINTKD BY W. H. AL^N AKD CO.
,^c'
/^/t?/
n
V ^ /
3^s
DEDICATED
TO THE MEMBERS
OF THE
COMMITTEE OP THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND (1878).
OSMOND DE BEAUVOIR PRIAULX.
EDWARD THOMAS, E.R.S.
JAMES EERGUSSON, E.R.S.
REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Seceetaey.
AND TO THE MEMORY OF
THEODOR GOLDSTtrCKER, D.C.L.,
LATE PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.
PEEFACE.
It was Sir Henry Rawlinson who first directed public
attention to this work of Albiruni, in his celebrated article
on Central Asia in the " Quarterly E,eview " for 1866, in
which he gave some valuable information derived from his
own manuscript copy, now the property of the British
Museum. In offering the book, both in text and trans-
lation, to the learned world, I feel bound to premise
that it is scarcely of a nature to attract the interest of
the general reader. It appeals to minds trained in the
schools of various sciences. Even competent scholars will
find it no easy matter to follow our author through all the
mazes of his elaborate scientific calculations. Containing,
as it does, all the technical and historical details of
the various systems for the computation of time, invented
and used by the Persians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, Jews,
Syrians, Harranians, and Arabs, together with Greek
traditions, it offers an equal interest to all those who study
the antiquity and history of the Zoroastrian and Jewish,
Christian and Muhammadan religions.*
The work of Albiruni has the character of a primary
source. Oriental philologists are accustomed to see one book
soon superseded by another, Barhebraeus by Ibn-al'athir,
Ibn-al'athir by Al-Tabari. Although it is likely enough
* By Christians, I understand the Melkite and Nestorian Churches,
whilst the author does not seem to have known much more of the
Jacobites than the name.
VI PEEFACE.
that on many subjects in this book we shall one day find
better authenticated and more ancient information, I
venture to say, that, as a whole, it will scarcely ever be
. superseded. It is a standard work in Oriental literature,
and has been recognised as such by the East itself, repre-
senting in its peculiar line the highest development of
Oriental scholarship. Perhaps we shall one day find the
literary sources themselves from which Albiruni derived his
information, and shall be enabled to dispense with his
extracts from them. But there are other chapters, e.g.
those on the calendars of the ancient inhabitants of Central
Asia, regarding which we shall, in all likelihood, never find
any more ancient information, because the author had
learned the subject from hearsay among a population
which was then on the eve of dying out. As the first
editor and translator of a book of this kind, I venture to
claim the indulgence of the reader. Generations of scholars
have toiled to carry the understanding of Herodotus to
that point where it is now, and how much is wanting still !
The work of generations will be required to do full justice
to Albiruni. A classical philologist can edit a Greek text in
a correct form, even though he may have no complete
understanding of the subject-matter in all possible relations.
Not so an Arabic philologist. The ambiguity of the Arabic
writing — ])roh dolor I — is the reason why a manuscript
expresses only three-quarters of the author's meaning,
whilst the editor is compelled to supply the fourth quarter
from his own knowledge and discernment. No number in
any chronological table can be considered correct, as long
as it is not proved by computation to be so, and even in
the simplest historical narrative the editor and translator
may most lamentably go astray in his interpretation, if
there is something wrong with the method of his research.
PREFACE. Vll
I have boldly attacked the sometimes rather enigmatic
style of the author, and if I have missed the mark, if the
bewildering variety and multiplicity of the subject-matter
have prevented me reaching the very bottom of every
question, I must do what more or less every Oriental
author does at the end of his work, — humbly ask the gentle
reader to pardon my error and to correct it.
I. The Author.
The full name of the author is Abu-Baihdn Muhammad
h. ^ Ahmad Alhirum. He quotes himself as Abu-Baihdn
(vide p. 134, 1. 29), and so he is generally called in Eastern
literature, more rarely ATbirum.
The latter name means, literally, extraneous, being a
derivative from the Persian ^^^^ which means the outside
as a noun, and outside as a preposition. In our time the
word is pronounced Birun (or Beeroon), e.g. in Teheran,
but the vowel of the first syllable is a ydi-majhul, which
means that in more ancient times it was pronounced Berun
(or Bayroon). This statement- rests on the authority of
the Persian lexicographers. That the name was pronounced
in this way in Central Asia about the author's time, we
learn from an indisputable statement regarding our author
from the pen of Alsam'ani, a philologist and biographer of
high repute, who wrote only one hundred years after the
author's death (vide Introduction to my edition of the text,
p. xviii.).
He was a native of Khwarizm, or Chorasmia, the modern
Khiva; to speak more accurately, a native either of a suburb
(Berlin) of the capital of the country, both of which bore
the same name Khiudrizm, or of the country-district (also
called B^rdn) belonging to the capital.
Albiruni was born a.h. 362, 3. Dhu-alhijja (a.d. 973,
Vlll PEEFACB.
4th September), and died a.h. 440, 2. Rajab (a.d. 1048,
11th December), aged seventy-five years.
The first part of his hfe he seems to have spent in
Khwarizm, where he enjoyed the protection of the House
of Ma^mun, the rnlers of the country. Originally vassals
of the kings of Central Asia of the House of Sdmdn, they
became independent when the star of their masters began
to sink, i.e. between a.h. 384-390. They were, however, not
to play a great part in the history of the East, for so early as
a.h. 407 their power was crushed by the great Mahmud of
Ghazna, and their dominions annexed to his empire. Like
Albiruni, other scholars also of high standing received
protection and favours at the court of the Ma' muni
princes.
The author is known to have lived some years also in
Jurjan, or Hyrcania, on the southern shores of the Caspian
sea, under the protection, and perhaps at the court, of
Kabus ben "Washmgir Shams-alma'ali, who ruled over
Hyrcania and the adjoining countries at two different
periods, a.h. 366-371 and 388-403. To this prince he has
dedicated the present book, apparently about a.h. 390-391,
(a.d. 1000).
During the years a.h. 400-407 he stayed again in his
native country at the court of Ma'mun b. Ma'mim, as his
friend and counsellor. He was a witness of the rebellion
that broke out a.h. 407, of the murder of Ma'mun, and of
the conquest of the country by Mahmud of Ghazna, who,
on returning, carried off him and other scholars to Afghan-
istan in the spring of a.h. 408.
Among his numerous works, we find mentioned a
" Chronicle of Khwarizm," in which he probably had re-
corded all the traditions relating to the antiquity of his native
country, and more especially the history of those events of
PKEPACE. IX
which he had himself been a witness. This work seems to
be lost. However, an extract of it has come down to us
as the last part of the great chronicle of the royal house
of Mahmud, composed by Albaihaki, the edition of which
we owe to the industry and learning of the late W. H.
Morley (" Bibhotheca Indica," Calcutta, 1862, pp. 834, &c.).
With A.H. 408 begins a new period in the author's life,
when he enlarged the circle of his researches on mathe-
matics, astronomy, geography, chronology, and natural
sciences by his study of India, its geography and history,
of the language and literature, manners and customs, of
the Hindus. It was the period when he gathered all those
materials which he deposited towards the end of his life in
his famous " Memoir on India."
After Albiruni had settled in Grhazna, he paid at least
one more visit to his native country. He died, probably, at
Ghazna. "Whether he travelled much in other countries
besides India, I have no means of proving. From the
present book we can only infer that, besides his native
country and Hyrcania, he also knew parts of Media, e.g.
Rai (EhagEe).
II. Eis Work.
Albiruni calls his work Aldthdr Alhdhiya ^an-il-Kilrun
Alhhdliya, i.e. monuments or vestiges of generations of the
past that have been preserved up to the author's time,
meaning by monuments or vestiges the religious institutes
of various nations and sects, founded in more ancient
times, and, more or less, still practised and adhered to by
the Oriental world about a.d. 1000.
With admirable industry the author gathers whatever
traditions he can find on every single fact, he confronts
them with each other, and inquires with critical acumen
X PREFACE.
into the special merits or demerits of each single tradition.
Mathematical accuracy is his last gauge, and wherever the
nature of a tradition admits of such a gauge, he is sure to
verify it by the help of careful mathematical calculation.
To speak in general, there is much of the modern spirit and
method of critical research in our author, and in this respect
he is a phenomenon in the history of Eastern learning
and literature. Authors of the first centuries of the Hijra
sometimes betray a great deal of common sense and good
method, sometimes also unmistakable traces of a marked
individuality, whilst the later centuries are characterised by
the very opposite. Then the author entirely disappears
behind his book ; all literary work sinks down to the level
of imbecile compilation from good and bad sources ; the
understanding of the life and literature of the preceding
centuries becomes rare and distorted. Common sense has
gone never to return, and very seldom do we meet with a
trace of scientific method or of the individuality of the
author.
The fourth century is the turning-point in the history of
the spirit of Islam, and the establishment of the orthodox
faith about 500 sealed the fate of independent research for
ever. But for Alash'ari and Alghazzalt the Arabs might
have been a nation of Gralileos, Keplers, and Newtons.
Originally I intended to give a complete expose of the
sources whence Albiruni has drawn his manifold informa-
tion, but the material hitherto available for researches on
the literary history of the east is still so scanty that I
had to desist from my plan. This applies in particular to
the east of the Khalifate, to Khurasan. We are com-
paratively well informed regarding the literature of
Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and the farther west of Islam,
whilst we have very little information regarding the scien-
PEEFACE. XI
tific and literary life east of Bagdad as it developed itself
during the first tliree centuries of Abbaside rule, under the
protection of the imperial governors and the later inde-
pendent princes, e.g. the House of Saman.
It is to be hoped that Central Asia and Afghanistan,
when once in the grasp of European influence, will yield
us rich collections of valuable literary monuments.
Hitherto manuscripts coming from those countries are
seldom met with in the great libraries of Europe.
As for the ivritten material which the author had at his
disposal, he quotes many a book of which I elsewhere
can scarcely find a trace. All the books, e.g. on Persian
and Zoroastrian history and traditions, composed in early
times, not only by Zoroastrians but also by Muslims,
converts from the Zoroastrian creed, are altogether un-
known in Europe ; and it seems very probable that the
bigoted people of later times have spared very little of this
kind of literature, which to them had the intolerable
smell of filthy idolatry.
As regards Persian history, Albiruni had an excellent
predecessor in Alisfahani, whom he follows frequently, and
whom he was not able to surpass in many points.
From oral information Albiruni seems to have learned
all he knows of the chronology and calendar of the
Zoroastrian populations of Persia, of his native country,
and of Sogdiana (or Bukhara). In his time the majority
of the country-people still adhered to Ahuramazda, and in
most towns there must still have been Zoroastrian commu-
nities, so that Albiruni did not lack the opportunity for
studying the manners and institutes of the then existing
followers of Zoroaster. Unfortunately, the Zoroastrian
creed had lost its clerical and political unity and constitu-
tion. The people practised their customs as they had seen
Xll PEEFAOE.
their parents do, but they had no longer a correct under-
standing of their origin and meaning. Certainly a Mobe-
dan-Mobed of the time of Ardashir Babekan would have
been able to give a more accurate and complete account of
Zoroastrian life and religion; but still we must be thankful
to Albiruni for his having preserved to posterity the festal
calendars as used by Zoroastrians of his time when their
religion was on the eve of dying out.
To oral information I ascribe also the author's admirable
knowledge of the Jewish calendar. Jewish scholars will
be able to say whether his informants were Ananites
(Karaites) or Rabbanites. My critics do not seem to have
noticed that Albiruni, a Muslim, is the first of all the
scholars we know who has composed a scientific system of
the Jewish chronology. He is much anterior to Moses
Maimonides, also to Abraham bar Chiyya, being a contem-
porary of R. Sherira and Hat Gaon, who seem to play a
prominent part in the history of Jewish chronology.
With Nestorian Christians he must have been acquainted,
as he speaks of the Nestorian communities of his native
country. His report of the Melkite feasts, &c., may have
been communicated to him by Nestorian priests from Syriac
sources.
Albiruni wrote both in Arabic and Persian, as he has
edited his " Kitab-altaf him " in both languages. There is
a possibility of his having had a smattering of Hebrew and
Syriac {vide pp. 18, 19 j, but of Greek he seems to have
been ignorant, and whatever he relates on the authority of
Greek authors — Ptolemy, Galen, Eusebius, &c. — must
have been communicated to him by the ordinary channel
of Syriac- Arabic translation. His study of Sanskrit falls
into the latter half of his life.
From occasional notes in the book a description of the
PREFACE. XIU
author's character may be gleaned. He seems to have
been a truth-loving man, attacking all kinds of shams with
bitter sarcasms. He was not without a humoristic vein,
and his occasional ironical remarks offer a curious contrast
to the pervading earnestness of the tenor of his speech.
As a Muslim he inclined towards the Shi'a, but he was not
a bigoted Muslim. He betrays a strong aversion to the
Arabs, the destroyers of Sasanian glory, and a marked
predilection for all that is of Persian or Eranian nationality.
Muslim orthodoxy had not yet become so powerful as to
imperil the life of a man, be he Muslim or not, who would
study other religions and publicly declare in favour of
them. Dakiki, a poet not long anterior to Albiruni, a
favourite of the Muslim house of Saman, was allowed to
sing — 1
" Of all that is good and bad in the world,
Dakiki has chosen four things to himself :
A woman's lips as red as rubies, the melody of the lute.
The blood-coloured wine, and the religion of Zoroaster."
Not long afterwards, at the court of the great Mahmud
of Grhazna, these verses would probably have proved fatal
to their author.
Rabent sua fata libelU, and I may add, the fate of this
book, from the time of its composition till the time when I
began to study it, has not been a fortunate one. Only a
few were able to understand it, few had an interest in
having it copied.
In the form in which I offer the book to the reader it is
not com^^lete. Many most essential parts, both large and
small, are missing, e.g. the chapter on Zoroaster, a most
deplorable loss, arising probably from Muslim bigotry.
However, I should think it does not require an apology
from me to have edited the book in this mutilated form in
XIV PREFACE.
which I have found it in the manuscripts. Should the
favour of time bring to light one day a complete copy, I
shall be happy if circumstances will allow me at once to
edit the hitherto missing parts in text and translation.
The basis of my edition consists of two manuscripts of
the seventeenth and one of the nineteenth century, all full
of faults, and — what is worse ! — agreeing with each other
almost in every particular. In fact, all three copies repre-
sent one and the same original. Fortunately a chronolo-
gical work offers this advantage, that in many cases
mathematical examination enables the editor to correct the
blunders of the tradition, e.g. in the numerous tables.
My notes are in the first place intended to give the calcu-
lations on which the tables rest. Besides, they contain
contributions to the explications of certain difficult passages,
short information on points of literary history, and, lastly,
a few remarks on the text and corrections.
For all other introductory questions I refer the reader to
the Grerman preface to my edition of the text.
In offering my translation to the English reader, I desire
to thank my friend, the Rev. Robert Gwynne, Yicar of
St. Mary's, Soho, London, who not only corrected the
whole manuscript, but also read the proof-sheets of the
entire book.
EDWARD SACHAU.
Berlin, 24<th May, 1879.
CONTENTS.
Page
Translator's Preface ------ v
Preface -..-.---1
Chapter I. — On the Nature of Day and Niglit, of tlieir Totality
and of tlieir Beginnings - - - - - 5
Chapter EC. — On tlie Nature of tliat which is composed of Days,
viz. Months and Years - - - - - 11
Chapter III. — On the Nature of the Eras and the different
Opinions of the Nations regarding them - - - 16
Chapter IV. — The different Oj)inions of various Nations re-
garding the King called Dhu-al-karnaini or Bicornutus - 43
Chapter V. — On the Nature of the Months which are used in
the preceding Eras - - - - - - 52
Chapter VI. — On the Derivation of the Eras from each other,
and on the Chronological Dates, relating to the Commence-
ments and the Durations of the Keigns of the Kings,
according to the various Traditions - - - 84
Chapter VII. — On the Cycles and Year-points, on the Moleds of
the Years and Months, on their various Qualities, and on
the Leap-months both in Jewish and other Years - - 141
Chapter VIII. — On the Eras of the Pseudo-prophets and their
Communities who were deluded by them, the curse of the
Lord be upon them ..... 186
Chapter IX. — On the Festivals in the Months of the Persians - 199
Chapter X. — On the Festivals in the Months of the Sughdians - 220
Chapter XI. — On the Festivals in the Months of the Khwiiriz-
mians .---..- 223
XVI CONTENTS.
Page
Chaptee XII. — On Khwarizm- Shah's Eeform of the Khwarizm-
ian Festal Calendar - - - - - -229
Chapter XTTI. — On the Days of the Greek Calendar as known
both among the Greeks and other Nations - - - 231
Chapter XIV. — Of the Festivals and Fast-days in the Months of
the Jews ....... 268
Chapter XV. — On the Festivals and Memorable Days of the
Syrian Calendar, celebrated by the Melkite Christians - 282
Chapter XVI. — On the Christian Lent, and on those Feasts and
Festive Days which depend upon Lent and revolve parallel
with it through the Year, regarding which all Christian
sects agree among each other _ . . . 299
Chapter XVII. — On the Festivals of the Nestorian Christians,
their Memorial and Fast Days .... 306
Chapter XVIII. — On the Feasts of the ancient Magians, and on
the Fast and Feast Days of the Sabians ... 314
Chapter XIX. — On the Festivals of the Arabs in the time of
Heathendom - - - - - -321
Chapter XX. — On the Festivals of the Muslims - - 325
Chapter XXI. — On the Lunar Stations, their rising and setting,
and on their Images . . - . . 335
Annotations - - - - - - -367
Index ---..-.- 449
E R RATA.
p. 383, delete the first two lines and insert — •
Saiudr. Perhaps identical with the ^apeipot of Byzantine authors, from whom
Siberia derived its name,
p. 451, col. 2, last line, delete China, 266, 10.
p. 452, col. 1, line 1, after Chinese insert 266, 10.
p. 460, after line 42 insert —
Poison-mountain (rarefied atmosphei'e), 268, 17.
p. 462, col. 2, after line 18 insert —
Tibetans, 263, 17.
DIEECTION TO THE BINDER.
Table of Kebi'oth . . . .to face p. 154.
PREFACE.
IN THE NAME OF GOD, THE COMPASSIONATE, THE MERCIFUL.
Praisb be to God who is high, above all things (lit. those which are
■unlike, and those which are like to each other), and blessing be on
Muhammad, the elected, the best of all created beings, and on his family,
the guides of righteousness and truth.
One of the exquisite plans in God's management of the affairs of his
creation, one of the glorious benefits which he has bestowed upon the
entirety of his creatures, is that categorical decree of his, not to leave in
in his world any period without a just guide, whom he constitutes as a
protector for his creatures, with whom to take refuge in unfortunate and
sorrowful cases and accidents, and upon whom to devolve their affairs,
when they seem indissolubly j^erplexed, so that the order of the world
should rest upon — and its existence be supported by — his genius. And
this decree (that the affairs of mankind should be governed by a proj^het)
has been settled upon them as a religious dvity, and has been linked
together with the obedience towards God, and the obedience towards his
Prophet, through which alone a reward in future life may be obtained —
in accordance with the word of him, who is the truth and justice — and
20 his word is judgment and decree, " 0 ye believers, obey God, and obey
the prophets, and those among yourselves who are invested with the
command." (Sura iv. 62.)
Therefore, thanks be to God for those blessings, which he has bestowed
upon his servants, by exalting our master, the commander, the prince,
the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma'ali, may God
1
Z ALBIRUNI.
give kim a long life, and give duration to his j)ower and majesty, preserve
through the course of time his excellence and his splendour, protect his
whole house (lit. the areas inside and outside his house), prostrate all
those who envy him, and all his enemies, (by exalting him) as a guide,
who justly rules over his creatures, who furthers religion and truth, who
fights for the altar and the hearth of the Muslims, and who protects their
country against the mischief of evil-doers. And Grod has supported him
by giving him a character similar to that with which he has blessed his
Prophet, the bearer of his revelation ; for he, whose name be praised, has
said : " To thee has been given a high character." (Sura Ixviii. 4.) 10
How wonderfully has he, whose name is to be exalted and extolled,
combined with the glory of his noble extraction the graces of his generous
character, with his valiant soul all laudable qualities, such as piety and
righteousness, carefulness in defending and observing the rites of re-
ligion, justice and equity, humility and beneficence, firmness and deter-
mination, liberality and gentleness, the talent for ruling and governing,
for managing and deciding, and other qualities, which no fancy could
comprehend, and no human being enumerate ! And how should a man
wonder at this, it being undeniable that Grod has the power to combine
the whole world in one individual (i.e. to create a niicrocosmos) ! There- 20
fore, may God permit the Muslims still for a long period to enjoy the
kindness of his intentions, the ingenuity of his plans, and his evidently
merciful and j^itiful mind, with which he cares for them ! May they from
day to day derive more benefits from the j)erpetual shade of his majesty,
to which they are accustomed ! And may God assist by his kindness
and mercy, high and low, to fulfil the works of obedience towards God,
which are imposed npon them !
Dedication. — The Author's Method. — A learned man once asked me
regarding the eras used by different nations, and regarding the difference
of their roots, i.e. the epochs where they begin, and of their branches, i.e. 30
the months and years, on which they are based ; further regarding the
causes which led to such difference, and the famous festivals and com-
memoration-days for certain times and events, and regarding whatever
else one nation practises differently from another. He urged me to give
an explanation, the clearest possible, of all this, so as to be easily intelli-
gible to the mind of the reader, and to free him from the necessity of
wading through widely scattered books, and of consulting their authors.
Now I was quite aware that this was a task difficult to handle, an object
not easily to be attained or managed by anyone, who wants to treat it as
a matter of logical sequence, regarding which the mind of the student is 40
not agitated by doubt. However, from the majesty of our master, the
prince, the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma'ali — may
God make his power to endure! — I derived strength in exerting my
capabilities, and trying to do my utmost in order to explain the whole
subject on the basis of that information which I have gathered either as
PEEFAOE. 3
an ear- or eye-witness, or by cogitation and study. Besides, I was
encouraged by that robe of blessed service, in which I have dressed
myself, to compose such an explanation for him, who occupies a high
throne, that he may see herein a new sign of my service, and that thereby
I may obtain the garments of such a glory, the memory and splendour of
which will last as my heirloom in posterity through the flood of ages and
generations. If, therefore, he — whose noble mind may God preserve ! —
will favour his servant by overlooking his audacity, and accepting his
excuses, he follows the right idea, if it pleases God. And now I
10 commence and say :
The best and nearest way leading to that, regarding which I have been
asked for information, is the knowledge of the history and tradition of
former nations and generation's, because the greatest part of it consists
of matters, which have come down from them, and of remains of their
customs and institutes. And this object cannot be obtained by way of
ratiocination with philosophical notions, or of inductions based upon the
observations of our senses, but solely by adopting the information of those
who have a written tradition, and of the members of the different
religions, of the adherents of the different doctrines and religious sects,
20 by whom the institutes in question are used, and by making their opinions
a basis, on which afterwards to build up a system ; besides, we must
compare their traditions and opinions among themselves, when we try to
establish our system. But ere that we must clear our mind from all
those accidental circumstances which deprave most men, from all causes
which are liable to make people blind against the truth, e.g. inveterate
custom, party-spirit, rivalry, being addicted to one's passions, the desire
to gain influence, etc. For that which I have mentioned, is the nearest
way you could take, that leads to the true end, and the most efficient help
towards removing all the clouds of uncertainty and doubt, which beset
30 the subject. It is impossible in any other way to reach the same purpose,
notwithstanding the greatest care and exertion. On the other hand, we
confess that it is by no means easy to act upon that principle and that p. 5.
method, which we have laid down, that on the contrary from its recondite
nature, and its difficulty, it might seem to be almost unattainable — on
account of the numerous lies which are mixed up with all historical
records and traditions. And those lies do not all on the face of it appear
to be impossibilities, so that they might be easily distinguished and
eliminated. However, that which is within the limits of possibility, has
been treated as true, as long as other evidence did not prove it to be
40 false. For we witness sometimes, and others have witnessed before us,
physical appearances, which we should simply declare to be impossible,
if something similar were related from a far remote time. Now the life
of man is not sufficient to learn thoroughly the traditions of one of the
many nations. How, therefore, could he learn the traditions of all of
them ? That is impossible.
1 *
4 ALBIRUNI.
The matter standing thus, it is our duty to proceed from what is near
to the more distant, from what is known to that which is less known, to
gather the traditions from those who have reported them, to correct them
as much as possible, and to leave the rest as it is, in order to make our
work help him, who seeks truth and loves wisdom, in making independent
researches on other subjects, and guide him to find out that which was
denied to us, whilst we were working at this subject, by the will of God,
and with his help.
In conformity with our plan, we must proceed to explain the nature of
day and night, of their totality, i.e. the astronomical day, and assumed 10
beginning. For day and night are to the months, years, and eras, what
one is for the numerals, of which they are composed, and into which they
are resolved. By an accurate knowledge of day and night, the progress
towards learning that which is composed of them and built upon them,
becomes easy.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE NATURE OF DAY AND NIGHT, OF THEIB TOTALITY AND OF
THEIR BEGINNINGS.
I SAY : Day and night (i.e. wx^^/Acpov) are one revolution of the sun in
the rotation of the universe, starting from and returning to a circle,
which has been assumed as the beginning of this same Nychthemeron,
whichsoever circle it may be, it being determined by general consent.
This circle is a " great " circle ; for each great circle is dynamically an
horizon. By ''dynamically" (ttJ Swa/Act), I mean that it (this circle)
10 may be the horizon of any place on the earth. By the " rotation of tie
universe" I mean the motion of the celestial sphere, and of all that is
in it, which we observe going round on its two poles from east to west.
The Setting of the Sun as the beginning of the Day— Now, the
Arabs assumed as the beginning of their Nychthemeron the point where
the setting sun intersects the circle of the horizon. Therefore their
Nychthemeron extends from the moment when the sun disappears from
the horizon till his disappearance on the following day. They were
induced to adopt this system by the fact that their months are based
upon the course of the moon, derived from her various motions, and
20 that the beginnings of the months were fixed, not by calculation, but
by the appearance of the new moons. Now, full moon, the appearance
of which is, with them, the beginning of the month, becomes visible
towards sunset. Therefore their night preceded their day ; and, there-
fore, it is their custom to let the nights precede the days, when they p. 6.
mention them in connection with the names of the seven days of
the week.
Those who herein agree with them plead for this system, saying that
darkness in the order (of the creation) precedes light, and that light
suddenly came forth when darkness existed already; that, therefore,
30 that which was anterior in existence is the most suitable to be adopted
6 ALBiRUNt.
as the beginning. And, therefore, they considered absence of motion
as superior to motion, comparing rest and tranquillity with darkness,
and because of the fact that motion is always produced by some want
and necessity ; that weariness follows upon the necessity ; that, there-
fore, weariness is the consequence of motion. Lastly, because rest (the
absence of motion), when remaining in the elements for a time, does not
produce decay ; whilst motion, when remaining in the elements and
taking hold of them, produces corruption. As instances of this they
adduce earthquakes, storms, waves, &c.
The Rising" of the Sun as the beginning of the Day.— As to the 10
other nations, the Greeks and Eomans, and those who follow with them
the like theory, they have agreed among themselves that the Nych-
themeron should be reckoned from the moment when the sun rises
above the eastern horizon till the same moment of the following day,
as their months are derived by calculation, and do not depend upon the
phases of the moon or any other star, and as the months begin with
the beginning of the day. Therefore, with them, the day precedes the
night; and, in favour of this view, they argue that light is an Ens,
whilst darkness is a Non-ens. Those who think that light was anterior
in existence to darkness consider motion as superior to rest (the absence 20
of motion), because motion is an Ens, not a Non-ens — is life, not death.
They meet the arguments of their opponents with similar ones, saying, e.g.
that heaven is something more excellent than the earth ; that a working
man and a young man are the healthiest ; that running water does not,
like standing water, become putrid.
Noon or Midnight as the beginning of the Day.— The greater
part and the most eminent of the learned men among astronomers
reckon the Nychthemeron from the moment when the sun arrives on the
plane of the meridian till the same moment of the following day. This
is an intermediate view. Therefore their Nychthemera begin from the 30
visible half of the plane of the meridian. Upon this system they have
built their calculation in the astronomical tables (the Canons), and have
thereby derived the places of the stars, along with their equal motions
and their corrected places, in the almanacks (lit. year-books). Other
astronomers prefer the invisible half of the plane of the meridian, and
begin, therefore, their day at midnight, as e.g. the author of the Canon
(Zij) of Shahriyaran Shah. This does not alter the case, as both
methods are based upon the same principle.
People were induced to prefer the meridian to the horizon by many
circumstances. One was, that they had discovered that the Nych- 40
themera vary, and are not always of the same length ; a variation
which, during the eclipses, is clearly apparent even to the senses.
The reason of this variation is the fact that the course of the sun in
the ecliptic varies, it being accelerated one time and retarded another ;
and that the single sections of the ecliptic cross the circles (the horizons)
ON THE NATUEE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 7
at a different rate of velocity. Therefore, in order to remove that
variation which attaches to the Nychthemera, they wanted some kind
of equation ; and the equation of the Nychthemera by means of the
rising of the ecliptic above the meridian is constant and regular every-
where on the earth, because this circle is one of the horizons of the
globe which form a right angle (with the mei'idian) ; and because its
conditions and qvialities remain the same in every part of the earth.
This quality they did not find in the horizontal circles, for they vary
for each place ; and every latitude has a particular horizon of its own,
10 different from that of any other j^lace, and because the single sections
of the ecliptic cross the horizons at a different rate of velocity. To use
the horizons (for the equation of the Nychthemera) is a proceeding both
imperfect and intricate.
Another reason why they preferred the meridian to the horizon is
this, that the distances between the meridians of different places
correspond to the distances of their meridians on the equator and the
parallel circles ; whilst the distances between the hoi'izontal circles are
the same with the addition of their northern and southern declination.
An accurate description of everything connected with stars and their
20 places is not possible, except by means of that direction which depends
upon the meridian. This direction is called "longitude," which has
nothing in common with the other direction, which depends upon the
horizon, and is called " latitude."
Therefore they have chosen that circle which might serve as a regular
and constant basis of their calculations, and have not used others ;
although, if they had wished to use the horizons, it would have been
possible, and would have led them to the same results as the meridian,
but only after a long and roundabout process. And it is the greatest
mistake possible purposely to deviate from the direct route in order to
30 go by a long roundabout.
Day, Night, and the Duration of the Day of Fast.— This is the
general definition of the day which we give, the night being included.
Now, if we proceed to divide and to distinguish, we have to state that
the words" Yaum" (day) in its restricted signification, and "Nahdr"
(day), mean the same, viz., the time from the rising of the body of the
sun till its setting. On the other hand, night means the time from the
setting of the body of the sun till its rising. Thus these two terms are
used among all nations by general consent, nobody disputing their
meanings, except one Muslim lawyer, who has defined the beginning of
40 the day to be the rise of dawn, and its end to be the setting of the sun,
because he presumed that the day and the duration of fasting were
identical. For this view of his he argues from the following word of
God (Sura ii. 183) : " Eat and drink till you can distinguish a white
thread from a black thread at the light of dawn. Thereupon fast the
entire day till the night." Now, he has maintained that these two terms
8 ALBIRUNI.
(dawn and night) are the two limits of the day (heginnincj and end).
Between this view, however, and this verse of the Coran there is not the
slightest connection whatsoever. For if the beginning of fasting was
identical with the beginning of the day, his (God's) definition of some-
thing that is quite evident and well known to everybody, in such terms,
would be like a pains-taking attempt to explain something void of sense.
Likewise he has not defined the end of day and the beginning of night
in similar terms, because this is generally known among all mankind.
Grod orders that fasting should commence at the rise of dawn ; but the
end of fasting he does not describe in a similar way, but simply says 10
that it should end at " night" because everybody knows that this means
the time when the globe of the sun disappears. Hence it is evident that
God, by the words of the first sentence (i.e. eat and drink till you can
distinguish a white thread from a black thread at the light of dawn),
does not mean the beginning of day.
A further j)roof of the correctness of our interpretation is the word of
God (Sura ii. 183) : " It has been declared as lawful to you during the
p. 8. night of fasting to have intercourse (lit. to speak obscene things) with
your wivep," &c., to the passage, " Thereupon fast the entire day till the
night." Thereby he extends the right of having intercourse with one's 20
wife, and of eating and drinking, over a certain limited time, not over
the entire night. Likewise it had been forbidden to Muslims, before
this verse had been revealed, to eat and drink after night-prayer (the
time when the darkness of night commences). And still people did not
reckon their fasting by days and parts of the night, but simply by days
(although the time of fasting was much longer than the day).
Now, if people say that God, in this verse (Sura ii. 183), wanted to
teach mankind the beginning of the day, it would necessarily follow
that before that moment they were ignorant of the beginning of day and
night, which is simply absurd. 30
Now, if people say the legal day is different from the natural day,
this is nothing but a difference in words, and the calling something by
a name, which, according to the usage of the language, means something
else. And, besides, it must be considered that there is not the slightest
mention in the verse of the day and of its beginning. We keep, how-
ever, aloof from pertinacious disputation on this subject, and we are
willing to agree with our opponents as to the expressions if they will
agree with us regarding the subject-matter.
And how could we believe a thing the contrary of which is evident to
our senses ? For evening-twilight in the west corresponds to morning- 40
dawn in the east ; both arise from the same cause, and are of the same
nature. If, therefore, the rise of morning-dawn were the beginning of
the day, the disappearance of evening-twilight would be its end. And
actually some Shiites have been compelled to adopt such a doctrine.
Let U8 take it for granted that those who do not agree with us
ON THE NATUEE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 9
regarding tliat wliicli we have previously explained, agree with us as to
the fact that twice a year night and day are equal — once in spring and
once in autumn. Further, that he thinks, like us, that we have the
longest day when the sun stands nearest to the north pole ; the shortest
day when the sun is at the greatest distance from- the north pole ; that
the shortest summer night is equal to the shortest winter day ; and that
the same meaning is expressed by the two verses of the Goran : " Grod
makes night enter into day, and he makes day enter into night"
(Sura XXXV. 14), and " He wraps night around day, and he wraps day
10 around night" (Sura xxxix. 7). Now, if they do not know this, or
pretend not to know it, at all events they cannot help admitting that
the first half of the day is six hours long, and likewise the latter half.
Against this they cannot pretend to be bhnd, because of the well known
and well authenticated tradition which relates to the prerogatives of
those who hasten to the mosque on a Friday, and which shows that
their wages are the highest, although their time of work in the six hours
from the beginning of the day till the time of the decline of the sun is
the shortest. This is to be understood of the Horce temporales obliquce
(wpat KaipiKai), not of the Horce rectce, which are also called cequinoctiales
20 (oipat IcrrjfJLepLvai).
Now, if we should comply with their wish, and acknowledge their
assertions as truth, we should have to believe that an equinox takes
place when the sun moves on either side of the winter solstice (i.e. near
to the point of the winter- solstice either arriving there or leaving it) ;
that this takes place only in some parts of the earth to the exclusion of
others ; that the winter night is not equal to the summer day, and that
noon is not then when the sun reaches the midst between his rising and
setting points. Whilst just the contrary of these necessary inferences
30 from their theory is the conclusion generally accepted even by those who
have only a slight insight into the matter. That, however, similar
absurdities must follow out of their reasoning he only will thoroughly
comprehend who is to some degree acquainted with the motions of the
(celestial) globes.
If somebody will stick to what j^eople say at dawn-rise, " morning has
come, night has gone ;^' what is he to think of what they say when the sun
is near setting, and becomes yellow — " evening has come, day has gone,
night has come?" Such exj^ressions merely indicate the aj^proaching,
the advancing, and the receding of the precise time in which people just
40 happen to be. These phrases are to be explained as metaphors and
metonymies. They are allowed in the usage of the language, cf. e.g. the
word of God (Sura xvi. 1) : " The order of Grod has come ; therefore do
not hurry it."
Another argument in favour of our view is the following saying,
which is attributed to the Prophet, to whom and to whose family may
God be merciful : " The prayer of the day is silent." And the fact that
10 ALBIRUNI.
people call tlie noon-prayer the " first " prayer, because it is the first of
the two daily prayers ; whilst they call the afternoon-prayer the "middle"
prayer, because it is in the midst, between the first of the two daily
prayers and the first of the prayers of the night.
My only object in all I have discussed in this place is to refute the
opinion of those who think that those things which are necessary for
certain philosophical or physical causes prove the contrary of that which
is indicated by the Coran, and who try to support their opinion by the
doctrine of one of the lawyers and commentators of the Coran, G-od
helps to the right insight ! 10
11
CHAPTER II.
ON THE NATURE OF THAT WHICH IS COMPOSED OF DATS, VIZ., MONTHS
AND TEARS.
I SAT : Tear means one revolution of the sun in tlie ecliptic, moving in a
direction opposite to that of the universal motion, and returning to the
same point which has been assumed as the starting-point of his motion,
whichsoever point this may be. In this way the sun includes in his
course the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, winter, and their four
different natures ; and returns always to the point whence he commenced.
10 According to Ptolemy these revolutions are equal, because he did not
find that the apogee of the sun moves ; whilst they are unequal according
to the authors of Sindhind and the modern astronomers, because their
observations led them to think that the apogee of the sun moves. In
each case, however, whether they be equal or different, these revolutions
include the four seasons and their natures.
As to the length of such a revolution in days and fractions of a day,
the results of the astronomical observations do not agree, but differ
considerably. According to some observations it is larger ; according to
others less. However, in a short space of time this difference scarcely
20 becomes perceptible ; but in the long run of time, when this difference
is being redoubled and multiplied many times, and is then summed up
into a whole, a very great error becomes clearly manifest, on account
of which the sages have strongly recommended us to continue making
observations, and to guard against errors which possibly might have
entered into them. p. 10.
The difference of the observations regarding the length of one annual
revolution of the sun does not arise from this cause, that people do not
know how properly to institute such observations, and to gain thereby
an accurate knowledge of the real state of the thing ; but from this
80 cause, that it is impossible to fix the parts of the greatest circle by
12 ALBiRUNi.
means of tlie parts of the smallest circle. I refer to the smallness of
the instruments of observations in comparison with the vastness of the
bodies which are to be observed. On this subject I have enlarged in my
book, called Kitdh-alistishhdd bikhtildf-al'arsdd.
During this time, i.e. during one revolution of the sun in the ecliptic,
the moon completes a little less than 12| revolutions, and has 12
lunations. This space of time, i.e. the 12 revolutions of the moon in
the ecliptic, is, technically, the lunar year, in which the fraction (beyond
the 12 revolutions), which is nearly 11 days, is disregarded. The same
fact, further, is the reason why the ecliptic was divided into 12 equal 10
parts, as I have explained in my book on the investigation of rays and
lights ; the same which I had the honour to present to His Highness.
May Grod increase his majesty !
In consequence, people distinguish two kinds of years — the Solar year
and the Lunar year. They have not used other stars for the purpose of
deriving years from them, because their motions are comparatively
hidden, and can hardly ever be found out by eyesight ; but only by
astronomical observations and experiments. Further (they used only
sun and moon for this purpose), because the changes of the particles of
the elements and their mutual metamorphoses, as far as time and the 20
state of the air, plants and animals, etc., are concerned, depend entirely
upon the motions of these two celestial bodies, because they are the
greatest of all, and because they excel the other stars by their light and
appearance ; and because they resemble each other. Afterwards people
derived from these two kinds of years other years.
The Solar Year. — According to the statement of Theon, in his Canon,
the people of Constantinople, and of Alexandria, and the other Greeks,
the Syrians and Chaldseans, the Egyptians of our time, and those who
have adopted the year of Almu'ta-did-billah, all use the solar year,
which consists of nearly 365j days. They reckon their year as 366 30
days, and add the quarters of a day in every fourth year as one complete
day, when it has summed up thereto. This year they call an intercalary
year, because the quarters are intercalated therein. The ancient Egyp-
tians followed the same practice, but with this difference, that they
neglected the quarters of a day till they had summed up to the number
of days of one complete year, which took place in 1,460 years; then they
intercalated one year, and agreed with the people of Alexandria and
Constantinople as to the beginning of the year. So Theon Alexandrinus
relates.
The Persians followed the same rule as long as their empire lasted ; 40
11. but they treated it differently. For they reckoned their year as 365
days, and neglected the following fractions until the day-quarters had
summed up in the course of 120 years to the number of days of one
complete month, and until the fifth parts of an hour, which, according
to their opinion, follow the fourth parts of a day (i.e. they give the
ON THE NATUEE OP MONTHS AND YEAES. 13
solar year the length of 365^ days and ^ hour), had summed up to
one day ; then they added the complete month to the year in each 116th
year. This was done for a reason which I shall explain hereafter.
The example of the Persians was followed by the ancient inhabitants
of Khwarizm and Sogdiana, and by all who had the same religion as the
Persians, who were subject to them, and were considered as their
kinsmen, during the time when their empire flourished.
I have heard that the Peshdadian kings of the Persians, those who
ruled over the entire world, reckoned the year as 360 days, and each
10 month as 30 days, without any addition and subtraction ; that they
intercalated one month in every sixth year, which they called "intercalary
month," and two months in every 120th year ; the one on account of
the five days (the Epagomense), the other on account of the quarter of a
day ; that they held this year in high honour, and called it the " blessed
year," and that in it they occupied themselves with the affairs of divine
worship and matters of public interest.
The character of the system of the ancient Egyptians, according to
what the Almagest relates regarding the years on which its own system of
computation was based, and of the systems of the Persians in Islam, and
20 the people of Khwarizm and Sogdiana, is their aversion to the fractions,
i.e, the j day and what follows it, and their neglecting them altogether.
The Luni-Solar Year. — The Hebrews, Jews, and all the Israelites,
the Sabians, and Harranians, used an intermediate system. They
derived their year from the revolution of the sun, and its months from
the revolution of the moon — with this view, that their feast and fast
days might be regulated by lunar computation, and at the same time
keep their places within the year. Therefore they intercalated 7 months
in 19 lunar years, as I shall explain hereafter in the derivation of their
cycles and the different kinds of their years.
30 The Christians agreed with them in the mode of the computation of
their fasting and of some of their festivals, the cardinal point in all this
being the Passover of the Jews ; but they differed from them in the use of
the months, wherein they followed the system of the Greeks and Syrians.
In a similar way the heathen Arabs proceeded, observing the
difference between their year and the solar year, which is 10 days
21-|- hours, to speak roughly, and adding it to the year as one month p. 12.
as soon as it completed the number of days of a month. They, however,
reckoned this difference as 10 days and 20 hours. This business was
administered by the Nasa'a (the intercalators) of the tribe of Kinana,
40 known as the Kaldmis, a plural form of Kalammas, which signifies a
fidl-flowing sea. These were 'Abu Thumama and his ancestors :
I. 'Abu Thumama Junada ben
'Auf ben
'TJmayya ben
Kala' ben
14 ALBIEIJNf.
V. 'Abbadben
Kala' ben
VII. Hudhaifa.
They were all of them intercalators. The first of them who held this
office was —
VII. Hudhaifa ben
'Abd ben
Fukaim ben
X. 'Adijy ben
'Amir ben 10
Tha'laba ben
Malik ben
XIV. Kinana.
The last of them, who held it, was 'Abu-Thumama. The poet, who
celebrates them, describes him in the following terms : —
" There is Fukaim ! He was called Alkalammas,
And he was one of the founders of their religion,
His word being obeyed, he being recognised as a chieftain."
And another poet says :
" (He was) famous among the forerunners of Kinana, 20
A celebrated man, of exalted rank.
In this way he spent his time."
Another poet says :
" The difference between the revolution of the sun and new-moon
He adds together and sums it up,
Till it makes out a complete month."
He (i.e. Hudhaifa) had taken this system of intercalation from the
Jews nearly 200 years before Islam ; the Jews, however, intercalated
9 months in 24 lunar years. In consequence their months were fixed,
and came always in at their proper times, wandering in a uniform course 30
through the year without retrograding and without advancing. This
state of things remained till the Prophet made his Farewell 2:)ilgrimage,
and the following verse was revealed to him : " Intercalation is only an
increase of infidelity, by which the infidels lead astray (people),
admitting it one year and prohibiting it in another." (Sura ix. 37.)
The Prophet delivered an address to the people, and said : " Time has
come round as it was on the day of God's creating the heavens and the
earth," and, continuing, he recited to them the (just mentioned) verse
of the Goran on the prohibition of the Nasi', i.e. intercalation. Ever
since they have neglected intercalation, so that their months have 40
receded from their original places, and the names of the months are no
longer in conformity with their original meanings.
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS AND YEARS. 15
As to the other nations, their opinions on this subject are well known.
They are likely to have no other systems besides those we have men-
tioned, and each nation seems to follow the example of the system of
their neighbours.
Years of the Indians. — I bave heard that the Indians use the
appearance of new-moon in their months, that they intercalate one lunar
month in every 976 days, and that they fix the beginning of their era
to the moment when a conjunction takes place in the first minute of any p, 13.
zodiacal sign. The chief object of their searching is that this con-
10 junction should take place in one of the two equinoctial points. The
leap-year they call Adhimdsa. It is very possible that this is really the
case ; because, of all stars, they use specially the moon, her mansions
and their subdivisions, in their astrological determinations, and not
the zodiacal signs. However, I have not met with anybody who had
an accurate knowledge of this subject ; therefore I turn away from what
I cannot know for certain. And God is my help !
'Abu-Muhammad Alna'ib Alamuli relates in his Kitdb-alghurra, on
the authority of Ta'kub ben Tarik, that the Indians use four different
kinds of spaces of time :
20 I. One revolution of the sun, starting from a point of the ecliptic
and returning to it. This is the solar year.
II. 360 risings of the sun. This is called the middle-year, because it
is longer than the lunar year and shorter than the solar year.
III. 12 revolutions of the moon, starting from the star Alsharatdn
(i.e. the head of Aries) and returning to it. This is their
lunar year, which consists of 327 days and nearly 7f hours.
IV. 12 lunations. This is the lunar year, which they use.
16 ALBiEUNl.
CHAPTER III.
ON THE NATURE OP THE ERAS, AND THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF THE
NATIONS REGARDING THEM.
Era means a definite sj)ace of time, reckoned from the beginning of
some past year, in which either a prophet, with signs and wonders, and
with a proof of his divine mission, was sent, or a great and j)owerful
king rose, or in which a nation perished by a universal destructive
deluge, or by a violent earthquake and sinking of the earth, or a
sweeping pestilence, or by intense drought, or in which a change of
dynasty or religion took place, or any grand event of the celestial and 10
the famous tellurian miraculous occurrences, which do not happen save
at long intervals and at times far distant from each other. By such
events the fixed moments of time (the epochs) are recognised. Now,
such an era cannot be dispensed with in all secular and religious
affairs. Each of the nations scattered over the different parts of the
world has a special era, which they count fi-om the times of their kings
or prophets, or dynasties, or of some of those events which we have just
now mentioned. And thence they derive the dates, which they want in
social intercourse, in chronology, and in every institute {i.e. festivals)
which is exclusively peculiar to them. 20
Era of the Creation. — The first and most famous of the beginnings
of antiquity is the fact of the creation of mankind. But among those
who have a book of divine revelation, such as the Jews, Christians,
Magians, and their various sects, there exists such a difference of
opinion as to the nature of this fact, and as to the question how to date
P- 14. from it, the like of which is not allowable for eras. Everything, the
knowledge of which is connected with the beginning of creation and
with the history of bygone generations, is mixed up with falsifications
and myths, because it belongs to a far remote age ; because a long
interval separates us therefrom, and because the student is incapable of 30
ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 17
keeping it in memory, and of fixing it (so as to preserve it from con-
fusion). God says: "Have they not got the stories about those who
were before them ? None but God knows them." (Sura ix. 71.) There-
fore it is becoming not to admit any account of a similar subject, if it
is not attested by a book, the correctness of which is relied upon, or by
a tradition, for which the conditions of authenticity, according to the
prevalent opinion, furnish grounds of proof.
If we now first consider this era, we find a considerable divergence
of opinion regarding it among these nations. For the Persians and
10 Magians think that the duration of the world is 12,000 years, corre-
sponding to the number of the signs of the zodiac and of the months ;
and that Zoroaster, the founder of their law, thought that of those there
had passed, till the time of his appearance, 3,000 years, intercalated
with the day-quarters ; for he himself had made their computation, and
had taken into account that defect, which had accrued to them on
account of the day-quarters, till the time when they were intercalated
and were made to agree with real time. From his appearance till the
beginning of the ^ra Alexandri, they count 258 years ; therefore they
count from the beginning of the world till Alexander 3,258 years.
20 However, if we compute the years from the creation of Gayomarth, whom
they hold to be the first man, and sum up the years of the reign of each
of his successors — for the rule (of Iran) remained with his descendants
without interruption — this number is, for the time till Alexander, the
sum total of 3,354 years. So the specification of the single items of the
addition does not agree with the sum total.
Further, the Persians and Greeks disagree as to the time after
Alexander. For they count from Alexander till the beginning of the
reign of Tazdajird 942 years 257 days. If we deduct therefrom the
duration of the rule of the Sasanian kings as far as the beginning of
30 the reign of Tazdajird, as they compute it, viz., nearly 415 years, we
get a remainder of 528 years as the time during which Alexander and
the Muluk-al-tawa if reigned. But if we sum up the years of the reign
of each of the Ashkanian kings, as they have settled it, we get only the
sum of 280 years, or,^ — taking into regard their difference of opinion as to
the length of the reign of each of them, — the sum of not more than 300
years. This difference I shall hereafter try to settle to some extent.
A section of the Persians is of oj^inion that those past 3,000 years
which we have mentioned are to be counted from the creation of
Gayomarth ; because, before that, already 6,000 years had elapsed — a
40 time during which the celestial globe stood motionless, the natures (of
created beings) did not interchange, the elements did not mix — during p. 15.
which there was no growth, and no decay, and the earth was not cultivated.
Thereupon, when the celestial globe was set a-going, the first man came
into existence on the equator, so that part of him in longitudinal
direction was on the north, and part south of the line. The animals
2
18" ALBIEUNi.
were produced, and mankind commenced to reproduce their own species
and to multiply ; the atoms of the elements mixed, so as to give rise to
growth and decay ; the earth was cultivated, and the world was
arranged in conformity with fixed norms.
The Jews and Christians differ widely on this subject ; for, according
to the doctrine of the Jews, the time between Adam and Alexander is
3,448 years, whilst, according to the Christian doctrine, it is 5,180 years.
The Christians rejDroach the Jews with having diminished the number of
years with the view of making the appearance of Jesus fall into the
fourth millennium in the middle of the seven millennia, which are, 10
according to their view, the time of the duration of the world, so as not
to coincide with that time at which, as the prophets after Moses had
prophesied, the birth of Jesus from a pure virgin at the end of time,
was to take place. Both parties depend, in their bringing forward of
arguments, upon certain modes of interpretation derived from the
Hisdb-al-jummal. So the Jews expect the coming of the Messiah who
was promised to them at the end of 1,335 years after Alexander, ex-
pecting it like something which they know for certain. In consequence
of which many of the pseudo-prophets of their sects, as e.g. Al-ra'i,
'Abu-lsa Al-isfahani, and others, claimed to be his messengers to them. 20
This expectation was based on the assumption that the beginning of
this era (iEra Alexandri) coincided with the time when the sacrifices
were abolished, when no more divine revelation was received, and no
more prophets were sent. Then they referred to the Hebrew word of
God in the 5th book of the Thora (Deut. xxxi. 18), "^^MD^ "^ilDrr ^r]i«
b^inn DVn Dn^ '^^Dj which means : " I, God, shall conceal my
being till that day." And they counted the letters of the words
"^'^nOi^ "^JnOn, the word for " concealing," which gives the sum of 1,335-
This they declared to be the time during which no inspiration from
heaven was received and the sacrifices were abolished, which is meant 30
by God's concealing himself. The word "being" (^\j=i^q) is here
synonymous with "affair" (or "order, command"). In order to
supjDort what they maintain, they quote two passages in the Book
of Daniel (xii. 11) : f]^« 0^72^ 072^ yiptrnn^l T^Mn *lDin r^yl2
D^i^tlJm D'^ni^?21) which means: "Since the time when the sacrifice
was abolished until impurity comes to destruction it is 1,290."
and the next following passage (Dan. xii. 12) : V^T*) TTDTV^iTl "^'lUJt^
ntrnni D^trbtri ni^^n ^^h^^ ^h^ n^r^'h which means: "There-
fore happy he who hopes to reach to 1,335." Some people explain
the difference of forty-five years in these two passages so as to refer 40
p. 16. the former date (1,290) to the beginning of the rebuilding of Jerusalem ;
and the latter (1,335) to the time when the rebuilding would be finished.
According to others, the first number is the date of the birth of Messiah,
whilst the latter is the date of his public appearance. Further, the Jews
say, when Jacob bestowed his blessing upon Judah (Gen. xlix. 10), he
ON THE NATUEB OF THE EEAS. 19
informed him that the rule should always remain with his sons till the
time of the coming of him to whom the rule belongs. So in these words
he told him that the rule should remain with his descendants until the
appearance of the expected Messiah. And now the Jews add that this
is really the case ; that the rule has not been taken from them. For the
t^ni/^ tr^^"^^ i.e. " the head of the exiles " who had been banished
from their homes in Jerusalem, is the master of every Jew in the world ;
the ruler whom they obey in all countries, whose order is carried out
under most circumstances.
10 The Christians use certain Syriac words, viz., JOOJS ]m.j.aLo IQaj
yo'y, which mean " Jesus, the Messiah, the greatest redeemer." Com-
puting the value of the letters of these words, they get the sum of 1,335.
Now, they think that it was these words which Daniel meant to indicate
by those numbers, not the above-mentioned years ; because in the text
of his words they are nothing but numbers, without any indication
whether they mean years, or days, or something else. It is a prophecy
indicative of the name of the Messiah, not of the time of his coming.
Further, they relate that Daniel once dreamt in Babylonia, some years
after the accession of Cyrus to the throne, on the 24th of the first
20 month, when he had prayed to God, and when the Israelites were the
prisoners of the Persians. Then God revealed to him the following
(Dan. ix. 24-26) : " 'IJrishlim, i.e. Jerusalem, will be rebuilt 70 SctbiV,
and will remain in the possession of thy people. Then the Messiah will
come, but he will be killed. And in consequence of his coming
'IJrishlim will undergo its last destruction, and it will remain a ruin till
the end of time." The word Sdbii' (Hebrew )^''Qt!?) means a Septennium.
Now, of the whole time (indicated in this passage) seven Septennia refer
to the rebuilding of Jerusalem, which time is also mentioned in the
Book of Zekharya ben Berekhya ben 'Iddo' (Zechariah iv. 2) : "I have
30 beheld a candlestick with seven lamps thereon, and with seven pipes to
each lamp." And before this he says (iv. 9) : " The hands of Zerubbabel
have laid the foundation of this house, his hands also shall finish it."
The time from the beginning of his rebuilding of the house (i.e. Jeru-
salem) till its end is 49 years, or 7 Septennia. Then, after 62 Septen-
nia, they think, Jesus the son of Mary came ; and in the last Septennium
the sacrifices and offerings were abolished, and Jerusalem underwent its
above-mentioned destruction, insomuch that no more divine revelation
nor prophets were sent, as the Israelites were scattered all over the
world, utterly neglected, not practising their sacrifices, nor having a p. 17.
40 place where to practise them.
In respect of all we have mentioned, each of the two parties makes
assertions which they cannot support by anything but interpretations
derived from the Hisclb-al-jummal, and fallacious subtilties. If the
student would try to establish something else by the same means, and
refute what they (each of the two parties) maintain, by similar arguments,
. 2 * .
20 ALBfE^JN!.
it would not he difficult for him to search for them. As to what the
Jews think of the continuance of the rule in the family of Juda, and
which they transfer to the leadership of the exiles, we must remark that,
if it was correct to extend the word "rule" to a similar leadership by
way of analogy, the Magians, the Sabians, and others would partake
of this, and neither the other Israelites nor any other nation would be
exempt therefrom. Because no class of men, not even the lowest, are
without a sort of rule and leadership with relation to others who are
still inferior to them.
If we referred the numerical value of the word " concealing " iu the 10
Thora to that period from the earliest date Avhich the Israelites assign to
their exodus from Egypt till Jesus the son of Mary, this interpretation
would rest on a better foundation. For the time from their exodus from
Egypt till the accession of Alexander is 1,000 years according to their
own view ; and Jesus the son of Mary was born Anno Alexandri 304,
and God raised him to himself Anno Alexandri 336. So the sum of the
years of this complete period is 1,335 as the time during which the law
of Moses ben 'Imran existed, till it was carried to perfection by Jesus
the son of Mary.
As to that which they derive from the two passages of Daniel, we can 20
only say that it would be possible to refer them to something different,
and to explain them in a different way ; and moi'e than that — that
neither of their modes of interpretation is correct, except we suppose
that the beginning of that number precedes the time when they were
pronounced (by Daniel). For if it is to be understood that the begin-
ning of both numbers (1,290 and 1,335) is one and the same time, be it
past, present, or future, you cannot reasonably explain why the two
passages should have been pronounced at different times. And, not to
speak of the difference between the two numbers (1,290 and 1,335) the
matter can in no way be correct; because the second passage ("Happy 30
he who hopes to reach 1,335 ") admits, first, that the beginning of the
number precedes the time when the passage was pronounced ; so that it
(the number) may reach its end one year, or more or less, after the
supposed time ; secondly, that the beginning of that number may be
the very identical time when the passage was pronounced ; or, thirdly,
that it may be after this moment by an indefinite time, which may be
smaller or greater. Now, if a chronological statement may be referred
to all three spheres of time (past, present, and future), it cannot be
referred to any one of them except on the basis of a clear text or an
indisputable argument. 40
The first passage ("Since the time when the sacrifice was abolished,
until impurity comes to destruction, it is 1,290 ") admits likewise of being
referred, first, to tlie first destruction of Jerusalem ; and, secondly, to
p. 18. its second destruction, which happened, however, only 385 years after
the accession of Alexander.
ON THE NATURE OF TFE ERAS. 21
Therefore the Jew.^ have not the slightest reason to commence (in
their calculations as tu the coming of the Messiah) with that date with
which they have commenced (viz., the epoch of the ^Era Alexandri).
These are doubts and difficulties which beset the assertions of the
Jews. Those, however, which attach to the schemes of the Christians
are even more numerous and conspicuoiis. For even if the Jews granted
to them that the coming of Messiah was to take place 70 8eptennia after
the vision of Daniel, we must remark that the appearance of Jesus the
son of Mary did not take place at that time. The reason is this: — The
10 Jews have agreed to fix the interval between the exodus of the Israelites
from Egypt and the ^ra Alexandri at 1,000 complete years. Prom pas-
sages in the books of the Prophets they have inferred that the interval
between the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt and the building of
Jerusalem is 480 years ; and the interval between the building and
the destruction by Nebucadnezar 410 years ; and that it remained in a
ruined state 70 years. Now this gives the sum of 960 years (after the
exodus from Egypt) as the date for the vision of Daniel, and as a
remainder of the above-mentioned millennium (from the exodus till ^Era
Alexandri) 40 years. Purther, Jews and Christians unanimously suppose
20 that the birth of Jesus the son of Mary took place Anno Alexandri 304.
Therefore, if we use their own chronology, the birth of Jesus the son of
Mary took place 344 years after the vision of Daniel and the rebuilding
of Jerusalem, i.e about 49 Septennia. Prom his birth till the time when he
began preaching in public are 4^ Septennia more. Hence it is evident
that the birth (of Jesus) precedes the date which they have assumed
(as the time of the birth of the Messiah).
For the Jews there follow no such consequences from their chrono-
logical system ; and if the Christians should accuse the Jews of telling
lies regarding the length of the period between the rebuilding of
30 Jerusalem and the epoch of the ^ra Alexandri, the Jews would meet
them with similar accusations, and more than that.
If we leave aside the arguments of the two parties, and consider the
table of the Chaldsean kings, which we shall hereafter explain, we find
the interval between the beginning of the reign of Cyrus and that of
the reign of Alexander to be 222 years, and from the latter date till the
birth of Jesus 304 years ; so that the sum total is 526 years. If we
now deduct therefrom 3 years, for the rebuilding (of Jerusalem) com-
menced in the third year of the reign of Cyrus, and if we reduce the
remainder to Septennia, we get nearly 75 Septennia for the interval
40 between the vision (of Daniel) and the birth of Messiah. Therefore the
birth of Messiah is later than the date which they (the Christians)
have assumed.
If the Christians compute the Syriac words (\oO'r£i ] ..^ . « Vn vn » ..
io5), and believe that because of the identity of their numerical value
with the number (1,335, mentioned by Daniel), these words were meant
22 ALBIEUNI.
(by Daniel) and not a certain number of years, we can only say that
we cannot accept such an oj)inion except it be confirmed by an argument
as indubitable as ocular inspection. For if you computed the numerical
Talue of the following words: Xi.i&^. yiS2\ ^^ ,3lsJ\ SW (^' the deliver-
ance of the creation from infidelity hy Muhammad''), you would get
the sum of 1,335. Or if you computed the words (^yj*^ (:>? i^f* T^-
19. jc*^U ^y^.^\^ Ju<&-*4 (" the projohecy of Moses hen 'Imrdn regarding Mu-
hammad; the prophecy of the Messiah regarding 'Ahmad"), you would get
J C -»
the same sum, i.e. 1,335. Likewise, if you counted these words : o/^
^_^% ji—*<s-*i (^\)\-« ^^ (" The plain of Farcin shines with the illiterate 10
Muhammad"), you would again get the same sum (1,335). If, now, a
man asserts that these numbers are meant to indicate a prophecy on
account of the identity of the numerical values of these phrases with
that of the Syriac words ("i^J \oQ\£i \m.^»^ lQ«-i), the value of his
argument would be exactly the same as that of the Christians regarding
those passages (in Daniel), the one case closely resembling the other,
even if he should produce as a testimony for Muhammad and the truth
of the prophecy regarding him a passage of the prophet Isaiah, of which
the following is the meaning, or like it (Isaiah xxi. 6-9) : " God ordered
him to set a watchman on the watchtower, that he anight declare what he should 20
see. Then he said : I see a man riding on an ass, and a man riding on a
camel. And the one of them came forward crying and speahing : Babylon is
fallen, and its graven images are hrohen." This is a prophecy regarding
the Messiah, " the man riding on an ass," and regarding Muhammad,
" the man riding on a camel," because in consequence of his appearance
Babylon has fallen, its idols have teen broken, its castles have been
shattered, and its empire has perished-. There are many passages in the
book of the prophet Isaiah, predicting Muhammad, being rather hints
(than clearly out-sj)oken words), but easily admitting of a clear inter-
pretation. And with all this, their obstinacy in clinging to their error 30
induces them to devise and to maintain things which are not acknow-
ledged by men in general, viz. : that " the man riding on the camel," is
Moses, not Muhammad. But what connection have Moses and his
people with Babel ? And did that happen to Moses and to his people
after him, which happened to Muhammad and his companions in Babel ?
By no means ! If they (the Jews) had one after the other escaped from
the Babylonians, they would have considered it a sufficient prize to cany
off to return (to their country), even though in a desperate condition.
This testimony (Isaiah xxi. 6-9) is confirmed by the word of God to
Moses in the fifth book of the Thora, called Almathnd (Deuteronomy 4Q
xviii. 18, 19) : "J will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren
like unto thee, and will put my word into his mouth. And he shall speaJc
unto them all that I shall command him. And whosoever will not hearhen
unto the word of him who speaJcs in my name, I shall take revenge on him."
Now I shoTild like to know whether there are other brethren of the sons
ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 23
of Isaac, except the s ms of Isliniael. If they say, that the brethren of
the sons of Israel are the children of Esau, we ask only : Has there then
risen among them a man like Moses — in the times after Moses — of the
same description and resembling him ? Does not also the following
passage of the same book, of which this is the translation (Deut. xxxiii.
2), bear testimony for Muhammad : " The Lord came from Mount Sinai,
and rose up unto us from Seir, and he shined forth from Mount Paran,
accompanied by ten thousand of saints at his right hand?'' The terms of
this passage are hints for the establishing of the proof, that the
10 (anthropomorphic) descriptions, which are inherent in them, cannot be
referred to the essence of the Creator, nor to his qualities, he being high
above such things. His coming from Mount Sinai means his secret
conversation with Moses there ; his rising up from Seir means the
appearance of Messiah, and his shining forth from Paran, where Ishmael
grew up and married, means the coming of Muhammad from thence as
the last of all the founders of religions, accomjDanied by legions of
saints, who were sent down from heaven to help, being marked with
certain badges. He who refuses to accept this interpretation, for which p- 20.
all evidence has borne testimony, is required to prove what kinds of
20 mistakes there are in it. " But he whose companion is Satan, woe to him
for such a companion! " (Sura iv. 42.)
Now, if the Christians do not allow us to use the numerical values of
Arabic words, we cannot allow them to do the same with the Syriac
words which they quote, because the Thora and the books of those
prophets were revealed in the Hebrew language. All they have brought
forward, and all we are going to propound, is a decisive proof, and a clear
argument, showing that the words in the holy books have been altered
from their proper meanings, and that the text has undergone modifica-
tions contrary to its original condition. Having recourse to this sort of
30 computing, and of using false witnesses, shows and proves to evidence,
that then* authors purposely deviate from the path of truth and right-
eousness. If we could open them a door in heaven, and they ascended
thereby, they would say : " Our eyes are only drunlcen. Nay, we are
fascinated people." (Sura xv. 15.) But such is not the case. The fact
is that they are blind to the truth. We pray to God, that he may help
and strengthen us, that he may guard us against sin, and lead us by the
right path.
As to the doctrine of abrogation (of one holy book by another), and as
to their fanciful pretension of having passages of the Thora which order
40 him who claims to be a prophet after Moses to be put to death, we must
state, that the groundlessness of these opinions is rendered evident by
other passages of the Thora. However, there are more suitable places to
speak of these opinions than this, and so we return to our subject, as we
have already become lengthy in our exposition, one matter drawing us to
another.
24 ALBIEUNI.
Now I proceed to state tliat both Jews and Christians have a coj^y of
the Thora, the contents of which agree with the doctrines of either sect.
Of the Jewish copy people think that it is conij)aratively free from
confusion. The Christian copy is called the " Thora of the Seventy, ^^ for
the following reason : After Nebukadnezar had conquered and destroyed
Jerusalem, part of the Israelites emigrated from their country, took
refuge with the king of Egypt, and lived there under his protection till
the time when Ptolemseus Philadelphns ascended the throne. This king
heard of the Thora, and of its divine origin. Therefore he gave orders to
search for this community, and found them at last in a place numbering 10
about 30,000 men. He afforded them jDrotection, and took them into his
favour, he treated them with kindness, and allowed them to return to
Jerusalem, which in the meanwhile had been rebuilt by Cyrus, Bahman's
govei'nor of Babel, who had also revived the culture of Syria. They left
Egypt, accompanied by a body of his (Ptolemseus Philadelphus') servants
for their protection. The king said to them : " I want to ask you for
something. If you grant me the favour, you acquit yourselves of all
obligations towards me. Let me have a copy of your book, the Thora."
This the Jews promised, and confirmed their promise by an oath. Having
arrived at Jerusalem, they fulfilled their promise by sending him a copy 20
of it, hut in Hebrew. He, however, did not know Hebrew. Therefore he
addressed himself again to them asking for people who knew both
Hebrew and Greek, who might translate the book for him, promising
them gifts and presents in reward. Now the Jews selected seventy-two
21. men out of their twelve tribes, six men of each tribe from among the
Rabbis and priests. Their names are known among the Christians.
These men translated the Thora into Greek, after they had been housed
separately, and each couple had got a servant to take care of them.
This went on till they had finished the translation of the whole book.
Now the king had in his hands thirty-six translations. These he com- 30
pared with each other, and did not find any differences in them, except
those which always occur in the rendering of the same ideas. Then the
king gave them what he had promised, and provided them with every-
thing of the best. The Jews asked him to make them a present of one
of those copies, of which they wished to make a boast before their own
people. And the king complied with their wish. Now this is the cojjy
of the Christians, and people think, that in it no alteration or transposi-
tion has taken place. The Jews, however, give quite a different account,
viz. that they made the translation under compulsion, and that they
yielded to the king's demand only from fear of violence and maltreat- 40
ment, and not before having agreed upon inverting and confounding the
text of the book. There is nothing in the report of the Christians which,
even if we should take it for granted — removes our doubts (as to the
authenticity of their Bible) ; on the contrary, there is something in it
which strengthens them greatly.
ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 25
Besides these two coi^ies of the Thora, there is a third one that exists
among the Samaritans, also known by the name of Al-ldmasdsiyya. To
them, as the substitutes for the Jews, Nebucadnezar had given the
country of Syria, when he led the Jews into captivity, and cleared
the country of them. The Samaritans had helped him (in the war
against the Jews), and had pointed out to him the weak points of
the Israelites. Therefore, he did not disturb them, nor kill them, nor
make them prisoners, but he made them inhabit Palestine under his
protection.
10 Their doctrines are a syncretism of Judaism and Zoroastrianism. The
bulk of their community is living in a town of Palestine, called Ndbulus,
where they have their churches. They have never entered the precincts
of Jerusalem since the days of David the prophet, because they main-
tain that he committed wrong and injustice, and transferred the holy
temple from Nabulus to Aelia, i.e. Jerusalem. They do not touch
other people ; but if they haj)pen to be touched by anyone, they wash
themselves. They do not acknowledge any of the prophets of the
Israelites after Moses.
Now as to the copy which the Jews have, and on which they rely, we
20 find that according to its account of the lives of the immediate descend-
ants of Adam, the interval between the expulsion of Adam from Paradise
till the deluge in the time of Noah, is 1,656 years ; according to the
Christian copy the same interval is 2,242 years, and according to the
Samaritan copy it is 1,307 years. According to one of the historians,
Anianus, the interval between the creation of Adam and the night of
the Friday when the deluge commenced, is 2,226 years 23 days and
4 hours. This statement of Anianus is reported by Ibn-Albazyar in
his Kitdh-alHrdndt (Book of the Conjunctions) ; it comes very near that p. 22.
of the Christians. However, it makes me think that it is based ujjon
30 the methods of the astrologers, because it betrays evidently an arbitrary
and too subtle mode of research.
Now, if such is the diversity of opinions, as we have described, and
if there is no possibility of distinguishing — by means of analogy —
between truth and fiction, where is the student to search for exact
information ?
Not only does the Thora exist in several and different copies, but
something similar is the case with the Gospel too. For the Christians
have four copies of the Grospel, being collected into one code, the first by
Matthew, the second by Mai'k, the third by Luke, and the fourth by
40 John ; each of these four disciples having composed the Gosjtel in con-
formity with what he (Christ) had preached in his country. The reports,
contained in these four copies, such as the descriptions of Messiah, the
relations of him at the time when he preached and when he was crucified,
as they maintain, differ very widely the one from the other. To begin with
his genealogy, which is the genealogy of Joseph, the bridegroom of Mary
ALBIEUNI.
23.
and step.father of Jesus,
is this : —
For according to Matthew (i. 2-16), his pedigree
I. Joseph.
Jacob.
Matthan.
Eleazar.
V. Eliud.
Achin.
Zadok.
Azor.
Elyakim.
X. Abiud.
Zorobabel.
Salathiel.
Jechonias.
Josias.
XV. Amon.
Manasses.
Ezekias.
Ahaz.
Joatham.
XX.Ozias.
XXV.
XXX.
Joram.
Salmon.
Josaphat.
Naasson.
Asa.
Aminadab
Abia.
Aram.
Roboam.
XXXV.Esrom.
Solomon.
Phares.
David.
Judas.
Jesse.
Jacob.
Obed.
Isaac.
Booz.
XL
. Abraham.
Matthew in stating this genealogy commences with Abraham, tracing
it downward (as far as Joseph),
pedigree of Joseph is this : —
According to Luke (iii. 23-31) the
I. Joseph.
Esli.
Salathiel.
Heli.
Nagge.
Neri.
Matthat.
Maath.
Melchi.
Levi.
Mattathias.
Addi.
V. Melchi.
XV. Semei.
XXV.
, Cosam.
Janna
Joseph.
Elmodam.
Joseph.
Judas.
Er.
Mattathias.
Joanna.
Joseph.
Amos.
Ehesa.
Elieser.
X. Naum.
XX. Zorobabel.
XXX
. Jorim.
Matthat.
Levi.
Simeon.
Juda.
XXXV. Joseph.
Jonam.
Elyakim.
Melea.
Menan.
XL. Matatha.
Nathan.
XLII. David.
This difference the Christians try to excuse, and to account for it,
saying, that there was one of the laws prescribed in the Thora which
ordered that, if a man died, leaving behind a wife but no male children,
the brother of the deceased was to marry her instead, in order to raise
up a progeny to the deceased brother ; that, in consequence, his children
were genealogically referred to the deceased brother, whilst as to real
hirth they were the children of the living brother ; that, therefore,
Joseph was referred to two different fathers, that Heli was his father
genealogically, whilst Yakob was his father in reality. Further, they
say, that when Matthew had stated the real pedigree of Joseph, the
Jews blamed him for it, saying : " His pedigree is not coi-rect, because it
has been made without regard to his genealogical relation." In order to
meet this reproach, Luke stated his pedigree in conformity with the
genealogical ordinances of their code. Both pedigrees go back to David,
and that was the object (in stating them), because it had been predicted
of the Messiah, that he would be " the son of David."
Finally, the fact that only the pedigree of Joseph has been adduced
10
20
30
40
ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 27
for Messiali, and not that of Mary, is to be explained in this way, that
according to the law of the Israelites, nobody was allowed to marry any
but a wife of his own tribe and clan, whereby they wanted to prevent
confusion of the pedigrees, and that it was the custom to mention only
the pedigrees of the men, not those of the women. Now Joseph and
Mary being both of the same tribe, their descent must of necessity go
back to the same origin. And this was the object in their statement
and account of the pedigree.
Everyone of the sects of Marcion, and of Bardesanes, has a special
10 Gospel, which in some parts differs from the Gospels we have men-
tioned. Also the Manichseans have a Gospel of their own, the contents
of which from the first to the last are opposed to the doctrines of the
Christians ; but the Manichseans consider them as their religious law,
and believe that it is the correct Gospel, that its contents are really that
which Messiah thought and taught, that every other Gospel is false, and
its followers are liars against Messiah. Of this Gosj^el there is a copy,
called, " The Gospel of the Seventy," which is attributed to one Baldmis,
and in the beginning of which it is stated, that Sallam ben ' Abdallah ben
Sallam wi'ote it down as he heard it from Salman Alfarisi. He, how-
20 ever, who looks into it, will see at once that it is a forgery ; it is not
acknowledged by Christians and others. Therefore, we come to the
conckision, that among the Gospels there are no books of the Prophets
to be found, on which you may with good faith rely.
Era of the Delug'e. — The next following era is the era of the great
deluge, in which everything perished at the time of Noah. Here, too,
there is such a difference of opinions, and such a confusion, that you
have no chance of deciding as to the correctness of the matter, and do
not even feel inclined to investigate thoroughly its historical truth. The
reason is, in the iirst instance, the difference regarding the period between
30 the iEra Adami and the Deluge, which we have mentioned already ; and
secondly, that difference, which we shall have to mention, regarding the
period between the Deluge and the ^ra Alexandri. For the Jews derive
from the Thora, and the following books, for this latter period 1,792
years, whilst the Christians derive from their Thora for the same period
2,938 years.
The Persians, and the great mass of the Magians, deny the Deluge
altogether ; they believe that the rule (of the world) has remained with
them without any interruption ever since Gayomarth Gilshah, who was, p- 24.
according to them, the first man. In denying the Deluge, the Indians,
40 Chinese, and the various nations of the east, concur with them. Some,
however, of the Persians admit the fact of the Deluge, but they describe
it in a different way from what it is described in the books of the
prophets. They say, a partial deluge occurred in Syria and the west at
the time of Tahmurath, but it did not extend over the whole of the then
civilized world, and only few nations were drowned in it ; it did not
28 ALBinUNi.
extend beyond the peak of Hulwan, and did not reach the empires of the
east. Further, they relate, that the inhabitants of the west, when they
were warned by their sages, constructed buildings of the kind of the two
pyramids which have been built in Egypt, saying : " If the disaster
comes from heaven, we shall go into them ; if it comes from the earth,
we shall ascend above them." People are of opinion, that the traces of
the water of the Deluge, and the effects of the waves are still visible on
these two pyramids half-way up, above which the water did not rise.
Another report says, that Joseph had made them a magazine, where he
deposited the bread and victuals for the years of drought. 10
It is related, that Tahmurath on receiving the warning of the Deluge
— 231 years before the Deluge — ordered his people to select a place of
good air and soil in his realm. Now they did not find a place that
answered better to this description than Ispahan. Thereupon, he ordered
all scientific books to be preserved for posterity, and to be buried in a
part of that place, least exposed to obnoxious influences. In favour of
this report we may state that in our time in Jay, the city of Ispahan,
there have been discovered hills, which, on being excavated, disclosed
houses, filled with many loads of that tree-bark, with which arrows and
shields are covered, and which is called Tilz, bearing inscriptions, of 20
which no one was able to say what they are, and what they mean.
These discrepancies in their reports, inspire doubts in the student, and
make him inclined to believe what is related in some books, viz. that
Gayomarth was not the first man, but that he was Gomer ben Taphet
ben Noah, that he was a prince to whom a long life was given, that he
settled on the Mount Dunbawand, where he founded an empire, and
that finally his power became very great, whilst mankind was still living
in (elementary) conditions, similar to those at the time of the creation,
and of the first stage of the development of the world. Then he, and
some of his children, took possession of the KXcfxara of the world. 30
Towards the end of his life, he became tyrannical, and called himself
Adam, saying : " If anybody calls me by another name than this, I
shall cut of£ his head." Others are of opinion that Gayomarth was
Emim (D'^T^'^fc^ ?) ben Lud ben 'Ai'am ben Sem ben Noah.
The astrologers have tried to correct these years, beginning from the
first of the conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter, for which the sages
among the inhabitants of Babel, and the Chaldseans have constructed
astronomical tables, the Deluge having originated in their country. For
people say, that Noah built the ark in Kufa, and that it was there that
"the well 'poured forth its tvaters" (Sura xi. 42 ; xxiii. 27) ; that the ark 40
rested upon the mountain of Aljudi, which is not very far from those
regions. Now this conjunction occurred 229 years 108 days before the
Deluge. This date they studied carefully, and tried by that to correct
25. the subsequent times. So they found as the interval between the Deluge
and the beginning of the reign of the first Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar) ,
ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 29
2,604 years, and as the interval between Nebukadnezar and Alexander
. 436 years, a result which conies pretty near to that one, which is derived
from the Thora of the Christians.
This was the era which 'Abu-Ma' shar Albalkhi wanted, upon which to
base his statements regarding the mean places of the stars in his Canon.
Now he supposed that the Deluge had taken place at the conjunction of
the stars in the last part of Pisces, and the first part of Aries, and he
tried to compute their places for that time. Then he found, that they —
all of them — stood in conjunction in the space between the twenty- seventh
10 degree of Pisces, and the end of the first degree of Aries. Further, he
supposed that between that time and the epoch of the ^ra Alexandri,
there is an interval of 2,790 intercalated years 7 months and 26 days.
This computation comes near to that of the Christians, being 249 years
and 3 months less than the estimate of the astronomers. Now, when he
thought that he had well established the computation of this sum
according to the method, which he has explained, and when he had
arrived at the result, that the duration of those periods, which as-
tronomers call " star-cycles," was 360,000 years, the beginning of which
was to precede the time of the Deluge by 180,000 years, he drew the
20 inconsiderate conclusion, that the Deluge had occurred once in every
180,000 years, and that it would again occur in future at similar
intervals.
This man, who is so proud of his ingenuity, had computed these star-
cycles only from the motions of the stars, as they had been fixed by the
observations of the Persians ; but they (the cycles) differ from the
cycles, which have been based upon the observations of the Indians,
known as the " cycles of Sindhind," and likewise they differ from the days
of Arjdbhaz, and the days of ArJcand. If anybody would construct such
cycles on the basis of the observations of Ptolemy, or of the modern
80 astronomers, he might do so by the help of the well known methods of
such a calculation, as in fact many people have done, e.g. Muhammad ben
'Ishak ben 'Ustadh Bundadh Alsarakhsi, 'Abu-al-wafa Muhammad ben
Muhammad Albuzajani, and I myself in many of my books, particularly
in the Kitdb-al-istishhdd hikhtildf aVarsdd.
In each of these cycles the stars come into conjunction with each other
in the first part of Aries once, viz. when they start upon and return
from their rotation, however, at different times. If he ('Abu-Ma'shar)
now would maintain, that the stars were created standing at that time in
the first part of Aries, or that the conjunction of the stars in that place
40 is identical with the beginning of the world, or with the end of the
world, such an assertion would be utterly void of proof, although the
matter be within the limits of possibility. But such conclusions can
never be admitted, except they rest on an evident argument, or on the
report of some one who relates the origines of the world, whose word is
relied upon, and regarding whom in the mind (of the reader or hearer)
30 ALBiEXyNf.
this persuasion is established, that he had received divine inspiration
and help,
26. For it is quite possible that these (celestial) bodies were scattered, not
united at the time when the Creator designed and created them, they
having these motions, by which — as calculation shows — they must meet
each other in one point in such a time (as above mentioned). It would
be the same, as if we, e.g. supposed a circle, in different separate places
of which we put living beings, of whom some move fast, others slowly,
each of them, however, being carried on in equal motions — of its peculiar
sort of motion — in equal times ; further, suppose that we knew their 10
distances and places at a certain time, and the measure of the distance
over which each of them travels in one Nychthemeron. If you then ask
the mathematician as to the length of time, after which they would meet
each other in a certain point, or before which they had met each other in
that identical point, no blame attaches to him, if he speaks of billions of
years. Nor does it follow from his account that those beings existed at
that (past) time (when they met each other), or that they would still
exist at that (future) time (when they are to meet again) ; but this only
follows from his account, if it is properly explained, that, if these beings
really existed (in the past), or would still exist (in future) in that same 20
condition, the result (as to their conjunctions) could be no other but
that one at which he had arrived by calculation. But then the verifica-
tion of this subject is the task of a science which was not the science of
'Abu-Ma'shar.
If, now, the man who uses the cycles (the star-cycles), would conclude
that they, viz. the stars, if they stood in conjunction in the first part of
Aries, would again and again pass through the same cycles, because,
according to his opinion, everything connected with the celestial globe is
exempt from growth and decay, and that the condition of the stars in
the past was exactly the same, his conclusion would be a mere assumption 30
by which he quiets his mind, and-which is not supported by any argu-
ment. For a proof does not equally apply to the two sides of a contra-
diction ; it applies only to the one, and excludes the other. Besides
it is well known among philosophers and others, that there is no such
thing as an infinite evolution of power (8vm/xts) into action (TrpS^ts),
until the latter comes into real existence. The motions, the cycles, and
the periods of the past were computed whilst they in reality existed ;
they have decreased, whilst at the same time increasing in number;
therefore, they are not infinite.
This exposition will be sufficient for a veracious and fair-minded 40
student. But if he remains obstinate, and inclines to the tricks of over-
bearing people, more explanations will be wanted, which exceed the
compass of this book, in order to I'emove these ideas from his mind, to
heal what is feeble in his thoughts, and to plant the truth in his soul.
However, there are other chapters of this book where it will be more
ON THE NATUEE OF THE ERAS. 31
suitable to speak of this subject than here. The discrepancy of the
cycles, not the discrepancy of the observations, is a sufficient argument
for — and a powerful help towards — repudiating the follies committed by
'Abu-Ma'shar, and relied upon by foolish people, who abuse all religions,
who make the cycles of Sindhind, and others, the means by which to
revile those who warn them that the hour of judgment is coming, and
who tell them, that on the day of resurrection there will be reward and
punishment in yonder world. It is the same set of people who excite
suspicions against — and bring discredit upon — astronomers and mathe-
10 maticians, by counting themselves among their ranks, and by rej)resenting
themselves as professors of their art, although they cannot even impose p. 27.
upon anybody who has only the slightest degree of scientific training.
Era of Nabonassar. — The next following era is the Era of the first
Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar). The Persian form of this word (BuJch-
tanassar) is Bukht-narsi, and people say that it means " one who weeps
and laments much"; in Hebrew, " Nebukadnezar," which is said to
mean " Mercury speaking," this being combined with the notion that
he cherished science and favoured scholars. Then when the word was
Arabized, and its form was simplified, people said " Buhhtanassar."
20 This is not the same king who devastated Jerusalem, for between these
two there is an interval of about 143 years, as the following chronological
tables will indicate.
The era of this king is based upon the Egyj)tian years. It is employed
in the Almagest for the computation of the places of the planets, because
Ptolemy preferred this era to others, and fixed thereby the mean places
of the stars. Besides he uses the cycles of Callippus, the beginning
of which is in the year 418 after Bukhtanassar, and each of which consists
of seventy-six solar years. Those who do not know them (these cycles),
try to prove by what they find mentioned in Almagest, that they are of
30 Egyptian origin ; for Hipparchus and Ptolemy fix the times of their
observations by Egyptian days and months, and then refer them to the
corresponding cycles of Callippus. Such, however, is not the case. The
first cycle, employed by those who compute the months by the revolution
of the moon and the years by the revolution of the sun, was the cycle of
eight years, and the second that of nineteen years. Callippus was of the
number of the mathematicians, and one who himself — or whose people —
considered the use of this latter cycle as part of their laws. Thereupon,
he computed this cycle (of seventy- six years), uniting for that purpose
four cycles of nineteen years.
40 Some people think that in these cycles the beginning of the months
was fixed by the apjiearance of new moon, not by calculation, as people
at that (remote) age did not yet know the calculation of the eclipses, by
which alone the length of the lunar month is to be determined, and these
calculations are rendered perfect ; and that the first who knew the theory
of the eclipses was Thales of Miletus. For after having frequently
3.2 alb!e^tni.
attended the lectures of the mathematicians, and having learned from
them the science of form and motions (astronomy), he proceeded to dis-
cover the calculation of the eclipses. Then he happened to come to
Egypt, where he warned people of an impending eclipse. When, then,
his prediction had been fulfilled, people honoured him highly.
The matter, as thus reported, does not belong to the impossible. For
each art goes back to certain original sources, and the nearer it is to its
origin, the more simple it is, till you at last arrive at the very origin
itself. However, this account, that eclipses were not known before
Thales, must not be understood in this generality, but with certain local 10
restrictions. For some people refer this scholar (Thales) to the time of
Ardashir ben Babak, others to that of Kaikubadh. Now, if he lived at
p. 28. the time of Ardashir, he was preceded by Ptolemy and Hipparchus ; and
these two among the astronomers of that age knew the subject quite
sufiiciently. If, on the other hand, he lived at the time of Kaikubadh,
he stands near to Zoroaster, who belonged to the sect of the Harranians,
and to those who already before him (Zoroaster) excelled in science, and
had carried it to such a height as that they could not be ignorant of the
theory of the eclipses. If, therefore, their rej)ort (regarding the dis-
covery of the theory of the eclipses by Thales) be true, it is not to be 20
understood in this generality, but with certain restrictions.
Era of Philippus Aridseus. — The era of Philip, the father of
Alexander, is based upon Egyptian years. But this era is also frequently
dated from the death of Alexander, the Macedonian, the Founder. In
both cases the matter is the same, and there is only a difference in the
expression. Because Alexander, the Founder, was succeeded by Philip,
therefore, it is the same, whether you date from the death of the former,
or the accession of the latter, the epoch being a connecting link common
to both of them. Those who employ this era are called Alexandrines.
On this era Theon Alexandrinus has based his so-called " Canon." 30
Era of Alexander. — Then follows the era of Alexander the Greek, to
whom some people give the surname Bicornutus. On the difference of
opinions regarding this personage, I shall enlarge in the next following
chapter. This era is based upon Greek years. It is in use among most
nations. When Alexander had left Greece at the age of twenty-six years,
prepared to fight with Darius, the king of the Persians, and marching
upon his capital, he went down to Jerusalem, which was inhabited by the
Jews ; then he ordered the Jews to give up the era of Moses and David,
and to use his era instead, and to adopt that very year, the twenty-
seventh of his life, as the epoch of this era. The Jews obeyed his 40
command, and accepted what he ordered ; for the Rabbis allowed them
such a change at the end of each millennium after Moses. And at that
time just a millennium had become complete, and their offerings and
sacrifices had ceased to be practised, as they relate. So they adopted his
era, and used it for fixing all the occurrences of their months and days,
ON THE NATURE OP THE BEAS. 33
as they had already done in the twenty-sixth year of his life, when he
first started from home, with the view of finishing the millennium (i.e.
so as not to enter uj^on a new one). When, then, the first thousand
years of the ^ra Alexandri had passed, the end of which did not coin-
cide with any striking event which people are accustomed to make the
epoch of an era, they kept the ^ra Alexandri, and continued to use it.
The Grreeks also use it. But according to the report of a book, which
Habib ben Bihriz, the metropolitan of Mosul, has translated, the Greeks
used to date — before they adopted the ^ra Alexandri — from the migration
10 of Tunan ben Paris from Babel towards the west.
Era of Aug'UStus. — Next follows the era of the king Augustus, the
first of the Roman emperors (Ccesares). The word " Ccesar " means in
Frankish {i.e. Latin) "he has been drawn forth, after a cutting has been
made." The explanation is this, that his mother died in labour-pains,
whilst she was pregnant with him ; then her womb was opened by the
" Csesarean operation," and he was drawn forth, and got the surname
" Ccesar." He used to boast before the kings, that he had not come out
of the jjudendum muliebre of a woman, as also 'Ahmad ben Sahl ben
Hashim ben Alwalid ben Hamla ben Kamkar ben Yazdajird ben
20 Shahryar used to boast, that the same had happened to him. And he
(Augustus) used to revile people calling them " so7i of the pudendum
muliebre."
The historians relate, that Jesus, the son of Mary, was born in the
forty-third year of his reign. This, however, does not agree with the
order of the years. The chronological tables, in which we shall give a
corrected sequence of events, necessitate that his birth should have taken
place in the seventeenth year of his reign.
It was Augxistus who caused the peoj^le of Alexandria to give up their
system of reckoning by non-intercalated Egyptian years, and to adopt
30 the system of the Chaldseans, which in our time is used in Egypt. This
he did in the sixth year of his reign ; therefore, they took this year as
the epoch of this era.
Era of Antoninus. — The era of Antoninus, one of the Roman kings,
was based upon G-reek years. Ptolemy corrected the places of the fixed
stars, dating from the beginning of his reign, and noted them in the
Almagest, directing that their positions should be advanced one degree
every year.
Era of Diocletianus. — Then follows the era of Diocletian, the last of
the Roman kings who worshipped the idols. After the sovereign power
40 had been transferred to him, it remained among his descendants. After
him reigned Constantine, who was the first Roman king who became a
Christian. The years of this era are Greek. Several authors of Canons
have used this era, and have fixed thereby the necessary paradigms of
the prognostics, the Tempora natalicia, and the conjunctions.
Era of the Flight.— Then follows the era of the Flight of the
3
29.
34 ALBiRUNt.
Prophet Muhammad from Makka to Madina. It is based upon Lunar
years, in which the commencements of the months are determined by the
appearance of New Moon, not by calculation. It is used by the whole
Muhammadan world. The circumstances under which this very point
was adojDted as an epoch, and not the time when the Prophet was either
born or entrusted with his divine mission or died, were the following : —
Maimun ben Mihran relates, that Omar ben Alkhattab, when people one
day handed over to him a cheque payable in the month Sha'hdn, said : —
" Which Sha'ban is meant ? that one in which we are or the next
Sha'ban?" Thereupon he assembled the Companions of the Prophet, 10
and asked their advice regarding the matter of chronology, which troubled
his mind. They answered : " It is necessary to inform ourselves of the
practice of the Persians in this respect." Then they fetched Hurmuzan,
and asked him for information. He said : " We have a computation
which we call Mdh-rnz, i.e. the computation of months and days." People
arabized this word, and pronounced tjy* (Mu' arrahh) , and coined as
p. 30. its infinitive the word " TaWiMi." Hurmuzan explained to them how
they used this Mah-ruz, and what the Greeks used of a similar kind.
Then Omar sj)oke to the Companions of the Prophet : " Establish a mode
of dating for the intercourse of people." Now some said : " Date ac- 20
cording to the era of the Greeks, for they date according to the era of
Alexander," Others objected that this mode of dating was too lengthy,
and said : " Date according to the era of the Persians." But then it was ob-
jected, that as soon as a new king arises among the Persians he abolishes
the era of his predecessor. So they could not come to an agreement.
Alsha'bi relates, that 'Abu-Musa Al'ash'ari wrote to Omar ben
Alkhattab : " Tou send us letters without a date." Omar had already
organized the registers, had established the taxes and regTilations, and
was in want of an era, not liking the old ones. On this occasion he
assembled the Companions, and took their advice. Now the most au- 30
thentic date, which involves no obscurities nor possible mishaps, seemed
to be the date of the flight of the Prophet, and of his arrival at Madina
on Monday the 8th of the month Eabi' I., whilst the beginning of the
year was a Thursday. Now he adopted this epoch, and fixed thereby the
dates in all his affairs. This happened A.H. 17.
The reason why Omar selected this event as an epoch, and not the
time of the birth of the Prophet, or the time when he was entrusted with
his divine mission, is this, that regarding those two dates there existed
such a divergency of opinion, as did not allow it to be made the basis of
something which must be agreed upon universally. 40
Further he (Alsha'bi) says : People say that He was born in the night
of Monday the 2nd, or the 8th, or the 13th of Eabi' I. ; others say that
he was born in the forty-sixth year of the reign of Kisra Anoshirwan.
In consequence there is also a difference of opinions regarding the length
of his ife, corresponding to the different statements regarding his birth.
ON THE NATUEE OF THE ERAS. 35
Besides, the single years were of different length, some having been
intercalated, others not, alDOut the time when intercalation was prohibited.
Considering further that after the Flight, the affairs of Islam were
thoroughly established, while heathenism decreased, that the Prophet
was saved from the calamities prepared for him by the infidels of Makka,
and that after the Flight his conquests followed each other in rapid
succession, we come to the conclusion that the Flight was to the Prophet,
what to the kings is their accession, and their taking possession of the
whole sovereign power,
10 As regards the well known date of his death, people do not like to
date from the death of a prophet or a king, except the prophet be a liar,
or the king an enemy, whose death people enjoy, and wish to make a
festival of ; or he be one of those with whom a dynasty is extinguished,
so that his followers among themselves make this date a memorial of
him, and a mourning feast. But this latter case has only happened very
seldom. E.g. the era of Alexander the Founder is reckoned from the
time of his death, he having been considered as one of those from whom
the era of the kings of the Chaldseans and the western kings was trans-
ferred to the era of the Ptolemaean kings, of whom each is called Ptolemy,
20 which means warlihe. Therefore, those to whom the empire was trans-
ferred, dated from the time of his death, considering it as a joyful event.
It is precisely the same in the case of the era of Yazdajird ben Shahryar.
For the Magians date from the time of his death, because when he
perished, the dynasty was extinguished. Therefore they dated from his
death, mourning over him, and lamenting for the downfal of their p. 31.
religion.
At the time of the Prophet, people had given to each of the years
between the Flight and his death a special name, derived from some
event, which had happened to him in that identical year.
30 The 1st year after the Flight is " the year of the permission."
The 2nd year „ " the year of the order for fighting."
The 3rd year „ " the year of the trial."
The 4th year „ " the year of the congratulation on the
occasion of mamage."
The 5th year „ " the year of the earthquake."
The 6th year „ " the year of inquiring."
The 7th year „ " the year of gaining victory."
The 8th year „ " the year of equality."
The 9th year „ " the year of exemption."
40 The 10th year „ " the year of farewell."
By these names it was rendered superfluous to denote the years by the
numbers, the 1st, the 2nd, etc., after the Plight.
Era of Yazdajird. — Next follows the era of the reign of Yazdajird
ben Shahryar ben Kisra Parwiz, which is based upon Persian non-
3 *
36 ALBfRUNi.
intercalated years. It has been employed in tlie Canons, because it is
easy and simple to use. The reason why precisely the era of this king
among all the kings of Persia has become so generally known, is this
that he ascended the throne, when the empire had been shattered, when
the women had got hold of it, and usurpers had seized all power.
Besides, he was the last of their kings, and it was he with whom Omar
ben Alkhattab fought most of those famous wars and battles. Finally,
the empire succumbed, and he was put to flight and was killed in the
house of a miller at Marw-i-Shahijan.
Reform of the Calendar by the Khalif Almu'tadid.— Lastly, lo
the era of 'Ahmad ben Talha Almu'tadid-billah the Khalif was based
upon Greek years and Persian months ; however, with this difference,
that in every fourth year one day was intercalated. The following is the
origin of this era, as reported by 'Abii-Bakr Alsuli in his Kitdb-aVaurdk,
and by Hamza ben Alhasan Alisfahani in his book on famous poems,
relating to Nauruz and Mihrjan. Almutawakkil, while wandering about
over one of his hunting-grounds, observed corn that had not yet ripened,
and not yet attained its proper time for being reaped. So he said :
" Ubaid-allah ben Tahya has asked my permission for levying the taxes,
whilst I observe that the corn is still green. From what then are people 20
to pay their taxes ? " Thereupon he was informed, that this, in fact, had
done a great deal of harm to the people, so that they were compelled to
borrow and to incur debts, and even to emigrate from their homes ; that
they had many complaints and wrongs to recount. Then the Khalif
said : " Has this arisen lately during my reign, or has it always been so ? "
And people answered : " No. This is going on according to the regula-
tions established by the Persian kings for the levying of the taxes at the
time of Nauruz. In this their example has been followed by the kings
of the Arabs." Then the Khalif ordered the Maubadh to be brought
before him, and said to him : " This has been the subject of much re- 30
search on my part, and I cannot find that I violate the regulations of
the Persians. How, then, did they levy the taxes from their subjects —
considering the beneficence and good will which they observed towards
them ? And why did they allow the taxes to be levied at a time like
32. this, when the fruit and corn are not yet ripe ? " To this the Maubadh
replied : " Although they always levied the taxes at Nauruz, this never
happened except at the time when the corn was ripe." The Khalif
asked : " And how was that ? " Now the Maubadh explained to him the
nature of their years, their different lengths, and their need of intercala-
tion. Then he proceeded to relate, that the Persians used to intercalate 40
the years ; but when Islam had been established, intercalation was
abolished ; and that did much harm to the people. The landholders
assembled at the time of Hisham ben 'Abdalmalik and called on Khsilid
Alkasri ; they explained to him the subject, and asked him to postpone
Nauruz by a month. Khalid declined to do so, but reported on the
ON THE XATUEE OF THE EEAS. 37
subject to Hishfim, who said : " I am afraid, that to this subject may be
applied the word of God : " Intercalation is only an increase of heathenism "
(Sura ix. 37). Afterwards at the time of Alrashid the landholders as-
sembled again and called on Tahya ben Khalid ben Barmak, asking him
to postpone Nauruz by about two months. Now, Tahya had the inten-
tion to do so, but then his enemies began to speak of the subject, and
said: "He is partial to Zoroastrianism." Therefore he dropped the
subject, and the matter remained as it was before.
jN"ow Almutawakkil ordered 'Ibrahim ben Al'abbas Alsuli to be brought
10 before him, and told him, that in accordance with what the Maubadh had
related of Nauruz, he should compute the days, and compose a fixed
Canon (Calendar) ; that he should compose a paper on the postponement
of Nauruz, which was to be sent by order of the Khalif to all the
provinces of the empire. It was determined to postpone ISTauruz till the
17th of Haziran. Alsuli did [as he was ordered, and the letters arrived
in the provinces in Muharram a.h. 243. The poet, Albuhturi has com-
posed a Kasida on the ^subject in praise of Almutawakkil, where he
says : —
" The day of Nauruz has returned to that time, on which it was fixed by
20 Ardashir.
Thou hast transferred Nauruz to its original condition, whilst before
thee it was wandering about, circulating.
Now thou hast levied the taxes at Nauruz, and that was a memorable
benefit to the people.
They bring thee praise and thanks, and thou bringest them justice
and a present, well deserving of thanks."
However, Almutawakkil was killed, and his plan was not carried out,
until Almu'tadid ascended the throne of the Khalifate, delivered the
provinces of the empire from their usurpers, and gaiaed sufiicient leisure
30 to study the affairs of his subjects. He attributed the greatest import-
ance to intercalation and to the carrying out of this measure. He
followed the method of Almutawakkil regarding the postponement of
Nauriiz ; however he treated the subject differently, inasmuch as Almu-
tawakkil had made the basis of his computation the interval between his
year (i.e. that year, in which he then happened to live) , and the beginning
of the reign of Yazdajird, whilst Almu'tadid took the interval between
his year and that year in which the Persian empire perished by the death
of Yazdajird, because he — or those who did the work for him — held this
opinion, that si7ice that time intercalation had been neglected. This
40 interval he found to be 243 years and 60 days + a fraction, arising from
the day-quarters (exceeding the 365 days of the Solar year). These 60
days he added at Nauruz of his year, and put Nauruz at the end of
them, which fell upon a Wednesday, the 1st Khurdadh-Mah of that year,
coinciding with the 11th of Haziran. Thereupon he fixed Nauruz ia the
38 ' ALBfEUNI.
Greek montlis for this purpose, that the months of his year should be
intercalated at the same time when the Greeks intercalate their years.
The man who was entrusted with carrying out his orders, was his Wazir
'Abu-alkasim 'Ubaid-allah ben Sulaiman ben Wahb. To this subject
the following verses of the astronomer 'Ali ben Tahya refer : —
" 0 thou restorer of the untarnished glory, renovator of the shattered
empire !
Who hast again established among us the pillar of religion, after it had
been tottering !
Thou hast surpassed all the kings like the foremost horse in a race. 10
How blessed is that Nauruz, when thou hast earned thanks besides
the reward (due to thee for it in heaven) !
By postponing Nauruz thou hast justly made precede, what they had
postponed."
On the same subject 'Ali ben Yahya says :—
" The day of thy Nauruz is one and the same day, not liable to moving
backward,
Always coinciding with the 11th of Haziran."
Now, although in bringing about this measure much ingenuity has
been displayed, Nauruz has not thereby returned to that place which it 20
occupied at the time when intercalation was still practised in the Persian
empire. Tor the Persians had already begun to neglect their intercalation
nearly seventy years before the death of Tazdajird. Because at the
time of Yazdajird ben Shapur they had intercalated into their year two
months, one of them as the necessary compensation for that space of
time, by which the year had moved backward (it being too short). The
five Epagomense they put as a mark at the end of this intercalary month,
and the turn had just come to Aban-Mah, as we shall explain hereafter.
The second month they intercalated with regard to the future, that no
other intercalation might be needed for a long period. 30
Now, if you subtract from the sum of the years between Yazdajird ben
Shapur and Yazdajird ben Shahryar 120 years, you get a remainder of
nearly— but not exactly — 70 years ; there is much uncertainty and con-
fusion in the Persian chronology. The Portio intercalanda of these 70
years would amount to nearly 17 days. Therefore it would have been
necessary, if we calculate without mathematical accuracy, to postpone
Nauruz not 60, but 77 days, in order that it might coincide with the
28th of Haziran. The man who worked out this reform, was of opinion,
that the Persian method of intercalation was similar to the Greek method.
Therefore he computed the days since the extinction of their empire. 40
Whilst in reality the matter is a different one, as we have already ex-
plained, and shall more fully explain hereafter.
This is the last of those eras that have become celebrated. But
ON THE NATUEE OP THE ERAS. 39
perhaps some other nations, whose countries are far distant from ours,
have eras of then- own, which have not been handed down to posterity, p. 34.
or such eras as are now obsolete. For instance, the Persians in the time
of Zoroastrianism used to date successively by the years of the reign of
each of their kings. When a king died, they dropped his era, and
adopted that of his successor. The duration of the reigns of their kings
we have stated in the tables which will follow hereafter.
Epochs of the Ancient Arabs.— As a second instance we mention
the Ishmaelite Arabs. For they used to date from the construction of
10 the Ka'ba by Abraham and Ishmael till the time when they were dis-
persed and left Tihama. Those who went away dated from the time of
their exodus, whilst those who remained in the country dated from the
time when the last party of the emigrants had left. But afterwards,
after a long course of time, they dated from the year when the chieftain-
ship devolved upon 'Amr ben Eabi'a, known by the name of 'Amr ben
Tahya, who is said to have changed the religion of Abraham, to have
brought from the city of Balka the idol Hubal, and to have himself made
the idols 'Isaf and Na'ila. This is said to have happened at the time of
Shapur Dhu-al'aktaf. This synchronism, however, is not borne out by
20 the comparison of the chronological theories of both sides (Arabs and
Persians).
Afterwards they dated from the death of Ka'b ben Lu'ayy — till the
Year of Treason, in which the Banu-Yarbu' stole certain garments which
some of the kings of Himyar sent to the Ka'ba, and when a general
fighting among the people occurred at the time of the holy pilgrimage.
Thereupon they dated from the Tear of Treason till the Year of the Ele-
phants, in which the Lord, when the Ethiopians were coming on with the
intention of destroying the Ka'ba, brought down the consequences of
their cunning enterprise upon their own necks, and annihilated them.
30 Thereupon they dated from the era of the Hijra.
Some Arabs used to date from famous accidents, and from celebrated
days of battle, which they fought among themselves. As such epochs
the Banu-Kuraish, e.g. had the following ones : —
1. The day of Alfijar in the sacred month.
2. The day of the Confederacy of Alfudul, in which the contracting
parties bound themselves to assist all those to whom wrong was done.
Because the Banu-Kuraish committed wrong and violence against each
other within the holy precinct of Makka.
3. The year of the death of Hisham ben Almughira Almakhzumi,
40 for the celebration of his memory.
(4) The year of the reconstruction of the Ka'ba, by order of the
Prophet Muhammad.
The tribes 'Aus and Khazraj used the following days as epochs : —
1. The day of Alfa^a.
40 ALBlEUNi.
2. The day of Alrabi*.
3. The day of Abuhaba.
4. The day of Alsarara.
5. The day of Dahis and Ghabra.
6. The day of Bughath.
7. The day of Hatib.
8. The day of Madris and Mu'abbis.
Among the tribes Bakr and Taghlib, the two sons of Wa'il, the
following epochs were used : —
1. The day of 'Unaiza. 10
2. The day of Alhinw.
3. The day of Tahlak-allimam.
4. The day of Alkusaibat.
5. The day of Alfasil.
These and other " war-days " were used as epochs among the different
tribes and clans of the Arabs, Their names refer to the places where
they were fought, and to their causes.
If, now, these eras were kept in the proj)er order in which chronological
subjects are to be treated, we should do with them the same that we
intend to do with all the other subjects connected with eras. However, 20
people say that between the year of the death of Ka'b ben Lu'ayy and
the year of Treason there is an interval of 620 years, and between the
year of Treason and the year of the Elephants an interval of 110 years.
The Prophet was born 50 years after the invasion of the Ethioj)ians,
and between his birth and the year of Alfijar there were 20 years. At
p. 35. this battle the Prophet was present, as he has said himself : " I was
present on the day of Alfijar. Then I shot at my uncles." Between
the day of Alfijar and the reconstruction of the Ka'ba there are 15 years,
and 5 years between the reconstruction of the Ka'ba and the time
when Muhammad was entrusted with his divine mission. 30
Likewise the Himyarites and the Banu Kahtan used to date by the
reigns of their Tubba's, as the Persians by the reigns of their Kisras,
and the Greeks by the reigns of their Caesars. However, the rule of
the Himyarites did not always proceed in complete order, and in their
chronology there is much confusion. Notwithstanding, we have stated
the duration of the reigns of their kings in our tables, as also those
of the kings of the Banu-Lakhm, who inhabited Hira, and were settled
there, and had made it their home.
Chorasmian Antiquities.— In a similar way the peoj)le of Khwa-
rizm jjroceeded. For they dated from the beginning of the colonization 40
of their country, a. 980 before Alexander. Afterwards they adopted
as the epoch of an era the event of the coming of Siyawush ben
Kaika'us down to Khwarizm, and the rule of Kaikhusru, and of his
ON THE NATTJEE OF THE EEAS. 41
descendants over tlie country, dating from tlie time when he immigrated
and extended his sway over the empire of the Turks. This happened
92 years after the colonization of the country.
At a later time they imitated the example of the Persians in dating
by the years of the reign of each king of the line of Kaikhusru, who
ruled over the country, and who was called by the title of 8hdhiya.
This went on down to the reign of Afrigh, one of the kings of that
family. His name was considered a bad omen like that of Tazdajird
the Wicked, with the Persians. His son succeeded him in the rule of
10 the country. He (Afrigh) built his castle behind Alfir, A. Alexandri
616, Now people began to date from him and his children (i.e. by the
years of his reign and that of his descendants).
This Alfir was a fortress on the outskirts of the city of Khwarizm,
built of clay and tiles, consisting of three forts, one beiag built within
the other, and all three beiag of equal height ; and risiag above the
whole of it were the royal palaces, very much like Grhumdan in Yaman
at the time when it was the residence of the Tubba's. Por this Grhum-
dan was a castle in. San'a, opposite the great mosque, founded upon a
rock, of which people say that it was built by Sem ben ISToah after the
20 Deluge. In the castle there is a cistern, which he (Sem) had digged.
Others think that it was a temple built by Aldahhak for Venus. This
Alfir was to be seen from the distance of 10 miles and more. It was
broken and shattered by the Oxus, and was swept away piece by piece
every year, till the last remains of it had disappeared A. Alexandri
1305.
Of this dynasty was reigning at the time when the Prophet was
entrusted with his divine mission —
10. Arthamukh ben
9. Buzkar ben
30 8. Khamgri ben
7. Shawush ben
6. Sakhr ben
5. Azkajawar ben
4. Askajamuk ben
3. Sakhassak ben
2. Baghra ben
1. Afrigh.
When Kutaiba ben Muslim had conquered Khwarizm the second time,
after the inhabitants had rebelled, he constituted as their king —
40 14. Askajamuk ben
13. Azkajawar ben
12. Sabriben
11. Sakhr ben
10. Arthamukh,
42 ALBiR-DNi.
p. 36. and appointed him as their 8Mh. The descendants of the Kisras lost
the ofl&ce of the " Walt" (the governorship), but they retained the
office of the SMh, it being hereditary among them. And they accommo-
dated themselves to dating from the Hijra according to the use of the
Muslims.
Kutaiba ben Muslim had extinguished and ruined in every possible
way all those who knew how to write and to read the Khwarizmi writing,
who knew the history of the country and who studied their sciences.
In consequence these things are involved in so much obscurity, that it is
impossible to obtain an accurate knowledge of the history of the 10
country since the time of Islam (not to speak of pre-Muhammadan
times).
The Wildya (governorship) remained afterwards alternately in the
hands of this family and of others, till the time when they lost both
Wildya (governorship) and Shahiyya (Shahdom), after the death of the
martyr
22. 'Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad ben
21. 'Ahmad ben
20. Muhammad ben
19. 'Irak ben 20
18. Mansur ben
17. 'Abdallahben
16. Turkasbatha ben
15. Shawushfar ben
14. Askajamuk ben
13. Azkajawar ben
12. Sabri ben
11. Sakhr ben
10. Arthamukh, in whose time, as I have said, the Proj^het was
entrusted with his divine mission. 30
This is all I could ascertain regarding the celebrated eras ; to know
them all is impossible for a human being. God helps to the right
insight.
43
CHAPTER IV.
THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF VARIOTTS NATIONS REGARDING THE KING
CALLED DHfr-ALKARNAINI OR BICORNUTUS.
We must explain in a separate chapter what people think of the bearer
of this name, of Dhu-alkarnaini, for the subject interrupts, in this
part of the course of our exposition, the order in which our chronology
would have to proceed.
Now it has been said, that the story about him as contained in the
Koran, is well-known and intelligible to everybody who reads the verses
10 specially devoted to his history. The pith and marrow of it is this, that
he was a good and powerful man, whom God had gifted with extra-
ordinary authority and power, and whose plans he had crowned with
success both in east and west ; he conquered cities, subdued countries,
reduced his subjects to submission, and united the whole empire under
his single sway. He is generally assumed to have entered the darkness
in the north, to have seen the remotest frontiers of the inhabitable
world, to have fought both against men and demons, to have passed
between Gog and Magog, so as to cut off their communication, to have
marched out towards the countries adjoining their territory ia the east
20 and north, to have restrained and repelled their mischievous inroads by
means of a wall, constructed in a mountain-pass, whence they used to
pour forth. It was built of iron-blocks joined by molten brass, as is
still now the practice of artisans.
When Alexander, the son of Philip, Alyunani (i.e. the Ionian, mean-
ing the Greek) had united under his sway the Greek empire (lit. the
empire of the Eomans), which had previously consisted of single prin- p 37
cipalities, he marched against the princes of the west, overpowering and
subduing them, going as far as the Green Sea. Thereupon he returned
to Egypt, where he founded Alexandria, giving it his own name. Then
30 he marched towards Syria and the Israelites of the country, went down
44 ALBIRUNI.
to Jerusalem, sacrificed in its temple and made offerings. Thence lie
turned to Armenia and Bab-al'abwab, and passed even beyond it. Tbe
Copts, Berbers, and Hebrews obeyed Hm. Then he marched against
Dara, the son of Dara, in order to take revenge for all the wrongs which
Syria had suffered at the hands of Bukhtanassar (Nebukadnezzar) and
the Babylonians. He fought with him and put him to flight several
times, and in one of those battles Dara was killed by the chief of his
body-guard, called Naujushanas ben Adharbakht, whereupon Alexander
took possession of the Persian empire. Then he went to India and
China, making war upon the most distant nations, and subduing all the 10
tracts of country through which he passed. Thence he returned to
Khurasan, conquered it, and built several towns. On returning to
'Irak he became ill in Shahrazur, and died. In all his enterprises he
acted under the guidance of philosophical principles, and in all his plans
he took the advice of his teacher, Aristotle. Now, on account of all
this he has been thought to be Dhu-alkarnaini, or Bicornutus.
As to the interpretation of this surname, people say he was called so
because he reached the two " liorns " of the sun, i.e. his rising and
setting places, just as Ardashir Bahman was called Longimanus, because
his command was omnipotent, wherever he liked, as if he had only to 20
stretch out his hand in order to set things right.
According to others he was called so because he descended from two
different " generations " {lit. horns) i.e. the Greeks and Persians. And
on this subject they have adopted the vague opinions which the Persians
have devised in a hostile spirit, viz. that Dara the Great had married
his mother, a daughter of King Philip, but she had an offensive odour,
which he could not endure, and so he sent her back to her father, she
being pregnant ; that he was called a son of Philip, simply because the
latter had educated him. This story of theirs they try to prove by the
fact, that Alexander, when he reached Dara, who was expiring, put his 30
head on his lap and spoke to him : " 0 my brother, tell me, who did this
to you, that I may take revenge for you ? " But Alexander so addressed
him only because he wanted to be kind towards him, and to represent
him (Dara) and himself as brethren, it being impossible to address him
as king, or to call him by his name, both of which would have betrayed
a high degree of rudeness unbecoming a king.
On Real and Forged Pedigrees. — However, enemies are always
eager to revile the parentage of people, to detract from their reputation,
and to attack their deeds and merits, in the same way as friends and
partisans are eager to embellish that which is ugly, to cover uj) the weak 40
parts, to proclaim publicly that which is noble, and to refer everything
to great virtues, as the poet describes them in these words : —
" The eye of benevolence is blind to every fault,
But the eye of hatred discovers every vice."
THE KING CALLED BICOENUTUS. 45
Obstinacy in this direction frequently leads people to invent laudatory
stories, and to forge genealogies which go back to glorious ancestors, as
has been done, e.g. for Ibn-'Abdalrazzak Altusi, when he got made for
himself a genealogy out of the Shahnama, which makes him descend
from Minosheihr, and also for the house of Buwaihi, For 'Abu-'Ishak
'Ibrahim ben Hilal Alsabi, in his book called Altdj (the crown), makes
Buwaihi descend from Bahram Gur by the following line of ancestors : —
I. Buwaihi.
Fanakhusru,
10 Thaman.
Kuhi.
V. Shirzil junior.
Shirkadha.
Shirzil senior.
Shiranshah.
Shirfana.
X. Sasananshah.
Sasankhurra.
Shuzil.
20 Sasanadhar.
XrV. Bahram Grur the king.
'Abu-Muhammad Alhasan ben 'Ali ben Nsma in his epitome of the
history of the Buwaihides, says that —
I. Buwaihi was the son of
Fanakhusra, the son of
Thaman.
Then some people continue —
Thaman, the son of
Kuhi, the son of
30 V. Shirzil junior ;
whilst others drop Kuhi.
Then they continue —
Shirzil senior, the son of
Shiranshah, the son of
Shirfana, the son of
Sasananshah, the son of
X. Sasankhurra, the son of
Shuzil, the son of
Sasanadhar, the son of
40 Xin. Bahram.
Further, people disagree regarding this Bahram. Those who give the
Buwaihides a Persian origin, contend that he was Bahram Gur, and
continue the enumeration of his ancestors (down to the origin of the
46 ALBtRUNi.
familj Sasan), whilst others who give them an Arabic origin, say that
he was —
Bahram ben
Aldahhak ben
Al'abyad ben
Mu'awiya ben
Aldailam ben
Basil ben
Dabba ben
'IJdd. - 10
Others, again, mention among the series of ancestors —
Lahu ben
Aldailam ben
Basil,
and maintain that from this name his son Layahaj derived his name.
He, however, who considers what I have laid down at the beginning
of this book, as the conditio sine qua non for the knowledge of the
proper mean between disparagement and exaggeration, and the necessity
of the greatest carefulness for everybody who wants to give a fair
judgment, will be aware of the fact, that the first member of this family 20
who became celebrated was Buwaihi ben Fanakhusra. And it is not at
all known that those tribes were particularly careful in preserving and
continuing their genealogical traditions, nor that they knew anything
like this of the family Buwaihi, before they came into power. It very
rarely happens that genealogies are preserved without any interruption
during a long period of time. In such cases the only possible way of
distinguishing a just claim to some noble descent from a false one is
the agreement of all, and the assent of the whole generation in ques-
tion regarding that subject. An instance of this is the lord of
mankind, — 30
I. Muhammad, for he is the son of
'Abd-allah ben
'Abd-almuttalib ben
Hashim ben
V. 'Abd-Manaf ben
Kusayy ben
Kilab ben
Murra ben
Ka'b ben
X. Lu'ayy ben 40
Ghalib ben
Fihr ben
Malik ben
Alnadr ben
THE KING CALLED BICOENUTUS. 47
XV. Kinana ben
Khuzaima ben
Mudrika ben
'Ilyas ben
Mudar ben
XX. Nizar ben
Ma'add ben
XXn. 'Adnan.
Nobody in the world doubts this lineage of ancestors, as they do not
10 doubt either, that he descends from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The p. 39.
ancestry beyond Abraham is to be found in the Thora. However,
regarding the link of parentage between 'Adnan and Ishmael there is a
considerable divergence of opinions, inasmuch as some people consider
as the father the person whom others take for the son, and vice versa,
and as they add considerably in some places, and leave out in others.
Further as to our master, the commander, the prince, the glorious and
victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma'ali, may God give him a long
life, not one of his friends, whom may Grod help, nor any of his
opponents, whom may God desert, denies his noble and ancient descent,
20 well established on both sides, although his pedigree back to the origin
of his princely family has not been preserved without any interruption.
On the one side he descends from Wardanshah, whose nobility is
well-known throughout Ghilan ; and this prince had a son, besides
the prince, the martyr Mardawij. People say, that the son of Wardan-
shah obeyed the orders of 'Asfar ben Shirawaihi, and that it was he,
who suggested to him (his brother Mardawij) the idea of delivering the
people from the tyranny and oppression of 'Asfar. On the other
side he descends from the kings of Media, called the Ispahbads of
Khurasan and the Farkhwarjarshahis. And it has never been denied
30 that those among them, who belonged to the royal house of Persia,
claimed to have a pedigree which unites them and the Kisras into one
family. For his uncle is the Ispahbad —
I. Eustam ben
(j>>j5/* ben
Eiustam ben
Karin ben
V. Shahryar ben
(^^^ ben
Surkhab ben
40 jV> ben
Shapur ben
X. Kayus ben
XI. Kubadh, who was the father of Anoshirwan.
May God give to our master the empire from east and west over all
48 ALBIRUNI.
the parts of the world, as he has assigned him a noble origin on both
sides. God's is the power to do it, and all good comes from him.
The same applies to the kings of Khurasan. For nobody contests the
fact, that the first of this dynasty —
I. 'Isma'il was the son of
'Ahmad ben
'Asad ben
Saman-khudah ben
y. (jU*-*.^ ben
ui;.U«L ben 20
OjA>y ben
Bahram Shubin ben
IX. Bahram Jushanas, the commander of the marches of Adhar-
baijan.
The same applies further to the original Shahs of Khwarizm, who
belonged to the royal house (of Persia), and to the Shahs of Shirwan,
because it is believed by common consent, that they are descendants of the
Kisras, although their pedigree has not been preserved uninterruptedly.
The fact that claims to some noble lineage, and also to other matters,
are just and well founded, always becomes known somehow or other, 20
even if people try to conceal it, being like musk, which spreads its odour,
although it be hidden. Under such circumstances, therefore, if people
want to settle their genealogy, it is not necessary to spend money and to
make presents, as 'Ubaid-allah ben Alhasan ben 'Ahmad ben 'Abdallah
ben Maimun Alkaddah did to the genealogists among the party of the
40. Alides, when they declared his claim of descent from them to be a lie,
at the time when he came forward in Maghrib ; finally he succeeded in
contenting them and in making them silent. Notwithstanding the truth
is well known to the student, although the fabricated tale has been far
spread, and although his descendants are powerful enough to suppress 30
any contradiction. That one of them, who reigns in our time, is 'Abu-
'Ali ben Nizar ben Ma'add ben 'Isma'il ben Muhammad ben 'Ubaid-
allah the usurper.
I have enlarged on this subject only in order to show how partial
people are to those whom they like, and how hostile towards those whom
they hate, so that frequently their exaggeration in either direction leads
to the discovery of their infamous designs.
That Alexander was the son of Philip is a fact, too evident to be
concealed. His pedigree is stated by the most celebrated genealogists
in this way : — 40
I. ^J.JLi Philip,
w^ji^ Hermes,
THE KING CALLED BIGOENUTUS. 49
V. (^J^a-^
Meton.
i^i)
Rome.
J^
o^y.
Yunan.
(.i^U
Yafetli.
X. yy5>^
^i)
Rumiya.
^y.
Byzantium.
J*iy
Theophil.
^!»
Rome.
Y. /*^\
Al'asfar.
•aJ\
Elifaz.
10
^_/u*3\ Esau,
(j*--.^ Isaak.
XIX. f^^ji^ Abraham.
According to another tradition Dhu-alkarnaini was a man, called
{j^^\ who marched against Samirus, one of the kings of Babel, fought
with him, made him a prisoner and killed him ; then he stripped off
the skin of his head together with his hair and his two curls, got it
20 tamied, and used it as a crown. Therefore, he was called Dhu-alkarnaini
(Bicornutus). According to another version he is identical with
Almundhir ben Ma-alsama, i.e. Almundhir ben Imru'ulkais.
Altogether the most curious opinions are afloat regarding the bearer
of this name, that, e.g., his mother was a demon, which is likewise
believed of Bilkis, for peoj)le say that her mother was a demon, and of
'Abdalhih ben Hilal the juggler, for he was thought to be the devil's
son-in-law, being married to his daughter. Such and similar ridiculous
stories people produce, and they are far known.
It is related, that 'Umar ben Alkhattab, when he heard one day people
30 entering into a profound discussion on Dhu-alkarnaini, said, " Was it not
enough for you, to plunge into the stories on human beings, that you
must pass into another field and draw the angels into the discussion ? "
Some say, as Ibn Duraid mentions in his Kituh-alwisMh, that Dhu-
alkarnaini was Alsa'b ben Alhammal Alhimyari, whilst others take him
for 'Abu-karib Shammar Yur'ish ben 'Ifrikis Alhimyari, and believe
that he was called so on account of two curls which hung down upon
his shoulders, that he reached the east and west of the earth, and
traversed its north and south, that he subdued the countries, and
reduced the people to complete subjection. It is this prince about whom
40 one of the princes of Yaman, 'As'ad ben 'Amr ben Rabi'a ben Malik
ben Subaih ben 'Abdallfih ben Zaid ben Yasir ben Yun'im Alhimyari
boasts in his poems, in which he says : —
" Dhu-alkarnaini was before me, a true believer, an exalted king on p. 41.
the earth, never subject to anybody.
4
50 ALBtRUNf.
He went to the countries of the east and west, always seeking
imperial power from a liberal and bountiful (Lord).
Then he saw the setting- j)lace of the sun, at the time when he sets
in the well of fever- water and of badly smelling mud.
Before him there was Bilkis, my aunt, until her empire came to an
end by the hoopoo."
Now it seems to me that of all these versions the last is the true one,
because the princes, whose names begin with the word Dhu, occur only
in the history of Taman and nowhere else. Their names are always a
comjjound, the first j)art of which is the word Dhu, e.g., Dhu-almanar, 10
Dhu-al'adh'ar, Dhu-alshanatir, Dhu-Nuwas, Dhu-Jadan, Dhu-Yazan,
and others. Besides, the traditions regarding this Taman prince, Dhu-
alkarnaini, resemble very much that which is related of him in the
Koran. As to the ramj)art which he constructed between the two walls,
it must be stated that the wording of the Koran does not indicate its
geograj)hical situation. We learn, however, from the geographical
works, as JigJirdfiya and the Itineraria (the books called Masdlih wa-
mamcUik, i.e. Itinera et regna), that this nation, viz. Tajuj and Majuj
are a tribe of the eastern Turks, who live in the most southern parts of
the 5th and 6th KkifxaTa. Besides, Muhammad ben Jarir Altabari 20
relates in his chronicle, that the prince of Adharbaijan, at the time
when the country was conquered, had sent a man to find the rampart,
from the direction of the country of the Khazars, that this man saw the
rampart, and described it as a very lofty building of dark colour,
situated behind a moat of solid structure and impregnable.
'Abdallah ben 'Abdallah ben Khurdadhbih relates, on the authority of
the dragoman at the court of the Khalif, that Almu'tasim dreamt one
night, that this rampart had been oi^ened (rendered accessible). There-
fore he sent out fifty men to inspect it. They set out from the road
which leads to Bjib-al'abwab, and to the countries of the Lan and 30
Khazar ; finally they arrived at the rampart, and found that it was con-
structed of iron tiles, joined together by molten brass, and with a bolted
gate. Its garrison consisted of people of the neighbouring countries.
Then they returned, and the guide led them out into the district
opposite Samarkand.
From these two rejjorts, it is evident that the rampart must be
situated in the north-west quarter of the inhabitable earth. However,
especially in this latter rejiort, there is something which renders its
authenticity doubtful, viz. the description of the inhabitants of that
country, that they are Muslims and speak Arabic, although they are 40
without the slightest connection with the civilized world, from which
they are separated by a black, badly smelling country of the extent of
many days' travelling ; further, that they were totally ignorant as to
both Khalif and the Khalifate. Whilst we know of no other Muslim
nation which is separated from the territory of IsLim, except the
THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. 51
Bulghar and the Sawar, who live towards the end of the civilized world,
in the most northern part of the 7th KXcfxa. And these people do not
make the least mention of such a rampart, and they are well acquainted
with the Khalifate and the Khalifs, in whose name they read even the p. 42.
Khutba; they do not speak Arabic, but a language of their own, a
mixture of Turkish and Khazari. If, therefore, this report rests on
testimonies of this sort, we do not wish to investigate thereby the
truth of the subject.
This is what I wished to propound regarding Dhu-alkarnaini. Allah
10 knows best !
4 *
52 ALBfRUNt.
CHAPTER V.
ON THE NATURE OP THE MONTHS WHICH ARE USED IN THE PRECEDING
ERAS.
Heretofore I have mentioned already that every nation uses a special
era of its own. And in tlie same degree as they differ in the use of the
eras, they differ regarding the beginning of the months, regarding the
number of days of each of them, and the reasons assigned therefor.
Of this subject, I mention what I have learnt, and do not attempt to find
out what I do not know for certain, and regarding which I have no
information from a trustworthy person. And first we give the months 10
of the Persians.
Months of the Persians.^ — The number of the months of one year
is twelve, as God has said in his book (Sura ix. 36) : "With God the
number of the months was twelve months, in the book of God, on the
day when God created the heavens and the earth." On this subject
there is no difference of oj)inion between the nations, except in the leap-
years. So the Persians have twelve months of the following names : —
Farwardin Mah. Mihr Mah.
Ardibahisht Mah. Aban Mah.
Khurdadh Mah. Adhar Mah. 20
Tir Mah. Dai Mah.
Murdadh Mah. Bahman Mah.
Shahrewar Mah. Isfandarmadh Mah.
I have heard the geometrician 'Abu Sa'id 'Ahmad ben Muhammad
ben 'Abd-aljalil Alsijzi relating of the ancient inhabitants of Sijistan,
that they called these months by other names and commenced likewise
with Farwardin Mah. The names are these —
I. o\/ III. JU^^
ON THE NATUEE OE MONTHS.
53
VV> xn. \jyU
Every one of the Persian months has 30 days, and to each day of a p. 43.
month they give a sj)ecial name in their language. These are the
names —
10
I. Hurmuz,
XI.
Khur.
XXI.
Eam.
Bahman.
Mah.
Badh.
Ardibahisht.
Tir.
Dai-ba-din.
Shahrewar.
Gosh.
Din.
Isfandarmadh.
Dai-ba-mihr.
Ard.
VI. Khurdadh.
XVI.
Mihr.
XXVI.
Ashtadh.
Murdadh.
Srosh.
Asman.
Dai-ba-adhar.
Eashn.
Zamyadh.
Adhar.
Farwardin,
Marasfand.
Aban.
Bahram.
Aniran.
20
30
There is no difference among the Persians as to the names of these
days ; they are the same for every month, and they follow in the same
order. Only the days Hurmuz and Aniran are called by some, the
former FarruJch, the latter Bih-roz.
The sum total of the days is 360, whilst, as we have already observed
heretofore, the real year (i.e. the mean solar or tropical year) has
365| days. Those additional five days they called Fanji (Panji) and
Andargdh, arabized Andarjdh ; they are also called Almasruka and Almus-
taraka (i.e. rjixipat KXo7ri/x.atat), on account of their not being reckoned
as part of any one of the months. They added them between Aban
Mah and Adhar Mah, and gave them names, which are different from
those of the days of each month. These names I never read in two books,
nor heard them from two men, in the same way ; they are these —
I. 8l^AAjBi\ II. 5l^Ja&.\ III, fi^JUft-.^ rV. 5V^A<«Jw!A-\ V. 6\XA;vA.9>
40
In another book I found them in the following form :
I. iy^\ II. S^\ III. J^JUft...^ IV, f^i^ V. et-JsyiwJi^
The author of the Kitdb-alghurra, Alna'ib Alamuli gives them these
names —
I. jyy=» II. i.>yi>»\ III. •X^JUa~.\ IV. jXJ^^Jbt V. (j. •.■>><}> (j:.-*'^^ p. 44.
Zadawaihi ben Shahawaihi in his book on the causes of the festivals
of the Persians, mentions them in this form —
I. &xi^\ dstfJi n. 6Ai'jJk>\ A^eii III. <!Un«>^\ (^^
IV. O^^J)))^ '^^ V. yV^y^J^^ &j^
54 . ALBIEUNI.
I myself heard 'Abu-alfaraj ben 'Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjani say
that the Mobad in Shiraz had dictated them to him in this form —
I. sl^oyui\ II. S^jy;».\ III. 6^1*,x^\ IV. i,\^jSJi>s.^j V. i>\^<j>J^yxJuJbj
And lastly, I hare heard them from the geometrician 'Abu-alhasan
Adharkhura, the son of Yazdankhasis, in this form —
I. JyA II. JyLA.\ III. (^^.4ji.fM\ IV. yi.AN^-&^
(Ahunavaiti.) (Ustavaiti.) (Spentamainyu.) (Vohukhshathra.)
(Vahistoisti.)
The sTim total of their days, therefore, was 365. The quarter of a 10
day (beyond the 365 days) they neglected in their computation, till these
quarters of a day had summed up to the days of one complete month,
which happened in 120 years. Then they added this month to the other
months of the year, so that the number of its months became thirteen.
This month they called Kabisa (intercalary month). And the days of
this additional month they called by the same names as those of the
other months.
In this mode the Persians proceeded till the time when both their
empire and their religion perished. Afterwards the day-quarters were
neglected, and the years were no longer intercalated with them, and, 20
therefore, they did not return to their original condition, and remained
considerably behind the fixed points of time {i.e. real time). The
reason was this that intercalation was an affair settled under the special
patronage of their kings at a meeting of the mathematicians, literary
celebrities, historiographers, and chroniclers, priests, and judges, — on the
basis of an agreement of all those regarding the correctness of the
calculation, after all the persons I have mentioned had been summoned
to the royal court from all parts of the empire, and after they had held
councils in order to come to an agreement. On this occasion money was
spent profusely to such an extent, that a man who made a low estimate 30
said, the cost had sometimes amounted to one million of denars. This
same day was observed as the most important and the most glorious of
all festivals ; it was called the Feast of Intercalation, and on that day the
king used to remit the taxes to his subjects.
The reason why they did not add the quarter of a day every fourth
year as one complete day to one of the months or to the Epagomense,
was this, that according to their views, not the days, but only the months
are liable to being intercalated, because they had an aversion to increasing
the number of the days ; this was impossible by reason of the pre-
scription of the law regarding the days on which zamzama (whispering 40
prayer) must be said, if it is to be valid. If the number of days be
increased by an additional day (the order of the days of zamzama
according to the law, is disturbed).
It was a rule that on each day a special sort of odoriferous j^lants and
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 55
flowers was put before the Kisrcis, and likewise a special drink, in a well
regulated order, regarding whicli there was no difference of opinion.
The reason why they put the Epagomenae at the end of Aban Mah,
between this month and Adhar Mah (lacuna).
The Persians believe that the beginning of their year was fixed by the
creation of the first man, and that this took place on the day Hurmuz
of Farwardin Mah, whilst the sun stood in the point of the vernal
equinox in the middle of heaven. This occurred at the beginning of
10 the seventh millenium, according to their view of the millennia of the
world.
The astrologers hold similar opinions, viz. that Cancer is the horo-
scope of the world. For in the first cycle of Sindhind the sun stands
in the beginning of Aries above the middle between the two ends of the
inhabitable world. In that case. Cancer is the horoscope, which sign
according to their tenets, as we have mentioned, signifies the commence-
ment of rotation and growth.
Others say, that Cancer was called the horoscope of the world, because
of all the zodiacal signs, it stands nearest to the zenith of the inhabit-
20 able world, and because in the same sign is the vipwfxa of Jupiter,
which is a star of moderate nature ; and as no growth is possible, except
when moderate heat acts upon moist substances, it (i.e. Cancer) is fit to
be the horoscoj)e of the growth of the world.
According to a third view. Cancer was called so, because by its creation
the creation of the four elements became complete, and by their
becoming complete all growth became complete.
And other comparisons besides of a similar kind are broxight forward
by the astrologers.
Further, people relate : When Zoroaster arose and intercalated the
30 years with the months, which up to that time had summed up from the
day-quarters, time returned to its original condition. Then he ordered
people in all future times to do with the day-quarters the same as he
had done, and they obeyed his command. They did not call the inter-
calary month by a special name, nor did they repeat the name of another
month, but they kept it simply in memory from one turn to another.
Being, however, afraid that there might arise uncertainty as to the place,
where the intercalary month would have again to be inserted, they
transferred the five Epagomenss and put them at the end of that
month, to which the turn of intercalation had proceeded on the last
40 occasion of intercalating. And as this subject was of great importance
and of general use to high and low, to the king and to the subjects, and
as it is required to be treated with knowledge, and to be carried out in
conformity with nature (i.e. with real time), they used to postpone
intercalation, when its time happened to occur at a period when the
condition of the empire was disturbed by calamities ; then they neglected
56 ALBIRUNI.
intercalation so long, until the day-quarters summed up to two months.
Or, on the other hand, they anticipated intercalating the year at once hy
two months, when they exjjected that at the time of the next coming
intercalation circumstances would distract their attention therefrom, as
it has been done in the time of Yazdajird ben Sabur, for no other motive
but that of precaution. That was the last intercalation which they
carried out, under the superintendence of a Dastur, called Yazdajird
Alhizari. Hizar was an estate in the district of Istakhr in Ears, from
which he received his name. In that intercalation the turn had come to
Aban Mah ; therefore, the Epagomense were added at its end, and 10
there they have remained ever since on account of their neglecting
intercalation.
Months of the Sogdians. — Now I shall mention the months of the
Magians of Transoxiana, the j)eo]Dle of Khwarizm and of Sughd. Their
months have the same number, and the same number of days as those
of the Persians. Only between the beginning of the Persian and the
Transoxanian months there is a difference, because the Transoxanians
p. 46. append the five Ej)agomen8e to the end of their year, and commence the
year with the 6th day of the Persian month Farwardin, Khurdadhroz.
So the beginning of the months is different until Adliar Mah ; afterwards 20
they have the same beginnings.
These are the names of the months of the Sughdians.
I. jj-y of 30 days.
(;)~*^ JJ
^^^^ ,,
Some people add a Jim (g) at the end of i;y^ and fj^^, and pronounce
gj^-^-j* and ^^f^ ; they add a Nun and a Jim (g>) at the end of k^L-i 30
and ^>u.>j and pronounce g.*^^ and ^■^fy They call each day by a
special name, as is the custom with the Persians. These are the names
of the thirty days —
11. >!^ 21. ^:r\
12. e^ ■ 22. o\,
13. J^ 28. c:-«^
14. Ji-t^ 24. (^.J
15. «:—<.> 25. c-J)^
16. jji^-ai^ 26. »i\-i-.\
17. u5y 27. c>*- 40
18. 0--) 28. '^s-i*^)
9. u-^\ 19. J^ 29.
10. e>v^ 20. yklt; 30. ^
VII. jUi of 30 days.
e'^\
>>
tf
»
gyVw
J)
\^i
»
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 67
Some people give the day j>.f^ the name ^. The names of the five
Epagomense are the following : —
I. ctwiij^U- II. (jOiiy III. i^yi^^ IV. (y JUj V. (,./-A*|«<^j\ P- 47.
Regarding these names the same difference exists among the Sugh-
dians as among the Persians. They are also called by the following
names : —
I. Jj^Jj II. Oj^> III. OjJ^ IV. Jje;^ V. fiJJ;^
These five days they add at the end of the last month ^y^^.
The Sughdian system of intercalation agreed with the practice of the
10 Persians, as also did their neglecting intercalation. The reason why
there arose a difference between the beginnings of the Sughdian and the
Persian years I shall describe hereafter.
Months of the Chorasmians. — The Khwarizmians, although a
branch of the great tree of the Persian nation, imitated the Sughdians
as to the beginning of the year and the place where they add the
Epagomense. These are the names of their months —
I. (.5^^^ ^ f^i) ^11- iJ>f^
S\i.^ ^\io\ Jji^ y.*A\
Others abbreviate these names and use them in this form —
I. o^;S^ VII. ^yi\
30 The thirty days they call by the following names : —
1. ^^*ij 11. ^\ 21. f,\j
2. o:yj\ 12. 2U 22. 3\j
3. ct^^O;\ 13. 4j)^ 23. ^^J
4. ^^Jj>,J.^^^ 14. c>A^ 24. ^yi>i
5. ^_3.^-«j\.x;-— \ 15. yj 25. (^fi-j\
6. ^UjjJb 16. Qui 26. 'iU4.\
7. ^\o^ 17. ^jy-\ 27. (:)i*^\ p. 48.
8. jJo 18. i^j 28. >^\)
9- j)j^ 19. c:>=^jy 29. Ju^y
40 10. e^u^ 20. e>«;^ 30. gyj\
I have found that they begin the Epagomense, which are appended at
58 albIeuni.
the end of the montli Ispandarmaji, with the same name by which they
begin the days of the month ; the second day they call Azmin, the third
Ardawasht, and so on till the fifth day Ispandarmaji. Then they return
and commence anew with the first day ^y*ij, the 1st of the month
Nawasarji. They do not use or even know special names for the
Epagomense, but I believe that this fact simply arises from the same
confusion, regarding these names, which prevails among the Persians
and Sughdians. For after Kutaiba ben Muslim Albahili had killed their
learned men and priests, and had burned their books and writings, they
became entirely illiterate (forgot writing and reading), and relied in 10
every knowledge or science which they required solely uj)on memory.
In the long course of time they forgot that on which there had been a
divergence of oj)inion, and kept by memory only that which had been
generally agreed uj)on. But Allah knows best !
As to the three identical names of days (the 8th, 15th, and 23rd, —
.Dai in Persian, Dast in Sughdian, DadJm in Khwarizmian),the Persians
refer them to the following, and compound them with these, saying
Dai-ha-Adar, and Dai-ha-Mihr, and Dai-ha-Din. Of the Sughdians and
Khwarizmians some do the same, and others connect the words in their
language for "the first, the second, the third," with each of them. 20
In the early times of their empire the Persians did not use the week.
For, first, it was in use among the nations of the west, and more particu-
larly among the people of Syria and the neighbouring countries, because
there the j)rophets appeared and made people acquainted with the first
week, and that in it the world had been created, in conformity with the
beginning of the Thora. From these the use of the week spread to the
other nations. The pure Arabians adopted the week in consequence of
p. 49. the vicinity of their country to that of the Syrians.
We have not heard that anybody has imitated the example of the
Persians, Sughdians, and Khwarizmians, and has adopted their usage (of 30
giving special names to the thirty days of the month, instead of dividing
them into weeks), except the Copts, i.e. the ancient inhabitants of
Egypt. For they, as we have mentioned, used the names of the thirty
days till the time when Augustus, the son of Gajus, ruled over them.
He wanted to induce them to intercalate the years, that they might
always agree with the Greeks and the people of Alexandria. Into this
subject, however, it would be necessary to inquire more closely. At that
time precisely five years were wanting till the end of the great inter-
calation period. Therefore, he waited till five years of his rule had
elapsed, and then he ordered people to intercalate one day in the months 40
in every fourth year, in the same way as the Greeks do. Thereupon
they dropped the use of the names of the single days, because, as people
say, those who used and knew them would have required to invent a
name for the intercalary day. They (the names of the days of the
month) have not been handed down to posterity.
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS.
59
Months of the Egyptians.-
months : —
I. Thot 30 days.
Paophi 30
Athyr 30
Choiak 30
Tybi 30
Mechir 30
-The following are tlie names of their
VII. Phamenoth 30 days.
Pharmuthi 30
Pachon 30
Payni 30
Epiphi 30
\a^\ 30
These are the ancient names of the months. In the following we give
10 the names which were modernized by one of their princes, after inter-
calation had been adopted : —
I. «i>y VII. <^W*;»
\fcXfr flMI.X.WM>
20
30
Some people call the months «^i^, y^\^j>, jj---^, and <^7-~* by the
names u^^, ^^f., (j~i\-^ and <^jj— 1>». These are the forms on which
peoj^le agree ; in some books, however, these names are found in forms
somewhat different from those we have mentioned.
The five additional days they call, 'ETrayo/AeVai, which means " tlie
small month ;" they are appended at the end of Mesori, and at the same
place the intercalary day is added, in which case the Epagomense are
sis days. The leap-year they call ^^\, which means " the sign."
Months of the People of the West. — 'Abu-al'abbas Alamuli relates
in his Kitdh-dald'il-alkibla, that the Western people (of Spain?) use
months, the beginnings of which agree with those of the Coptic months.
They call them by the following names : —
I.
50.
May 30 days.
VII.
November 30 days.
June 30 „
December 30 „
July 30 „
January 30 „
August 30 „
February 30 „
September 30 ,,
March 30 „
October 30 „
April 30 „
Then follow the five Epagomense at the end of the year.
Months of the Greeks. — The months of the Greeks are always
twelve in number. Their names are these : —
40
'lavovdpLos 31 days.
^€J3pOvdpLO<S 28 ,,
Mdtprios 31 „
IV. 'A-TrptXis 30 days.
Mato? 31 „
lovvtos 30 „
60 ALBlRTJNf.
VII. 'lovXios 31 days. X. 'OKTw/?ptos 31 days.
AvyovaTo<i 81 „ No€/^/3pios 30 „
2e7rTe/x,^ptos 30 „ ^eKe/x/SpLOS 31 „
The sum of the days of tlieir year is 365, and as in all four years the
four quarters of a day are summed up, they append it as one complete
day to the month February, so that this month has in every fourth year
29 days. He who first induced people to intercalate the years was
Julius, called Dictator, who ruled over them in bygone times, long
before Moses. He gave them the months with such a distribution (of
the days), and with such names as we have mentioned. He induced 10
them to intercalate the day-quarters into them (the months) in every
1461st year, when the day-quarters had summed up to one complete
year. So that (this intercalation) preserved these (the months, keeping
them ia agreement with real time). This intercalation they called the
" great one," after they had called the intercalation, which takes place
every four years, the " small one." This " small " intercalation, however,
they did not introduce until a long period had elapsed after the death
of the king (Julius Csesar). A characteristic of their system is the
division of the days of the months into weeks, for reasons which we
have mentioned before. 20
p. 51. The author of the Kitdh-ma'kJiadh-almawdMt (method for the deduc-
tion of certain times and dates) thinks that the Greeks and other nations,
who are in the habit of intercalating the day -quarter, had fixed the sun's
entering Aries uj^on the beginning of April, which corresponds to the
Syrian Kissin, as the beginning of their era. And we confess that in
his account he comes pretty near the truth. For astronomical observa-
tion has taught that the fraction which follows the (365) days of the
solar year, is less than one comjjlete quarter of a day, and we ourselves
have observed that the sun's entering the first part of Aries precedes
the beginning of Nisan. Therefore that which he mentions is possible, 30
and even likely.
Further on he says, si)eaking of the Greeks, that " they, on perceiving
that the beginning of their year had changed its place, had recourse to
the years of the Indians ; that they then intercalated into their year the
difference between the two years (viz., the Greek year and the solar
year), and that in consequence the sun's entering the first part of Aries
again took place at the beginning of Nisan. If we on our side do the
same, Nisan returns to its original place." He has tried to give an
example, but has not finished it, being incapable of doing so. On this
occasion he has shown his ignorance, as he, in his accovmt of the Greeks, 40
has also rendered it evident that he is inimical to the Greeks, and partial
to others. The fact is, that according to the Indian system he has con-
verted the difference between the Greek year and the solar year into
fractions, putting it down as 729 seconds. Then he changes also the day
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 61
into seconds, and divides them by that difference. So he gets 118 years
6 months and 6-| days. This would be the space of time in which the
calendar would necessitate the intercalation of one complete day, on
account of this plus-difference. Further, he says, " Now, if we inter-
calate the past years of the G-reek era," which were at his time 1,225
years, " the sun's entering the first part of Aries again takes place at the
beginning of Nisan." But he has dropped his example, and has not
intercalated the years. If he had done so, his conclusions would have
led to the contrary of what he says and maintains, and the beginning of
10 Msan would come near the sun's entering the first part of Taurus. For
that date, which he wanted to treat as an example, would necessitate
the intercalation of 10^ days. Now the Greek year being too short
(according to him), the beginning of Nisan precedes the sun's entering
the first part of Aries, and the time which it would be necessary to
intercalate (joortio intercalanda) , would have to be added to the first of
Nisan, so as to proceed as far as to the 10th of it.
Now I should like to know which equinox this man, who is so partial
to the Indians, meant. For the vernal equinox took place according to
their system at that time six or seven days before the first of Nisan. I
20 should further like to know at what time the Greeks did what he relates
of them. For they are so deej^ly imbued with, and so clever in geometry
and astronomy, and they adhere so strictly to logical arguments, that
they are far from having recourse to the theories of those who derive
the bases of their knowledge from divine inspiration, when their artifices
desert them and they are required to come forward with an argument ;
not to mention the sciences of philosophy and theology, physics and p. 52.
arts, cultivated among the Greeks. " However, everybody acts according
to his own mode, and each community enjoys what they have got of
their own." (Sura xvii. 86.) That man had not read the Almagest, and
30 had not compared it with the most famous book of the Indians, called
the Canon Sindhind. The difference between them must be evident to
anybody in whom the slightest spark of sagacity is left.
To something similar Hamza ben Alhasan Alisfahani has applied him-
self in his treatise on the Nauroz, at the time when he was partial to the
Persian mode of treating the solar year, because they reckoned it as
365 days and &-i^ hours, while the Greeks neglected in their intercala-
tion the fraction following the six hours. As a proof he adduced that
Muhammad ben Musa ben Shakir, the astronomer, had explained this
subject, and had enlarged on it in one of his books on the solar year,
40 and that he had produced the arguments for it, and pointed out the
errors of the ancients, who had held erroneous views in this respect.
Now, we have examined the astronomical observations of Muhammad
ben Musa, and of his brother 'Ahmad, and we have found that they
prove only that these fractions are less than six hours. The book, to
which Alisfahani refers, is attributed to Thabit ben Kun*a, because he
62 ALBiEI^Ni.
was a protege of those people, entirely mixed up with them, and because
it was he who polished for them their scientific work. He had collected
the materials of this book with the object of explaining the fact of the
solar years not being always equal to each other, on account of the
motion of the aj^ogee. With all this he was compelled to assume equal
circles, and equal motions along with their times, in order to derive
thereby the mean motion of the sun. But he did not find equal circles,
except those which move in an excentric plane, described {viz. the circles)
round a point within it, which point is assumed exclusively for these
circles. And this circle, which was sought for, extends the six hours by 10
additional fractions (i.e. its time of revolution is 365 days 6 hours + a
fraction), as Hamza has related. However, such a circle is not called a
solar year, for the solar year is, as we have defined already, that one, in
which all natural occurrences which are liable to growth and to decay
return to their original condition.
Jewish Months. — The Hebrews and all the Jews, who claim to be
related to Moses, have the following twelve months : —
I. Nisan of 30 days. VI. Tishri of 30 days.
Jyar of 29 ,, Marheshwan of 29
Siwan of 30 „ Kislew of 80 ., 20
Tammuz of 29 „ Tebeth of 29
Abh of 30 „ Shefat (Shebhat) of 30
Elul of 29 „ Adhar of 29
p. 53. The sum total of their days is 354, being identical with the number
of days of the lunar year. If they simply used the lunar year as it is,
the sum of the days of their year and the number of their months
would be identical. However, after having left Egypt for the desert
Al-tih, after having ceased to be the slaves of the Egyptians, having
been delivered from their oppression, and altogether separated from
them, the Israelites received the ordinances and the laws of God, 30
described in the second book of the Thora. And this event took place
in the night of the 15th Nisan at full moon and spring time. They
were ordered to observe this day, as it is said in the second book of the
Thora (Exodus xii. 17, 18) : " Te shall observe this day as an ordinance
to your generations for ever on the fourteenth of the first month." By
the "first month " the Lord does not mean Tishri, but Msan ; because in
the same book he commands Moses and Aaron, that the month of pass-
over should be the first of their months, and the beginning of the year
(Exodus xii. 2).
Further, Moses spake unto the people : " Remember the day when ye 40
came out from bondage. Therefore ye shall not eat leavened bread on
this day in that month when the trees blossom." In consequence, they
were compelled to use the solar year and the lunar months ; the solar
year in order that the 14th Nisan should fall in the beginning of spring.
ON THE NATUEE OP MONTHS. 63
when the leaves of the trees and the blossoms of the fruit trees come
forth'; the lunar months in order that, on the same day, the body of
the moon should be lit up completely, standing in the sign of Libra.
And as the time in question would naturally advance for a certain
number of days (the sum of the days of twelve lunar months not being
a complete year), it was necessary for the same reason to append to the
other months those days, as soon as they made up one complete month.
They added these days as a complete month, which they called the
First Adhdr, whilst they called the original month of this name the
10 Second Adhdr, because of its following immediately behind its namesake.
The leap-year they called 'Ibbur (1^!13^), which is to be derived from
Me'tihhereth (rV)'3,^72), meaning in Hebrew, "a pregnant woman. ''^ For
they comj)ared the insertion of the supernumerary month into the year,
to a woman's bearing in her womb a foreign organism.
According to another opinion, the First Adhar is the original month,
the name of which without any addition was used in the common year,
and the Second Adhar is to be the leap-month, in order that it should
have its j^lace at the end of the year, for this reason, that according to
the command of the Thora, Nisan was to be the first of their months.
20 This, however, is not the case. That the Second Adhar is the original
month, is evident from the fact, that its place and length, the n\unber of
its days, the feast- and fast-days which occur in it, are not liable to any
changes. And of all these days nothing whatsoever occurs in the First
A.dhar of a leap-year. Further, they make it a rule that, during the
Second Adhar, the sun should always stand in the sign of Pisces, whilst
in the First Adhfir of a leap-year he must be in the sign of Amphora.
Five Cycles. — Now for the leap-years they wanted a certain principle p. 54.
of arrangement as a help to facilitate their practical use. Therefore
they looked out for cycles which were based upon solar years, consisting
30 of lunar months. Of those cycles they found the following five: —
I. The cycle of 8 years consisting of 99 months, of which there are
3 leap-months.
II. The cycle of 19 years, called the Minor Cycle, consisting of 235
months, of which there are 7 leap-months.
III. The cycle of 7Q years, consisting of 940 months, of which there
are 28 leap-months.
IV, The cycle of 95 years, called the Middle Cycle, consisting of 1,176
months, of which there are 35 leap-months.
V. The cycle of 532 years, called the Major Cycle, consisting of 6,580
40 months, of which there are 196 leap-months.
Of these cycles they choose that one, the observation of which would
be the easiest and simplest. This quality is j)eculiar to the cycles of 8
and of 19 vears, with this diffei'enee, however, that the latter one agrees
20
64 ALBlR^JNt.
more closely with solar years. For this cycle contains, according to
them, 6,939 days 16/^%%- hours. Those small particles of an hour they
call Halaks (D'^pT'll), of which 1,080 make one hour. If, therefore, you
have got minutes, i.e. the 60th parts of an hour, and you want to change
them into Halaks, you multiply them by 18, and you get the corre-
sponding number of Halaks. And if you want the converse operation,
you multiply the number of Halaks by 200, and you get a sum of thirds
of an hour {i.e. the 60th parts of a second) ; these fractions you can
then raise to wholes.
Now, if we reduce this cycle (of 19 years) to fractions and change it 10
into Halaks, we get the following sum of Halaks : —
179,876,755, expressed in Indian ciphers.
The solar year is, according to them, 365 days 5-|-f§^ hours long ; this
latter fraction is nearly identical with 990 Halaks. If we now also
reduce the solar year into Halaks, we get the sum of —
9,467,190 Halaks.
If you finally divide by this number the number of the Halaks of the
cycle of 19 years, you get as the quotient, 19 solar years, with a remainder
55. of 145 Halaks, which is nearly the 7th part of an hour and a fraction.
If we perform the same operation with the cycle of 8 years containing
2,923 days 12 hours and 747 Halaks, we get as the sum of its Halaks
the number —
If we divide this sum by the sum of the Halaks of the solar year, we
get 8 solar years, and a remainder of 1 day 13 hours and 387 Halaks,
which is nearly \-\-\ (i.e. -i^) hour.
Hence it is evident that the cycle of 19 years comes nearest to real
time, and is the best of all cycles which have been used. The other
cycles are simj)ly composed of duplications of the cycle of 19 years.
Therefore the Jews preferred this cycle, and regulated thereby inter- 30
calation.
The three Ordines Intercalationis. — Now, although they agreed
on the quality of the year as to the order of intercalation in the Mahzor
(lITn^ cycle), when it has to take place, and when not, they differed
among each other regarding the nature of the beginning of the Mahzors.
And this has also produced a difference regarding the order of inter-
calation in the Mahzor. For some take the current year of the ^ra
Adami, of which you want to know whether it is a common year or a
leap-year, and reduce the number of years to Mahzors by dividing them
by 19 ; then you get complete Mahzors, and as a remainder, the years of 40
the Mahzor not yet finished, including the curi'ent year. And then the
order of the leap-years is fixed according to the formula nin'^THH *-^-
the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 18th years.
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS.
6b
10
Others take the years of the same .^ra Adami, subtract one year, and
fix the order of the leap-years in the remainder of the years of the
incomplete Mahzor according to the formula 'jnni^llt^' ^'■^" ^^® ^^^' ^^^'
6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 17th years. These two cycles are attributed to the
Jews of Syria.
Others again subtract from the sum of years two years, and compute
the order of the leap-years by the formxda i^^^jj) i-^- the 3rd, 5th
(5=3+2), 8th, 11th, 14th (5-h3-f3 + 3), 16th (16 = 14-i-2), and 19th
(19=16 + 3) years.
This latter mode of arrangement is the most extensively diffused
among the Jews ; they prefer it to others, because they attribute its
invention to the Babylonians. All three modes of computation are to
be traced back to one and the same principle, on which there cannot be
any difference of opinion, as is illustrated by the following circular
figure : —
66 ALBfEt^Ni.
The first (outer) circle indicates tlie quality of the year, whether it is
a common year or a leap-year. The three other circles contain the three
formulcB, indicating the order of the leap-years in the Mahzors ; the
p, 56. second circle, the formula ni^^THl 5 *-^® third circle, the formula
lillIO'Tli*^ ; and the inner circle, the formula ;}^t:3^;i-
The cycles which we have mentioned hitherto, are derived from the
moon, though not exclusively. The solar cycle consists of 28 years,
and serves to indicate on what days of the week the solar years com-
mence. For if the Jewish year had simply 365 days without the quarter-
day, the beginning of the year would in every seven years return to the 10
same week-day. Since, however, they are intercalated once in four years,
the begianing does not return to the same day, except in 28 years, i.e.
4x7 years. Likewise the other cycles, heretofore mentioned, do not, on
being completed, return to the same week-day, except the largest cycle,
on account of its arising from a duplication of the cycle of 19 years with
the solar cycle.
The three kinds of the Jewish Year. — I say further : If the Jewish
years had simply the first two qualities, i.e. were either common years
or leap-years, it would be easy to learn their beginnings, and to dis-
tinguish between the two qualities which are proper to tliem, provided 20
the above-mentioned formula of computation for the years of the
Mahzor be known. The Jewish year, however, is a threefold one. For
they have made an arrangement among themselves, that New Year shall
not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, i.e. on the days of the
sun and his two stars (Mercury and Venus) ; and that Passover, by
which the beginning of Msan is regulated, shall not fall on the days of
the inferior stars, i.e. on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, for reasons
on which we shall hereafter enlarge as much as possible. Thereby they
were compelled either to postpone or to advance New Year and Passover,
when they happened to fall on one of the days mentioned. 30
For this reason their year consists of the following three species : —
I. The year called ^^j^jU^, i.e. the imperfect one (rTlpn), in which
the months Marheshwan and Kislew have only 29 days.
II. The year called y\).x^, i.e. the intermediate (I'l'lpS), lit. secun-
dum ordinem suum, in which Marheshwan has 29 days, and
Kislew 30 days.
III. The year called f^t^"^, i.e. the perfect one (^^^^tZJ)' ^^ which
both Marheshwan and Kislew have 30 days.
Each of these three species of years may be either a common year or
a leap-year. So we get a combination of six species of years, as we 40
have here illustrated in the form of a genealogical diagram, and dis-
tributed in the following representation.
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS.
Q1
The Tear.
p. 57.
10
Common year of 12 montlis.
Leap-year of 13 months.
Perfect, of 355 days.
Marheshwan, 30 days.
Kislew, 30 days.
Intermediate, of 354 days.
Marheshwan, 29 days.
Kislew, 30 days.
Perfect, of 385 days.
Marheshwan, 30 days.
Kislew, 30 days.
Intermediate, of 384 days.
Marheshwan, 29 days.
Kislew, 30 days.
Imperfect, of 353 days.
Marheshwan, 29 days.
Kislew, 29 days.
Imperfect, of 383 days.
Marheshwan, 29 days.
Kislew, 29 days.
For the deduction of these differences they have many modes of com-
putation as well as tables, which we shall not fail to explain hereafter.
Determination of New Moon.— Regarding their knowledge of the
beginning of the month, and the mode in which it is computed and used,
the Jews are divided into two sects, one of which are the Rabbanites.
They derive the begixming of the month by means of calculation from
the mean motions of the two luminaries (sun and moon), no regard being
had as to whether new moon is visible already or not. For it was their
20 object to have a conventional time, that was to begin from the conjunc-
tion of stin and moon. By the following accident they were, as they
relate themselves, induced to adopt this system : at the time when they
returned to Jerusalem, they posted guards upon the tops of the
mountains to observe new moon, and they ordered them to light a fire
and to make a smoke, which was to be a signal for them that new moon
in fact had been seen. Now, on account of the enmity which existed
between them and the Samaritans, these latter went and sent up the
smoke from the mountain one day before new moon was seen. This
practice they continued during several months, at the beginnings of
80 which heaven always happened to be clouded. Finally, people in
Jerusalem found out this, observing that new moon, on the 3rd and 4th
of the month, rose above the horizon from the east. Hence it was
evident that the Samaritans had deceived them. Therefore they had
recourse to the scholars of their time, in order to be protected by a
system of calculation against the deceitful practices of their enemies, to
which they were exposed by their present method.
In order to prove that it was legally permitted to fix the beginning of
the month by calculation instead of observation, they referred to the
duration of the deluge. For they assert that Noah computed and fixed
40 the beginnings of the months by calculation, because heaven was covered p. 58.
68 ALBlRUNi.
and clouded for so long as six months, during whicli time neither new
moon nor any other phase of the moon could be observed.
The mathematicians, therefore, computed for them the cycles, and
taught them how to find, by calculation, the conjunctions and the
appearance of new moon, viz. that between new moon and the con-
junction the time of 24 hours must elapse. And this comes near the
truth. For if it was the corrected conjunction, not the mean one, the
moon would in these hours move forward about 13 degrees, and her
elongation from the sun would be about 12 degrees.
This reform was brought about nearly 200 years after Alexander. 10
Before that time they used to observe the Tekufdth (niD^pri), i.e. the
year-quarters, on the computation of which we shall enlarge hereafter,
and to compare them with the conjunction of that month, to which
the Tekufa in question was to be referred. If they found that the con-
junction preceded the Tekufa by about 30 days, they intercalated a
month in this year, e.g. if they found that the conjunction of Tammuz
preceded the Tekufa of Tammuz, i.e. the summer- solstice by about
30 days, they intercalated in that year a month Tammuz, so that it had
one Tammuz and a second Tammuz (t^^n*! t^^ri). In the same way
they acted with the other Tekufoth. 20
Some Eabbanites, however, deny that such guards were posted, and
that they made a smoke as a signal. According to their opinion, the
cause of the deduction of this system of calculation was the following :
the scholars and the priests of the Israelites, feeling convinced that their
people would be scattered and dispersed in consequence of the last
destruction of Jerusalem, as they thought, were afraid that their com-
patriots, being scattered all over the world, and solely relying upon the
anpearance of new moon, which of course in different countries would be
different for them, might, on account of this, fall into dissensions, and
a schism in their doctrine might take place. Therefore they invented 30
these calculations, — a work which was particularly attended to by
Eliezer ben Paruah, and ordered people to adhere to them, to use them,
to return to them, wherever and under whatever circumstances they
lived, so that a schism among them might be avoided.
The second sect are the Milddites, who derive the beginning of the
month from the conjunction ; they are also called Alkurrd and AVisli-
ma'iyya, because they demand that people shall only follow the wording
of the text, no regard being had to considerations and analogies, etc.,
even if it may be illogical and impracticable.
One party of them is called the 'Andnites, who derived their name 40
from 'Anau, the head of the emigration (^^r\17^ t!^fc^"l), who lived between
100 and 110 years ago. A head of the emigration must of necessity be
one of the descendants of David ; an offspring of another family would
not be fit for this office. Their common people relate, that only he is
qualified who, standing upright, can reach his knees with the tops of his
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 69
fingers ; just as people relate such tilings of the prince of the true
believers, 'Ali ben 'Abi Talib, and of those of his descendants who are
qualified for the Imama and the rule of the conimunity (the Muham-
madan world).
The genealogy of this 'Anan is the following : —
Til 'n pv 'n ^"li^tij 'n ^i>^^:-T p p:^^ -i
^^^iion 'n ^^iin 2 mpi^ 'n t^^3"in '1 b^^^iiDt 'n -xxvi
]^:]^in^ 'n ^t^^n^^tr 'n ^mt 'n h^-id '1 ^^^t'-i^Q '1 -xxxi
Q"^in"^ 'n t^nnh^ '1 n^tr^^^ 'n tn^^in^ 'n n^p^in^ 'n -xxxvi
nn^tr '1 Di^nm 'n n^n« '2 hd^ '1 t^Qtrin*' '1 -Xli
^^T n XLVI
He opposed a community of Eabbanites in many of their observances.
He fixed the beginning of the month by the appearance of the new
moon in a similar way, as is prescribed in Islam, not caring on what day
of the week the beginning of the month happened to fall. He gave up
20 the system of computation of the Rabbanites, and made the intercalation
of a month depend upon the observation of barley-seed in 'Irak and
Syria between the 1st and the 14th Nisan. If he found a first-fruit fit
for friction and reaping, he left the year as a common year ; if he did
not find that, he intercalated the year. The mode of prognosticating the
state of the corn was practically this, that one of his followers went out
on the 23rd Shebat, to examine — in Syria and the countries of a similar
climate — the state of the barley-seed. If he found that the Safa, i.e. the
prickles of the beard of the ear of corn, had already come out, he
counted from that day till Passover 50 days ; if he found that it had
30 not yet come out, he intercalated a month into the year. And some
added the intercalary month to Shefat, so that there was a She/at and an
U-Shefat ; whilst others added it to Adhar, so that there was an Adhdr
and a We-Adhdr. The Ananites mostly use Shefat, not Adhar, whilst
the Eabbanites use exclusively Adhar.
This system of prognosticating the state of the corn is a different one
according to the difference of the air and the climate of the countries.
Therefore it would be necessary to make a special rule for every place,
and not to rely upon the rule made for one certain place, because this
would not be applicable elsewhere.
40 Syrian Months. — The Christians in Syria, 'Irak, and Khurasan have
combined Greek and Jewish months. For they use the months of the
Gi-eeks, but have adopted the 1st of the Grreek October as the lieginning
70 ALBtEl^Nt.
of their year, that it might be nearer to the Jewish new-year, because
Tishri of the Jews always precedes that date a little. And they call
their months by Syrian names, some of which agree with the Jewish
names, whilst others differ. People have derived these names from the
Syrians, i.e. the Nabatseans, the inhabitants of Sawad ; the Sawad of
'Irak being called Suristan. But I do not see why they derive these
months from them, because in Islam they use the months of the Arabs,
and at the time of heathenism they used the months of the Persians.
Others say that Suristan means Syria. If that be the case, the inhabi-
tants of this country were Christians before the time of Islam, and held 10
a middle position between Jewish and Greek theories.
p. 60. The names of their months are these : —
I. Tishrm kedim of 31 days. VI, Nisan of 30 days.
Tishrin hrai of 30
Kanun kedim of 31
Kanun hrai of 31
Shebat of 28
Adhar of 31
lyar of 31
Haziran of 30
Tammuz of 31
Abh of 31
Imi of 30
In the month Shebat they intercalate one day every four years, so that
it then has 29 days. Eegarding the quality of their year they agree 20
with the Greeks.
These months have become widely known, so that even the Muslims
adopted them, and fixed thereby the dates of practical life. The words
Kedim (primus) and Hrcli (postremus) have been translated into Arabic,
and in the word ji\ they have added an Elif, so as to make it ;^\,
because a single yd (without Tashdid) is disagreeable to the organ of the
Arabs, if this Elif is not added.
Months of the Arabs. — The Arabs have the following twelve
months : —
I. Almuharram. VII. Rajab. 80
Safar. Sha'ban.
Eabi' I. Eamadan.
B.abi' II. Shawwal.
Jumada I. Dhu-alka'da.
Jumada II. Dhu-alhijja.
Regarding the etymology of these names various opinions have been
advanced, Almuharram, e.g. was called so, because it was one of the
Hurum, i.e. the four sacred months.
Safar was called so, because in it people used to procure their pro-
visions, going out in a company of men which was called Safariyya. 40
The two months BabP were called so on account of the coming forth
of the flowers and blossoms and of the continual fall of dew and rain.
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 71
All of which refers to the nature of that season which we call " autumn,"
but which the Arabs called " spring" (Bahi').
The two months Jumddd were called so, because in them the water
froze (;_^).
Bajab was called so, because in it people formed the intention of
travelling, there being no fear of the evils of war. For " rujba " means
sustentaculum (a thing by means of which a tree is propped up), and
hence people say, " a propped up (murajj ah) palm-tree which hears a heavy
load of fruit."
10 Sha'hdn was called so, because in it the tribes were dispersed.
Ramadan was called so, because of the stones being roasted by the
intense heat.
Shawwdl was called so, because of the increasing and the decreasing
of the heat.
Dhu-alkd'da was called so, because in it people stayed in their homes.
Dhu-alhijja was called so, because in it people performed the Hajj, i.e.
the pilgrimage.
We found, however, also other names of the months of the Arabs,
which were given to them by their ancestors. They are the fol-
20 lowing : —
I. Almu'tamir. YII. Al'asamm. p. 61.
Najir. 'Adil.
Khawwan. Nafik.
Suwan. Waghil.
Hantam. Huwa'.
Zabba. Burak.
The forms as well as the order of these names sometimes differ from
what we have given. One of the poets, e.g. has comprised them in the
following verses : —
80 " We have commenced with Mu'tamir, Ndjira, and Khawwdn, to
which follows Suwan.
And with Zahhd comes Bd'ida, its next follower. Then comes the
turn of *Asamm, in which hatred was deaf.
And Wdghila, Ndtila, and 'Adila, all three are noble and beautiful.
Then comes Banna, and after it Burak. Now are complete the
months of the year, as you may count with your fingers."
In the following we shall explain the meanings of these names
according to the statements of the dictionaries : —
Almu'tamir means that it " obeys " all the decrees of fortune, which
40 the year is going to bring.
72 ALBtnUNI.
Ndjir is derived from najr, wMcli means " intense heat," as it is used
in the following verse : —
" A stinking water, on account of which a man turns his face aside,
Even he who is tortured by thirst, if he tasted it in a ' boiling
hot' month."
Khawwdn is the form JUi of the verb " to deceive,'" and Suwdn is the
form JU* of the verb " to preserve, to take care.'" And these significations
agreed with the natures of the months at the time when they were first
employed as names for them.
Zabhd means a " great and frequently occurring calamity." The month 10
was called so, because in it there was much and frequent fighting.
Baid, too, received its name from the fighting in it, for many people
used to "perish " in it. This circumstance is expressed in the following
proverb : "All that is portentous happens between Jumddd and Rajab."
For in this month people were in great haste and eagerness to carry out
whatever blood revenge or warlike expeditions they were upon, before
the month Eajab came in.
'Asamm was called so, because in it people abstained from fighting,
so that the clash of weapons was not heard.
Wdghil means " one who comes to a drinJcing -party without having been 20
invited." This month was called so, because it suddenly comes in after
Ramadan, and because in Ramadan there was much wine -drinking, on
account of the next following months being the months of pilgrimage.
Ndtil means " a measure, a pot of wine." The month was called so,
because in it people indulged in drinking debauches, and frequently
used that pot.
'Adil is derived from " 'adl " (which means either " to be just " or
" to turn aside"). The month was called so, because it was one of the
months of pilgrimage, when they used to abstain from the use of the
Natil, i.e. the wine-pot. 80
Banna was called so, because the sheep were " crying " on account of
the drawing near of the time when they were to be killed.
Burah was called so, because of the kneeling down of the camels on
being led to the slaughtering-place.
A better versification of these names than the above-mentioned one is
that by the Wazir 'Isma'il ben 'Abbad : —
" You wanted to know the months of the pagan Arabs. Take them
according to the order of Muharram (Safar, etc.), of which they
partake.
g2. First comes MuHamir, then Ndjir ; and Khawwdn and Suwdn are 40
connected by one tie.
Hanin, Zabbd, 'Asamm, 'Adil, Ndfik with Waghl, and Banna with
Burah."
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 73
If the etymologies of these two classes of names of the months are
such as we have related, we must suppose that between the two periods
of giving the names there was a great interval of time. Or else our
explanations and etymologies would not he correct. For in one class of
the months the highest pitch of the heat is Safar, whilst in the other it
is Eamadan ; and this (that the greatest heat should be either in Safar
or in Eamadan) is not possible at one and the same period, or at two
periods which are not very far distant from each other.
Intercalation of the Ancient Arabs. — At the time of paganism
10 the Arabs used their months in a similar way to the Muslims ; their
pilgrimage went wandering around through the four seasons of the year.
But then they desired to perform the pilgrimage at such time as their
merchandise (hides, skins, fruit, etc.) was ready for the market, and to
fix it according to an invariable rule, so that it should occur in the most
agreeable and abundant season of the year. Therefore they learned the
system of intercalation from the Jews of their neighbourhood, about
200 years before the Hijra. And they used intercalation in a similar
way to the Jews, adding the difference between their year and the solar
year, when it had summed up to one complete month, to the months of
20 their year. Then their intercalators themselves, the so-called Kaldmis
of the tribe Kinana, rose, after pilgrimage had been finished, delivered a
speech to the people at the fair, and intercalated the month, calling the
next following month by the name of that month in which they were.
The Arabs consented to this arrangement and adopted the decision of
the Kalammas. This proceeding they called " Nasi," i.e. postponement,
because in every second or third year they postponed the beginning of
the year for a month, as it was required by the progression of the year.
One of their poets has said : —
" We have an intercalator, under whose banner we march ;
30 He declares the months profane or sacred, as he likes."
The first intercalation applied to Muharram; in consequence Safar
was called Muharram, Eabi' I. was called Safar, and so on ; and in this
way all the names of all the months were changed. The second inter-
calation applied to Safar ; in consequence the next following month
(Eabi I.) was called Safar. And this went on till intercalation had
passed through all twelve months of the year and returned to Muharram.
Then they commenced anew what they had done the first time.
The Arabs counted the cycles of intercalation and fixed thereby their
dates. They said for instance : " From the time x till the time y the
40 years have turned round one cycle."
But now, if notwithstanding intercalation it became evident that a
month progressed beyond its proper place in the four seasons of the
year, in consequence of the accumulation of the fractions of the solar
year, and of the remainder of the plus-difference between the solar year
74 ' ALBiEUNt.
and the lunar year, to which latter they had added this plus-difference,
they made a second intercalation. Such a progression they were able to
recognize from the rising and setting of the Lunar Mansions. This went
on till the time when the Prophet fled from Makka to Madina, when the
turn of intercalation, as we have mentioned, had come to Sha'ban.
p. 63. Now, this month was called Muharram, and Eamadan was called
Safar. Then the Prophet waited till the " fare^vell pilgrimage," on which
occasion he addressed the people, and said : " The season, the time has
gone round as it was on the day of God's creating the heavens and the
earth." (Sura ix. 38.) By which he meant that the months had returned 10
to their original places, and that they had been freed from what the Arabs
used to do with them. Therefore, the " farewell pilgrimage," was also
called " the correct pilgrimage." Thereupon intercalation was prohibited
and altogether neglected.
Months of the Themudeni. — 'Abu-Bakr Muhammad ben Duraid
Al'azdi relates in his Kitdb-alwisMh, that the people Thamud called the
months by the following names : —
I. Mujib i.e. Muharram. VII. Haubal.
Mujir. Mauha.
Murid. Daimur. 20
Mulzim. Dabir.
Musdir. Haifal.
Haubar. Musbil.
He says that they commenced their year with the month Daimur, i.e.
Eamadan. The following is a versification of these names by 'Abu-Sahl
'Isa ben Yahya Almasihi : —
" The months of Thamud are Mujib, Mujir, Murid ; then follow
Mulzim and Musdir.
Then come Haubar and Haubal, followed by Mauhct and Daimur.
Then come Ddbir, and Haifal, and Musbil, till it is finished, the most 30
celebrated amoug them."
Arabic Names of Days. — The Arabs did not, like the Persians, give
special names to the single days of the month, but they had special
names for each three nights of every month, which were derived from
the state of the moon and her light during them. Beginning with the
first of the month, they called —
The first three nights (lst-3rd) ghurar, which is the plural of ghurra,
and means the first of everything. According to others they were
called so, because during them the new moon appeared like a Maze
on the forehead of a horse. 40
The second three nights (4th-6th) nufal, from tanaffala, which means,
" beginning to make a present without any necessity." Others call
them shuhb, i.e. the white nights.
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 76
The third three nights (7th-9th) tusa', because the ninth night is the
last of them. Others call them buh7', because in them the darkness
of the night is particularly thick.
The fourth three nights (10th-12th) 'tishar, because the tenth night is
the first of them.
The fifth three nights (13th-15th) hid, because they are 7vhite by the
shining of the moon from the beginning of the night till the end.
The sixth three nights (16th-18th) dtira^ because they are black at
the beginning like the sheep with a hlach head and a white body. p. 64.
10 Originally the comparison was taken from a coat of mail in which
people are clad, because the colour of the head of him who is
dressed in it, differs from the colour of the rest of his body.
The seventh three nights (19th-21st) zulam, because in most cases
they were dark.
The eighth three nights (22nd-24th) handdis (from hindis-=extrera.Q\Y
dark). Others call them duhm, on account of their being dark.
The ninth three nights (25th-27th) da'ddi', because they are remain-
ders (or last parts). Others derive it from the mode of walking of
the camels, viz., stretching forth the one foot, to ivhich the other is
2" quicTdy following.
The tenth three nights (28th-30th) mihdk, on account of the waning
of the moon and the month.
Besides, they distinguished certain nights of the month by special
names, e.g. the last night of the month was called sio-dr, because in it the
moon hides herself ; it was also called fahama on account of there being
no light in it, and hard' , because the sun has nothing to do with it.
Likewise the last day of the month was called nahir, because it is in the
nahr (throat) of the month. The 13th night is called saivd, the 14th the
night of " hadr," because in it the moon is full, and her light complete,
30 For of everything that has become comj)lete you say hadara; e.g. 10,000
dirhams are called one hadra, because that is supposed to be the most
complete and the last number, although it is not so in reality.
The Arabs used in their months also the seven days of the week, the
ancient names of which are the following : —
1. 'Awwal, i.e. Sunday.
2. 'Ahwan.
3. Jubar.
4. Dubar.
5. Mu'nis.
*0 6. 'Aruba.
7. Shiyar,
They are mentioned by one of their poets in the following verse : —
" I strongly hope that I shall remain alive, and that my day (of
death) will be either 'Awwal, or ^ Ahwan, or Jubdr,
Or the following day, Buhdr, or if I get beyond that, either Munis
or 'Aruba or Shiydr."
Afterwards the Arahs gave them the following new names : —
Al-'ahad, i.e. one.
Al-ithnan, „ two.
Al-thulatha, „ three.
A.l-'arbi'a, „ four.
Al-khamis „ five.
Al-jum'a, „ gathering.
Al-sabt, „ sabbath. 10
The Arabs fixed the beginning of the month by the appearance of
new moon, and the same has been established as a law in Islam, as the
Lord has said (Sura ii. 185) : " They will ask thee regarding the new
moons. Speak : they are certain moments of time for the use of man-
kind (in general) and for pilgrimage."
Determination of the leng-th of Ramadan, the Month of
Fasting. — Some years ago, however, a pagan sect started into existence
somehow or other. They considered how best to employ the interpre-
tation (of the Koran), and to attach themselves to the system of the
exoteric school of interpreters who, as they maintain, are the Jews and
Christians. For these latter have astronomical tables and calculations,
by means of which they compute their months, and derive the knowledge
of their fast days, whilst Muslims are compelled to observe new moon,
and to inquire into the different phases of the light of the moon, and
into that which is common to both her visible and invisible halves. But
then they found that Jews and Christians have no certainty on this
subject, that they differ, and that one of them blindly follows the other,
although they had done their utmost in the study of the places of the
moon, and in the researches regarding her motions (lit. expeditions) and
stations. 30
Thereupon they had recourse to the astronomers, and comj^osed their
Canons and books, beginning them with dissertations on the elements of
the knowledge of the Arabian months, adding various kinds of compu-
65. tations and chronological tables. Now, jDeople, thinking that these
calculations were based upon the observation of the new-moons, adopted
some of them, attributed their authorships to Ja'far Al-sadik, and
beheved that they were one of the mysteries of prophecy. However,
these calculations are based not upon the apparent, but upon the mean, i.e.
the corrected, motions of sun and moon, upon a lunar year of 364^ days,
and upon the supposition that six months of the year are complete, six 40
incomplete, and that each complete month is followed by an incomplete
one. So we judge from the nature of their Canons, and from the books
which are intended to establish the bases on which the Canons rest.
20
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 77
But, when tliey tried to fix thereby the beginning and end of fasting,
their calculation, in most cases, preceded the legitimate time by one day.
Whereupon they set about eliciting curious things from the following
word of the Prophet : " Fast, when she (new-moon) appears, and cease
fasting when she re-appears." For they asserted, that the words " fast,
when she appears " (<i;a«jJ \^^), mean the fasting of that day, in the
afternoon of which new-moon becomes visible, as people say, " prepare
yourselves to meet him " ((3j\,;.fl;u.S ^^j-;^*), in which case the act of preparing
precedes that of meeting.
10 Besides, they assert that the month of Eamadan has never less than
thirty days. However, astronomers and all those who consider the sub-
ject attentively, are well aware that the appearance of new-moon does
not proceed regularly according to one and the same rule for several
reasons : the motion of the moon varies, being sometimes slower, some-
times faster ; she is sometimes near the earth, sometimes far distant ;
she ascends in north and south, and descends in them ; and each single
one of these occurrences may take place on every point of the ecliptic.
And besides, some sections of the eclij)tic sink faster, others slower.
All this varies according to the different latitudes of the countries, and
20 according to the difference of the atmosj)here. This refers either to
different places where the air is either naturally clear or dark, being
always mixed up with vapours, and mostly dusty, or it refers to different
times, the air being dense at one time, and clear at another. Besides,
the power of the sight of the observers varies, some being sharp-sighted,
others dim-sighted. And all these circumstances, however different
they are, are liable to various kinds of coincidences, which may happen
at each beginning of the two months of Ramadan and Shawwal under
innumerable forms and varieties. For these reasons the month Ramadan
is sometimes incomplete, sometimes complete, and all this varies accord-
30 ing to the greater or less latitude of the countries, so that, e.g. in
northern countries the month may be complete, whilst the same month
is incomplete in southern countries, and vice versa. Further, also, these
differences in the various countries do not follow one and the same rule ;
on the contrary, one identical circumstance may happen to one month
several consecutive times or with interruptions.
But even supposing that the use which they make of those tables and
calculations were correct, and their computation agreed with the appear-
ance of new-moon, or preceded it by one day, which they have made a
fundamental principle, they would require special computations for each
40 degi-ee of longitude, because the variation in the appearance of new-
moon does not depend alone upon the latitudes, but to a great extent p. 66.
also upon the longitudes of the countries. For, frequently, new-moon
is not seen in some place, whilst she is seen in another place not far to
the west ; and frequently she is seen in both places at once. This is one
of the reasons for which it would be necessary to have special calculations
78 ALBtEUNf.
and tables for every single degree of longitude. Therefore, now, their
theory is quite Utopian, viz. that the month of Eamadan should always
be complete, and that both its beginning and end should be identical in
the whole of the inhabited world, as would follow from that table which
they use.
If they contend that from the (above-mentioned) tradition, which is
traced back to Muhammad himself, the obligation of making the
beginning and end of fasting precede the appearance of new-moon,
follows, we must say that such an interpretation is unfounded. For the
particle Ldvi («:^yj^ ,«S) relates to future time, as they have mentioned, 10
and relates to past time, as you say, e.g. '.—jq^\ (j^ ,_j^ \aS3 •..-^
(" dated from this or that day of the month"), i.e. from that moment when
X days of the month were past already, in which case the writing does
not precede the past part of the month. And this, not the first
mentioned, is the meaning of that tradition. Compare with this the
following saying of the Proj>het : " We are illiterate people, we do not
write nor do we reckon the month thus and thus and thus," each time
showing his ten fingers, meaning a complete month or thirty days. Then
he repeated his words, saying, " and thus and thus and thus," and at
the third time he held back one thumb, meaning an incomplete month 20
or twenty-nine days. By this generally known sentence, the Prophet
ordained that the month should be one time complete, and incomplete
another time, and that this is to be regulated by the appearance of new-
moon, not by calculation, as he says, " we do not write, nor do we reckon
(calculate).'"
But if they say that the Prophet meant that each complete month
should be followed by an incomplete one, as the chronologists reckon,
they are refuted by the plain facts, if they will not disregard them, and
their trickery in both small and great things, in all they have committed,
is exposed. For the conclusion of the first-mentioned tradition proves 30
the impossibility of their assertion, viz. "Fast when she (new-moon)
appears, and cease fasting when she re-appears, but if heaven be clouded so
as to prevent your observation, reckon the month Sha'bdn as thirty days."
And in another tradition, the Prophet says, " If a cloud or black dust
should prevent you from, observing the new moon, make the number thirty
complete." For if the appearance of new-moon be known either from
their tables and calculations, or from the statements of the authors of
the canons, and if the beginning and end of fasting is to precede the
appearance of new-moon, it would not be necessary to give full thirty
days to the month Sha'ban, or to count the month Eamadan as full 40
thirty days, in case the horizon should be covered by a cloud or by dust.
And this {i.e. to give full thirty days to Ramadan) is not possible, except
by performing the fasting of the day in the evening of which the new-
moon is first seen.
ON THE NATUEE OF MONTHS. 79
If, further, the month Ramadan were always complete, and its
beginning were known, people might do without the observation of
new-moon for the month Shawwill. In the same way, the word of
the Prophet : "and cease fasting when she (new-moon') re-apjpears" is to be
interpreted.
However, party spirit makes clear-seeing eyes blind, and makes sharp-
hearing ears deaf, and instigates people to engage in things which no
mind is inclined to adopt. But for this reason, such ideas would not p. 67.
have entered their heads, i£ you consider-the traditions which occur in
10 the books of the 8hi^a Zaidiyya, — may God preserve their community ! —
and which have been corrected by their authorities, — may God bless
them ! — as for instance, the following : In the time of the Priace of the
Believers ('Ali) people had been fasting twenty-eight days in the month
of Eamadan. Then he ordered them still to perform the fasting of one
day, which they did. The fact was that both consecutive months,
Sha'ban and Ramadan, were imperfect, and there had been some obstacle
which had prevented them from observing new-moon at the beginning
of Eamadan ; they gave the month the full number of thirty days, and
at the end of the month the reality of the case became evident. Then
20 there is the following saying, related to have been pronounced by 'Abu
'Abd-Allah Alsadik : " The month of Ramadan is liable to the same increase
and decrease as the other months.'" Also the following is reported of the
same : " If you observe the month Sha'bdn without being able to see the new-
moon, count thirty and then fast.'' The same 'Abu- 'Abd- Allah Alsadik, on
beiag asked regarding the new-moon, said : " If you see the new moon,
fast, and if you see her again, cease fasting .'' All these traditions in the
code of the Shi'a refer only to the fasting.
It is astonishing that our masters, the family of the Prophet, listened
to such doctrines, and that they adopted them as a uniting link for the
30 minds of the community of the believers who profess to follow them,
instead of imitating the example of their ancestor, the Prince of the
Believers ('Ali), in his aversion to conciliating the obstinate sinners,
when he spoke: "I did not hold out an arm to those who lead astray"
(i.e. 1 did not lend support to them).
As regards the following saying, ascribed by tradition to Alsadik :
" When you observe the new-moon of Eajab, count fifty-nine days, and
then begin fasting ;" and the following saying ascribed to the same: "If
you see the new-moon of the month of Eamadan at the time when she
appears, count 354 days, and then begin fasting in the next foUowiag
40 year. For the Lord has created the year as consisting of 360 days.
But from these he has excepted six days, in which he created the heavens
and the earth ; therefore they (these six days) are not comprehended
in the number (of the days of the year) " — regarding these traditions we
say, that, if they were correct, his (Alsadik's) statement on this subject
would rest on the supposition, that it (the month Eamadan) was really
80 ALEiEUNi.
greater in one place, and did not follow the same rule everywhere, as we
have heretofore mentioned. Such a method of accounting for the six
days is something so subtle, that it proves the tradition to be false, and
renders it void of authenticity.
In a chronicle I have read the following : 'Abu-Ja'far Muhammad ben
Sulaiman, Governor of Kufa, under the Khalif Mansur, had imprisoned
*Abd-alkarim ben 'Abi-al'auja, who was the uncle of Ma'n ben Za'ida,
one of the Manichseans. This man, however, had many protectors in
Baghdad, and these urged Mansur in his favour, till at last he wrote to
Muhammad ordering him not to put 'Abd-alkarim to death. Meanwhile, 10
'Abd-alkarim was expecting the arrival of the letter in his cause. He
said to 'Abu-aljabbar confidentially : " If the 'Amir gives me respite for
three days, I shall give him 100,000 dirhams." 'Abu-aljabbar told this
to Muhammad, who replied : " You have reminded me of him, whilst I
68. bad forgotten him. Eemind me of him when I return from the mosque."
Then, when he returned, 'Abii-aljabbar reminded him of the prisoner,
whereupon he (Muhammad) ordered him to be brought and to be
beheaded. And now, knowing for certain that he was to be killed,
he said, " By God, now that you are going to kill me, I tell you that
I have put down 4,000 traditions (in my books), in which I forbid 20
that which is allowed, and allow that which is forbidden. And
verily, I have made you break your fast when you ought to have
fasted, and I have made you fast when you ought not to have fasted."
Thereupon he was beheaded, and afterwards the letter in his cause
arrived.
How thoroughly did this heretic deserve to be the author of this
subtle interpretation which they have adopted, and of its original (i.e.
the text to which the interj^retation refers) !
I myself have had a discussion with the originator of this sect,
regarding the Musnad-tradition (i.e. such a tradition as is carried back by 30
an uninterrupted chain of witnesses to Muhammad himself). On which
occasion I compelled him to admit that consequences, similar to those
here mentioned, follow from his theories. But then in the end he
declared, that the subject was one that of necessity resulted from the
language (i.e. from the interpretation of the Ldm-altaukit) , and that the
language has nothing whatever to do with the law and its corollaries.
Thereupon, I answered : " May God have mercy upon you ! Have not
God and his Prophet addressed us in the language generally known among
the Arabs ? But the thing is this, that you have nothing whatever to do
with the Arabic language ; and also in the science of the law you are utterly 40
ignorant. Leave the law aside and address yourself to the astronomers.
None of them would agree with you regarding your theory of the per-
petual completeness of the month of Eamadan ; none of them thinks
that the celestial globe and sun and moon distinguish the moon of
Eamadan from among the others, so as to move faster or slower just in
ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 81
this particular month. The luminaries do not mark out this month in
particular as do the Muslims, who distinguish it by performing their
fasting in it.
However, arguing with people who are obstinate on purpose, and per-
severe in their obstinacy on account of their ignorance, is not productive
of any good, either for the student or for the object of his researches.
Grod speaks (Sura lii. 44) : " If they saw a piece of heaven falling down,
they would say, ' It is only a conglomerated cloud.' " And farther
(Sura vi. 7) : " If we sent down to you a book (written) on paper, and
10 they touched it with their hands, verily the unbelieving would say,
' This is nothing but evident witchcraft.' " God grant that we may
always belong to those who follow and further the truth, who crush and
expose that which is false and wrong !
Months of the Reformed Calendar of Almu'tadid.— The months
of Almu'tadid are the Persian months, with the same names and the
same order. But the Persian days are not used in these months, because
to the Epagomense in every fourth year one day is added by way of
intercalation ; and so for that reason which we have mentioned, when
speaking of the months of the Egyptians, the (Persian) names of the
20 single days have been dropped. The order of intercalation used in these
months agrees with that of the Greeks and Syrians.
As to the months of the other nations, Hindus, Chinese, Tibetans,
Turks, Khazars, Ethiopians, and Negroes, we do not intend, although
we have managed to learn the names of some of them, to mention them
here, postponing it till a time when we shall know them all, as it does
not agree with the method which we have followed hitherto, to connect
that which is doubtful and unknown with that which is certain and
known.
We have collected in the following table the names of the months
30 which have been mentioned in the preceding part of this book, in order
to fardlitate the study of the various kinds of them. God leads to the
truth !
82
ALBtEi^Nt.
p. 69.
w
O
Hi
M
■<
E^
70.
lie inha-
tants of
Kuba.
-i
1
i 3
*^
■'^ ^
5
>
h
fH^ 1
!. =4-1
Hi-
© cS b)
■f
1
J J
^ 1
5
u
4-
1.
1
1
\
3
CO ni
-S
1
05
q:)
rd
ce
9 ^
^
fl
d
7^
^
'rd-
the m
-ance c
is obs
ited).
.a
0
2 1 2 "i
i=!td
^^4
-a-
ce
<d
rd
ce
<d
rd
The beginning of
is the appeal
New-Moon which
(not calcuh
^
<^
i:o-
P^ Ph
H-i
^ P^
OQ
P^
GQ
p
P
to
1
bo
'a
1
d
^ d
eg
■J2 so-
N <!
1 — 1
<<1
i-H
rd
1
d
w
M
1 bcS .. ^5
eir beginnin
le appearan
New-Moon
tieir niimbei
begins with
aimur whic
responds wi
Eamadan.
1
<d d
02
d
d d
d
d
'ci
15
02
d
g-^oH Hg
^
%
^ ^
^
w w
^
ft
p
K-
^
o -§
d
■^ a)=s o
<cS
rd
N
Beginning
months i
appearan
New-Mooi
the Ver
Eqnin
©
m
CD
1
-4-S.
02
<rt d
-d <«i
1— 1
d
m
<d
i
EH
rd
3
P
I
rd
^
1
<C«
<ci
M
d
-Si
o ^
.2
'to
<?^ ,-d f^
d
rd
<cS
u
ce
<ct
<ce
d
ce
J4_l F=H
.s«
p.*
^
'^ << ^ ^ ^e
S-l
d
<CS
'ce
-^
.S -^
© M
©^
^g
a
-li
M H
^
s g
<^
«j
P
M
02
1— 1
•ill
•1
c
It
i
:^ ^
5>
3^
3
!
^
1
^
of their
the
iroz.
1
f3
1
1
u
I
it
I)
4
r
1
The beginning
months is
second Nat
m
lO
fe.S
:3
J
r
1^ i
•1
j
'^
%
1
1
ON THE NATdRB OP MONTHS.
83
d
cS
rd
M
c^
CO
s
r^
d
d
d
u
'M
S
d
t^
<9
rd
6D
d
d
H
't:*
^-1
<d
"^
o
d
~o
c3
S
O
P^
^
h;
H
>H
M
s
H
S
The beginning of
these months is an
assumed day
which is not in rela-
tion to anything
else.
GO
i
-(-=1
o
1 -tJ
05
rd
-1-2
4^
=d
0)
PI
m
rd
OS
d
<d
d
M
<d
d
<ce
M
rd
d
<si
02
^1
1
rd
r^
<HH
1
1 a>
02
of these mont
day of the
h Kanun the
St.
1 s
d
1
d
02
.5
02
d
1
02
.2
<I1
02
d
'd
d
02
.2
d
02
d
02
d
d
<
.2
rS
a
CD
pL,
0)
02
d
'S
a
o
o
o
CO
.2
1
>
o
I2;
02
.d
'?H
■a
0
CD
fi
bo ui a ^
a >-i o
The beginni:
is the fi
Syrian m
C IE
P
02
05
a;
to
d
-1-2
02
d
o
1
02
• r-t
1
03
.2
'Sq
02
d
02
d
03
d
§
o
2
pi
1>^
02
d
3 d
02
d
<l
^
fi
X
<I
fi
Ph
Hi
i)
w
■fi
<1
u
rd
<^
d ID
+3
rd
(D --H
<o
■u
m
o
O
1
td
d
<d
d
<o
"d
•r-l
r^
0
•^■3 ® °
<o
d
rSH
o
^
-I-2
cS
c5
o
>->
m
(D***! :S -« '
rd
rd
-tJ
rd
>-i
rd
rd
cS
^
'Sh
lii
^'^C^^
EH
PM
-<
Q
H
pLn
Pm
PM
CM
H
^
beginning
is the 29
e beginnin
year is t
Dai-
<D
■Sis
-J
-^3
02
d
a
0)
rO
d
rd
o :3
d
d
'd
1-5
be
d
<
a;
m
O
o
o
iX>
o
a;
fi
1
1
'?H
'inning of
months
3n junction
g place
he vernal
linox.
D
J
J.
'3
4^
1
4
i
■?
J
«j g o a-f^ £,
M
a)d,ij d S
H .2 -d
leen ab
how
month
what
, nor 0
hey ar
>^,
t>^
>-.
m 1
rd
:d
:d
M
>^
<
I
<<
<^
•1— J
>^
«<
>^
>->
I have not t
to learn
long these
are, nor
they mean
what kind t
Eh
<<
'd*
• rH
<-<
M
Id
02
<D
•I— s
_d
'r^
0)
GO
d
d
1
d
O
I
-4-3
«1
••d
<<
'a
0)
71.
6 *
84 ALBtR^Nt.
p. 72. CHAPTER VI.
ON THE DERIVATION OF THE ERAS FROM EACH OTHER, AND ON THE
CHRONOLOGICAL DATES, RELATING TO THE COMMENCEMENTS AND
THE DURATIONS OF THE REIGNS OF THE KINGS, ACCORDING TO THE
VARIOUS TRADITIONS.
It is the special object at which I aim in this book, to fix the durations
(of the reigns of the kings) by the most correct and perspicuous method.
But, now, wishing to explain the derivation of the eras from each other
in conformity with the usual mode of the canons, which specify the
various kinds of calculation and of derivation (e.g. stating one era in 10
the terms of another), and which contain rules and paradigms, I find
this subject to be a very wide one, and the wish to embrace this whole
science compels me to cause trouble both to myself and to the reader.
Agreeably to the method which I have adhered to from the beginning
of this book, I shall explain the intervals between the epochs of the
usual eras by a measure which is counted in the same way by all nations,
i.e. by days ; for, as we have already mentioned, both years and months
are differently measured. Everything else is generally mentioned in
years, but for the knowledge of the intervals between the epochs of the
eras the statement in days\s quite sufficient, since it has been impossible 20
to obtain a knowledge of the real quality of the years of the various
eras, and there has been but little need for the use of them.
Now, if we in some places wander about through various branches of
science, and plunge into subjects which are not very closely connected
with the order of our discussion, we must say that we do not do this
because we seek to be lengthy and verbose, but as guided by the desire
of preventing the reader from getting tired. For if the mind is con-
tinually occupied with the study of one single science, it gets easily
tired and impatient ; but if the mind wanders from one science to
another, it is as if it were wandering about in gardens, where, when it 30
is roving over one, another one already presents itself ; in consequence
of which, the mind has a longing for them, and enjoys the sight of
them J as people say, "Everything that is new offers enjoyment."
EEAS, DATES, AND EEIGNS OF KINGS.
85
Now let us begin with the traditions of those to whom a divine book
was sent (Jews and Christians) regarding Adam, his children and their
descendants. All this we shall fix in tables, in order to facilitate the
pronunciation of their names, and the study of the different traditions
regarding them. On this subject we combine the traditions of the Jews
and Christians, placing them opposite to each other (in the same table).
We commence by the help of Grod, under his guidance, and with his
gracious support.
03 A
O) J,
C3 1
m o ^
■" o
<» ..;
hen
n— ac
ans.
of th
Chris
Si
I live
orn t
Jews
)gethereach c
-according t
fc S-J3
0)
^^ m
a-^ 2
Z 2
10
The Names of the Descendants
of Adam, who form the
Chronological Chain of the Era, and
w old they were
on was born to th
ording to the Chris
CU O
2^
fe »
L of the
ad been
ing to tl
ai o '
the Chronological Ditferences
between Christians
and Jews regarding them.
e sum of tl
ra — accordi
ians.
K. fl O
goo
ow long each
after a son h
him — accord
w long alt(
hem lived-
he Jews.
:S3 '
o|
If
o w o
^.^
O OQ CS
O-M-M
^"^
w
W
w
w
I. — Adam the father of mankind — till
the birth of his son Seth .
230
230
130
800
930
130
Seth ben Adam — till the birth of
his son Enos ....
205
435
105
807
912
235
Enos ben Seth — till the birth of
20
his son Cainan ....
Cainan ben Enos — till the birth of
190
625
90
815
905
325
his son Mahalaleel .
170
795
70
840
910
395
V. — Mahalaleel ben Cainan — till the
birth of his son Jared
165
960
65
830
895
460
Jared ben Mahalaleel — till the
birth of his son Enoch
162
1122
162
800
962
622
Enoch ben Jared — till the birth of
his son Methuselah .
165
1287
65
300
365
687
Methuselah ben Enoch — till the
30
birth of his son Lamech .
Lamech ben Methuselah — tUl the
167
1454
187
782
969
874
birth of his son Noah
188
1642
182
595
777
1056
X. — Noah ben Lamech — till the birth
of his son Shem
500
2142
500
450
950
1556
Shem ben Noah — till the Deluge .
100
2242
100
500
600
1656
From the Deluge till the birth of
Arphaxad ben Shem
2
2244
2
0
0
1658
Arphaxad ben Shem— till the birth
of his son Salah
135
2379
35
463
498
1693
40
Salah ben Arphaxad — till the birth
of his son Eber
130
2509
30
460
49U
1723
XV.— Eber ben Salah— till the birth of
his son Peleg ....
134
2643
34
396
430
1757
Peleg ben Eber— till the birth of
his son Reu ....
130
2773
30
179
209
1787
Reu ben Peleg — till the birth of
his son Serug ....
132
2905
32
175
207
1819
Serug ben Reu — till the birth of
his son Nahor ....
130
3035
30
170
200
1849
60
Nahor ben Serug — till the birth of
his son Terah ....
79
3114
29
119
148
1878
XX. — Terah ben Nahor— till the birth
of his son Abraham .
75
3189
70
135
205
1948
73.
86 albIe^nI.
74. Now, he wlio studies the numbers of years of this table, till the birth
of Abraham, will become aware of the difference between the two
systems (that of the Christians and that of the Jews).
The Jewish copy of the Thora, although stating the duration of the
lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Levi, Kohath, and Moses, does not
specify how old they were when a son was born to each of them, nor
how long they lived after that ; except in the case of Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob. For it is stated that Isaac was born unto Abraham when
he was 100 years of age, and that he afterwards lived 75 years more ;
that Jacob was born unto Isaac when he was 60 years of age ; that 10
Jacob entered Egyj)t together with his sons, when he was 130 years of
age, and that he after that lived 17 years more.
Now, the Israelites stayed in Egypt 210 years, according to the state-
ment of the Jews, that between the birth of Abraham and that of Moses
there was an interval of 420 years, and that Moses was 80 years of age,
when he led the Israelites out of Egypt. Prom the second book of the
Thora, however, we learn that the entire length of the sojourning of the
Israelites in Egypt was 430 years. If, now, the Jews are asked to
account for this difference, they maintain that that space of time is to be
counted from the day when God made the treaty with Abraham, and 20
promised him to make him the father of many nations, and to give to
his descendants the country of Canaan as an inheritance. But we leave
the matter to God, who knows best what they mean.
The chronological differences regarding the later periods of Biblical
history, arising out of the three different copies of the Thora, are of the
same kind as we have already explained.
How little care the Jews bestow upon their chronology is shown to
evidence, by the fact, that they, all of them, believe in the first instance,
that between their exodus from Egypt and Alexander there is an interval
of 1,000 years, corrected (i.e. made to agree with the sun or real time) 80
by intercalation, and that they rely on this number in their computation
of the qualities of the years (whether they be perfect or imperfect or
intermediate). But if we gather from their books which follow after
the Thora, the. years of every one of their rulers after Moses, the son of
Amram, and add them together, we get a sum which already at the
building of Jerusalem goes beyond the millennium by such a space of
time as cannot be tolerated in chronological computations. If this sum
were too small (less than a millennium) , the difference might be accounted
for by assuming that an interval between two persons might have been
omitted. But a surplus in this case does not admit of any interj)retation 40
whatsoever.
Being unable to give a satisfactory answer to such a, question, some of
them assert that the accurate specification of these years was found in
the records of the family of Juda, and that these records are no longer
at their disposal, but have been carried off to the countries of the
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 87
Greeks. For after the death of Solomon, the Israelites were split into
two parties. The tribes of Juda and Benjamin elected as their king the
son of Solomon, whilst the ten tribes elected as their king Jeroboam,
the client of Eehoboam, the son of Solomon. And thereupon he led
them astray (to idolatry), as we shall mention hereafter in the chapter
on the Jewish festivals. His children reigned after him, and both
parties made war upon each other.
The following is a synopsis of the years of their rulers, who ruled
over them after their exodus from Egypt, when they marched towards
10 Bahr-al-kulzum (the Eed Sea) in order to pass it, and to march to AlWi, a p- 75.
desert in Alhijaz, in the direction of Jerusalem; all of which rests on
the authority of their chronicles. But they have another book which
they call Seder-'oldm (ch^y ")"1D), i-e. the years of the world, which
contains a less sum of years than that of the hooJcs which follow after the
Thora, whilst in some respects it comes near to their original system.
The statements of both these kinds of their historical records we have
collected in the following synopsis .
88
albIr^n!.
76.
The Names of the Rulers, Governors,
•g be"
i
to ^
1
Priests, and Judges of the
Israelites till the Foundation of the
1A
111
en
Temple, which is a space of
o
be '^O
PI "l
O
480 years.
lTf;2
CQ
^nS-^
QQ
^^a
0)
©
° Sw
rC|
° um
^
W
H
W
H
The Israelites left Egypt and dwelt in
tlie desert till the death of Moses
40
40
40
40
Yehoshu'a ben Nun, the successor of
Moses
27
67
27
67
'Othni'el ben Kenaz ....
40
107
40
107
'Eglon the king of Mo'ab and the Ama-
lekites of the Bani-' Amnion
18
125
—
—
'Ehud ben Grera, the left-handed, of the
Ephraimites
80
205
80
187
Shamgar ben 'Anath ....
20
225
—
—
Debora the prophetess and her lieu-
tenant Barak .....
40
265
40
227
The Midianites, the oppressors
7
272
7
234
Grid' on ben 'Ofra,of the tribe of Manasseh
40
312
|43
277
'Abimelekh ben Gid'on ....
3
315
Tola' ben Pu'a, of the tribe of Ephraim
23
338
)
Ya'ir from Gil'ad, of the tribe of Ma-
U4
321
nasseh ......
22
360
)
The sons of 'Ammon the Philistine, i.e.
the people of Palestine
18
378
18
339
Yiftah from Gil'ad ....
6
384
6
345
'Ibsan, also called Nahshon, from Beth-
lehem
7
391
7
352
'Elon
10
401
10
362
'Abdon ben Hillel
8
409
8
370
The Philistines
40
449
—
—
Shimshon the giant of the tribe of Dan
20
469
20
390
The people without a ruler ,
10
479
—
—
'£]li the priest .....
40
519
40
430
The ark in the hands of the enemies.
until Samuel was sent
10
529
10
440
Samuel, till they asked him to give them
a king, whereupon he made Talut
their king
20
549
—
—
Saul, i.e. Talut
20
569
20
442!
David ; he commenced building the
Temple in the 11th year of his reign .
40
609
40
482
Solomon ben David — till he finished the
Temple
3
612
3
485
10
20
30
40
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
89
The Names of the Kings and other
1 fl <^
i
i
Rulers of the Israelites from
''S-IS
-5^ ^
ID
the Foundation of the Temple till its first
; ^1^
® 8 o
eac
ceo
Ian:
«f-i
Destruction, which is a space of
PI 03 d
o
a
0 "i
o
a
410 years,
l^';2
°f -
pi
^1;^
®
»
o Sfp
rd
O SCQ
r^
W
H
W
H
Solomon ben David — after the Temple
was finished ....
37
649
37
522
Rehab'am ben Solomon
17
666
17
539
'Abiyya ben Rehab'am .
3
669
2
541
10
'Asa ben 'Abiyya .
41
710
41
582
Yehoshafat ben 'Asa
25
735
23
605
Yehoram ben Yehoshafat
8
743
6
611
'Ahazya ben Yehoram .
1
744
11
622
'Athalya — till she was killed by Yo'ash
6
750
6
628
Yo'ash ben 'Ahazya — till he was killec
by his people ....
40
790
40
668
'Amazya ben Yo'ash — till he was killed
29
819
29
697
'Uzziya ben 'Amazya — till he died
52
871
52
749
Yotham ben 'Uzziyya— till he died
16
887
16
765
20
'Ahaz ben Yotham — till he died .
Hizkiyya ben 'Ahaz, the king of all the
16
903
16
773!
tribes
29
932
29
802
Menashshe ben Hizkiyya
55
987
55
857
'Ammon ben Menashshe
2
989
2
859 I
Yoshiyya ben 'Ammon — till he was killec
by the king of Egypt
31
1020
31
890
Yeho'ahaz ben Yo'shiyya — till he was
1
made a prisoner by the king of Egypi
3
1023
—
—
Yehoyakim ben Yeho'ahaz, set up by
1
80
the king of Egypt
Yehoyakhin ben Yehoyakim, till he was
10
1033
11
901 i
made a prisoner by Nebucadnezar
3
1036
—
—
Sidkiyya — till he rebelled against Nebu-
'
cadnezar, when he was killed and the
Temple destroyed
6
1042
11
912
The Temple remained in ruins
70
1112
70
982
But according to another view between
the time when they were led intc
40
captivity and Daniel there was an
L
interval of
I 90
1202
90
1052!
From Daniel till the birth of the Mes-
■
siah
. 483
1685
483
1536
From the birth of the Messiah till the
epoch of the flight of Muhammad
600
2285
600
2135
p. 77.
p. 78.
90 ALB$R^t.
It cannot be thought strange that you should find similar dis-
crepancies with people who have several times suffered so much from
captivity and war as the Jews. It is quite natural that they were dis-
tracted by other matters from preserving their historical traditions,
more particularly at times of such distress, " when each woman who
suckled a child forgot her child, and each pregnant woman gave birth to
the burthen of her womb." (Sura xxii. 2.)
Besides, the governorships and headships were not always held by one
and the same tribe, but came to be divided (among several tribes) after
the death of Solomon the son of David ; then one part of them was 10
held by the tribes of Juda and Benjamin, another part by the other
tribes of the Israelites.
Further, their rule was not organized so well ; nor their empire and
government handed over from one to the other in such good order as to
render it necessary for them both to preserve the dates when each of
their rulers ascended the throne, and to record the duration of his reign,
except by a rough method of computation. For some people maintain
that, after the death of Joshua, Kushan, the King of Mesopotamia, of
the family of Lot, overpowered them, and held them under his sway
during eight years ; that then Othniel rose. And some people attribute 20
to his rule more years, others less.
Frequently, one author thinks that some ruler reigned over them so-
and-so many years, whilst another assigns to his rule a less number of
years, and maintains that the former number represents the duration of
his whole life (not that of his rule) ; or a third possibility is this, that
by adding the two spaces of time, mentioned by the two authors, you
get a common space of time for two rulers, during which they ruled
simultaneously.
The chronological system of the Seder-'olam, although coming near to
the sum (assumed by the generality of the Jews), differs considerably 30
from the statements in detail ; this applies specially to the time of the
first building of the Temple, not to mention the uncertainty which hangs
over those points of their history which we have spoken of before.
The length of the Human Life. — Some one among the inexperienced
and foolif^h people of the Hashwiyya and Dahriyya sects, have rejected
as incredible the long duration of life which has been ascribed to certain
tribes in the past, specially to the patriarchs before the time of Abraham.
Likewise they consider as monstrous what has been related of the huge
size of their bodies. They maintain that all this lies altogether beyond
the limit of possibility, drawing their conclusions from objects which 40
they are able to observe in their own age. They have adopted the doc-
trine of astrologers, regarding the greatest possible gift (of years of
life) which the stars are supposed to bestow upon mankind in the
79. nativities, if the following constellation occurs : The sun must be at
such a nativity both mater familiaa and paterfamilias, i.e. he must stand
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 9tl
in his domus (o'lko<;), or in his altituclo (vi//-co/;ta) , in a cardo, and in a cori'
cordant masculine quarter. In that case he bestows his greatest years,
i.e. 120 years, to which the
Moon - - adds 25 years.
Venus - - „ 8 „
Jupiter - - „ 12 „
These are the smallest years of each of these three stars, for they are
not able to add a greater number of years, if they have a concordant
aspect (in relation to the horoscope). Further, the two unlucky among
10 the stars (Saturn and Mars) must have no aspect to the horoscope, so as
not to exercise any diminishing influence. The Caput Braconis must
stand with the sun in the same sign of the eclij)tic, but still sufficiently
far from him, so as not to stand within the opoi iKXuirrLKol.
If this constellation occurs, it increases the gift (of years of life) of
the sun by one fourth, i.e. 30 years. So the whole sum of years makes
215 years, which they maintain to be the longest duration of life which
mortal man may reach, if it is not cut short by any accident. The
natural duration of life is to be 120 years, because the existence of the
world depends upon the sun ; and this number of years represents the
20 greatest years of the sun.
Those people have settled this question as it best pleases them. And
if reality followed their desire, heaven and earth would be greatly the
worse for it. They have built their theory on a basis, the contrary of
which is approved of by astronomers, in so far as they ascribe ' ' greatest
years " to these planets. They say in their books that these planets
used to bestow their " greatest years " in the millennia of the fiery signs
of the zodiac, when in them the rule was exercised by the superior
planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars), and when the years of the sun and of
Venus were made to exceed by far the longest duration of life ascribed
30 to any one of the patriarchs.
This man is their master in chronology ; they trust in his word, and
do not oppose his audacity. He actually maintains that man may live
during the years of a, " middle conjunction '' (of Saturn and Jupiter),
when the nativity coincides with the transitus of the conjunction from
one trigon to another, whilst the ascendens is one of the two houses of
either Saturn or Jupiter, when the sun is mater familias in day-time, and
the moon at night, exercises the greatest j^ower ; that the same is
possible, if this same constellation occurs at the transitus of the con-
junction to Aries and its trigons.
40 And the argument for the assertion, that the new-born human being
may live during the years of the " greatest conjunction," i.e. about
960 years, until the conjunction ret\u-ns to its original place, is of the
same description.
92 ALBiRUNi.
He has explained and propounded this subject in the beginning of his
book, " De Nativitatihus."
This, now, is their belief in the gifts (of years of life) of the stars.
Regarding these years, which the single planets are supposed to
bestow upon mankind, we have had a discussion with the astronomers
who use them, in the Kitdb altanbih 'aid sind'at altamwih (i.e. the book in
which the swindling profession is exposed), and we have given a direction
how to use the best method in all questions where these years occur in
the book entitled, Kitdb alshumus alshdfiya lilnufus.
Now, personal observation alone, and conclusions inferred therefrom, lo
do not prove a long duration of the human life, and the huge size of
human bodies, and what else has been related to be beyond the limits
of possibility. For similar matters appear in the course of time in
manifold shapes. There are certain things which are bound to certain
times, within which they turn round in a certain order, and which
undergo transformations as long as there is a possibility of their existing.
If they, now, are not observed as long as they are in existence, people
think them to be improbable, and hasten to reject them as altogether
80. impossible.
This applies to all cyclical occurrences, such as the mutual impreg- 20
nation of animals and trees, and the forthcoming of the seeds and their
fruits. For, if it were possible that men did not know these occurrences,
and then were led to a tree, stripped of its leaves, and were told
what occurs to the tree of getting green, of producing blossoms and
fruits, etc., they would certainly think it improbable, till they saw it with
their own eyes. It is for the same reason that people, who come from
northern countries, are filled with admiration when they see palm-trees,
olive-trees, and myrtle-trees, and others standing in full-bloom at winter-
time, since they never saw anything like it in their own country.
Further, there are other things occurring at times in which no cyclical 30
order is apparent, and which seem to happen at random. If, then, the
time in which the thing occurred has gone by, nothing remains of it
except the report about it. And if you find in such a report all the
conditions of authenticity, and if the thing might have already occurred
before that time, you must accept it, though you have no idea of the
nature nor of the cause of the matter in question.
Irregular Formations of Nature.— There are still other things
which occur in like manner, but which are called ^' faults of nature"
(lusus natures), on account of their transgressing that order which is
characteristic of their species. I, however, do not call them "faults of 40
nature," but rather a superfluity of material beyond the due proportions
of the measure of everything. To this category belong, e.g. animals
with supernumerary limbs, which occur sometimes, when nature, whose
task it is to preserve the species as they are, finds some superfluous sub-
stance, which she forma into some shape instead of throwing it away ;
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 93
likewise animals with imperfect limbs, when nature does not find the
substance by which to complete the form of that animal in conformity
with the structure of the species to which it belongs ; in that case she
forms the animal in such a shape, as that the defect is made to lose its
obnoxious character, and she gives it vital power as much as possible.
This is illustrated by an example, which Thabit ben Sinan ben Thabit
ben Kurra relates in his chronicle, viz. that he had seen near Surraman-
ra'a an Indian chicken that had come out of the egg without a defect,
and of complete structure ; but its head had two beaks and three eyes.
10 The same author reports, that to Tuzun, in the days of his reign, people
brought a dead kid with the round face, the jaws and teeth like those of
man ; but it had only one eye, and something like a tail on its forehead.
Further, he relates that in the district Almukharrim, of Baghdad, there
was born a child, which died instantly ; it was brought before Ghurur-
aldaula Bakhtiyar at the time when his father Mu'izz-aldaula was still
alive, and he examined it. It was one complete body without a defect,
and without an addition, except that two protuberances rose from it, and
upon these there were two complete heads, with complete lineaments,
with eyes, ears, two nostrils, and two mouths ; between the loins were
20 genitals like those of a woman, out of which the orifice of the penis of
a man was apparent.
Another report of his says, that one of the nobles of the Greeks sent
to Nasir-aldaula, in the winter of a.h. 352, two men grown together by
the stomach ; they were Aramaeans, and twenty-five years of age. He P- 81.
says, they were called Multahiydni (i.e. two bearded men). They were
accompanied by their father. They turned their faces towards each
other, but the skin, which formed the common connecting link between
them, was long, and besides susceptible of extending so far as to permit
the one to rise from the side of the other. People describe them as
30 having, each of them, separate and complete organs of generation ; that
they did their eating and drinking, and the exoneratio alvi at different
times ; that they used to ride on one animal, the one closely behind the
other, but so as to turn their faces towards each other; that the one had
an inclination for women, the other for boys.
There is no doubt that the Vis Naturalis (the creative power of
nature), in all work it is insj^ired and commissioned to carry out, never
drops any material unused, if it meets with such ; and if there is abun-
dance of material, the Vis Naturalis redoubles its creating work. Such
a double-ci'eation sometimes proceeds in this way, that one being comes
40 into existence in close proximity to another, being at the same time
something separate by itself, as, e.g. in the case of twins ; sometimes a
being comes into existence tied up to another being, as, e.g. in the case
of the two Aramaeans; at other times, again, a being comes into existence
inserted into and mixed up with another one, as in that case which we
mentioned before speaking of the two Aramaeans.
94 ALBtR^Nt.
The various kinds of double-creations of this and other descriptions
are also found among the other animals (besides man). There are, e.g.
said to be certain species of sea-fishes that are double ones. I mean to
say, if you open such a fish, you find a similar one inside.
Frequently, too, the reduplication of formation may pass into a multi-
plication. All of which is also found among the j^lants. Look, for
instance, at the double-fruits that are grown together, at the fruits with
double kernels, which are included in one shell. An example of such a
double-formation, of which the one thing is inserted into the other, is
an orange, in the interior of which you find another orange of the same 10
kind.
Frequently the Vis Naturalis has not succeeded in finishing the double-
creation, and producing a complete whole. In which case, she increases
the number of limbs, either in their proper places, as e.g. supernumerary
fingers — for although they are more than usual and than is necessary,
still they are found in that place which is appropriated to fingers, — or not
in their proper places. And in this case it would be correct to call such
a formation an Error of Nature. An instance of this is the cow that
was in Jui'jan at the time of the Sahib, and when the family of Buwaihi
held the country under their sway. Everybody, both young and old, 20
had seen it, and they related to me that it had on the bunch close to the
neck a foreleg like its other two forelegs, quite complete, with its
shoulder, its joints, and hoof ; and that she moved it about as she liked,
contracting and extending it.
This case may justly be considered an error (of nature), because that
supernumerary limb was quite useless, and because it had neither its
proper place nor direction.
Now, all these and similar classes (of uncommon creations), on which
I have composed special books, would not be admitted as possible by
anyone who did not witness them, because he would not find in them the '^O
conditions of authenticity.
Length of the Human Life.— The length of human life is taught
by experience to be I'egulated by a genealogical ratio. For instance,
with the Himyarites and others, long life is a peculiarity. Besides long
life occurs in one place to the exclusion of others, e.g. in Farghana and
Yamama. For well-informed people relate that in those countries some
people grow older than anywhere else. And in this respect they are still
surpassed by the Arabians and Indians.
Of this same ' Abu-Ma'shar . Albalkhi, the following story is related by
'Abu-Sa'id Shadhan in his Kitdb-almudhakara-MV asrdr (i.e. the book in 40
which he l)rings mysterious subjects before the mind of the reader) : —
p. 82. The nativity of a son of the King of Serendib (Ceylon) was sent to him.
His Ascendens was Gemini n , whilst Saturn stood in Cancer s , and the
Sun in Caj)ricom Vf . Now, 'Abu-Ma'shar gave his judgment that he
would live during the middle cycle of Saturn. Thereupon, I said to
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OP KINGS. 96
him, " God forbid ! The otKoSco-TroTiys moves backward in the crisis of
retrograde motion in a domiis cadens of the cardines, so as not to give
more than its small cycle. Tou must subtract fifty years therefrom on
account of the retrograde motion."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Those peoj^le are the inhabitants of a KXijxa, of whom
one knows beforehand that they live very long, so that they frequently
live on in a decrepit state, whilst Saturn is their comjpanio7i. I have been
told that, if a man dies before reaching the middle cycle of Saturn,
people wonder that he has died so soon. If, therefoi'e, Saturn occupies
10 the dignity of ot/coSto-TroTT^s in a KXifxa of his own, he does not, in most
cases, give less than his great and middle cycles, except he be in cadente
domo."
I : " But, surely he is in cadente domo."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Quite so ! He (Saturn) is falling out of the figure
of the Aspectus, but he is not falling out of the Directio."
(Here is a lacuna.)
The mysteries of the second are numerous. It is likewise in a well
beneath the earth. In this circumstance there is curious matter for
astonishment. Now, in this place, they have admitted that in one KAt/xa
20 people live longer than in another.
In another place he ('Abu-Sa'id Shadhan) relates of the same 'Abu-
Ma'shar, that he was in his company when he was asked by 'Abu-'Isma,
the Wazir of Saifar, regarding something in the signs of his nativity,
which he ('Abu-'Isma) was alarmed about.
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Do you know of what age your father died ? "
'Abu-'Isma: "Yes."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Have you already reached the same age ? "
'Abu-'Isma : " I have passed it already."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Do you know at what age your mother died ? "
30 'Abu-'Isma : " Yes. That age, too, I have passed already."
'Abu-Ma'shar: "Do you know how long your paternal grandfather
lived ? "
'Abu-'Isma : " Yes. But that I have not yet reached."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " Then consider whether that difference, which is
indicated by your nativity, agrees with the life of your grandfather f "
'Abu-'Isma : " Yes, it does agree."
'Abu-Ma'shar : " In that case you are right to be alarmed." Then he
proceeded to explain : " Nature is most powerful. For in any mishap that
befals a man when he is as old as his father or mother or his paternal
40 grandfather were at the time of their death, he is certain to perish,
except there be strong evidence (to the contrary). This is clear, too, in
plants and seeds. For there are certain species of them which are
known to exist very long, whilst others soon meet with mishaps and
exist only a short time."
96 ALBtEf^Nl.
Now, 'Abu-Ma' sliar again admits in this place that the duration of
life is regulated by a genealogical ratio. Therefore, that astrological
theory, to which they cling, is devoid of sense, since they admit such a
genealogical ratio as not impossible. On the contrary, it is necessary, as
we have already mentioned.
If this sect will reject everything that does not occur in their time or
place, so as to fall under their personal observation, if they do not them-
selves find this everlasting scepticism of theirs absurd, if they will not
admit anything that has happened in their absence, we can only say that
extraordinary occurrences do not happen at all times ; and if they, 10
indeed, happen in some one age, they have in the course of time and
the passing of generations no other tie which connects them with pos-
terity except the uninterrupted chain of tradition. Nay, if they would
draw the last conclusions from their theory, they would be mere sophists,
and would be compelled to disbelieve anybody who would tell them that
there are still other countries in the world besides those in which they
are living ; and other absurdities of a similar kind would follow.
If you would listen to them on the subjects which they propound, you
83.' would find that they refer to the traditions of the Indians, and rely on
various sorts of tricks which they attribute to them. By way of argu- 20
ment they always mention an Indian idol, cut out of stone, the neck of
which is surrounded by numerous iron collars, which represent the
Indian eras of 10,000 years, and, if counted, would amount to an enor-
mous sum of years. But if you then tell them what they, i.e. the
Indians, maintain, viz. that the King of Jamalabadhra, that town whence
the Myrohalana, the Phyllanthus emblica, and the Myrobalana hellerica are
exported, even at the age of 260 years, rode and hunted and married,
and behaved altogether like a young man, and that all this was the
consequence of a dietetic treatment, they will reject it, and declare that
the Indians are evident liars, not really learned men, because they base 30
their sciences upon inspiration, and that therefore their doctrines are
not trustworthy. Besides, they will begin to speak of the subtlety of
all the tenets of the Indians in all questions of law and religion, of
reward and punishment (eschatology), and they will dwell on the various
sorts of torture which they practise in castigating their own bodies.
It is this sect whom God means in the verse of the Koran (Sura x.
40) : " Nay, they have declared to be a lie something, the science of
which they did not comprehend"; and in the other verse (Sura xlvi. 10) :
" And as they would not be guided thereby, verily, they will say : That
is an old lie." They admit only that which suits them, although it be 40
feeble, and they avoid everything that differs from their dogma, although
it be true.
I have read a book of 'Abu-'Abdallah Alhusain ben 'Ibrahim Altabari
Alnatili, a treatise on the duration of natural life, where he maintains
that its greatest length is 140 solar years, beyond which no increase is
EEAS, DATES, A?^D EEIGNS OF KINGS. 97
possible. He, however, wlio denies this so categorically, is required to
produce a proof, which the mind is obliged to accept, and in which it
acquiesces. But he has not established the least proof for his assertion,
except that in his premises he lays down the following theory : —
Three Status Perfectionis are peculiar to man —
I. His attaining to manhood (or womanhood), the time when he
becomes able to propagate his own race. That is the beginning
of the second Seventh.
II. When his thinking power ripens, and his intellect proceeds from
1^ Swa/xts to 7roti7crts. That is the beginning of the sixth Seventh.
III. When he becomes able to govern himself, if he be unmarried ;
his family affairs, if he be married ; his public affairs, if he
exercise some public authority.
The sum of these three Status Perfectionis is to be 140 years.
We do not see by what proportion 'Abii-'Abdallah has calculated these
numbers. For there is no proportion nor progression apparent among
them. Verily, if we conceded to him that there are three such Status
Perfectionis, if we then counted them in the way he has done, and
declared finally, pre-supj^osing we did not apprehend being required to
20 establish a proof, that the sum of these Stat^ls is 100 or 1,000 or some-
thing like it, his method and ours would be quite the same. However,
there is this difference, that we find, that in our time man attains those
phases of development, which he rej^resents as the characteristic signs
of the Status Perfectionis, in quite other Sevenths and times than those
which he mentions. God knows best his meaning !
As regards the (superhuman) size of the bodies (of former genera-
tions), we say, if it be not necessary to believe it for this reason, that
we cannot observe it in our time, and that there is an enormous interval
between us and that time, of which such things are related, it is there-
30 fore by no means impossible. It is the same, the like of which is related
in the Thora of the bodies of the giants (Nephilim, Eepha'im, 'Enakim), p. 84.
and the belief in this has not been abandoned since the time when the
Israelites saw them with their own eyes. Therefore everybody may
attack and ridicule this subject, if he likes ! If the Thora was read to
them, and they read it themselves, though up to that moment they had
not declared the readers of the Thora to be liars, yet even if the giants
were something quite different from what they are described to be (i.e.
less extraordinary), they would declare the reader of the Thora to be a
liar, in case he related anything that is not borne out by their experience
40 and observation. If, indeed, there had never been classes of men with
bodies of an extraordinary vastness, God having given them an uncom-
mon size (vide Koran, ii. 24), no recollection of them would have remained
in the uninterrupted chain of human tradition, and j)eople would not
compare with them everybody who in size exceeds their genus, as it is
7
98 ALBtE^Nf.
known to us. For instance, the people of *Ad have become proverbial
in this sense. But how can I expect them to believe me regarding the
j^eople of 'Ad, since they reject even that which is much nearer to our
time and much more apparent ? They produce such arguments as do not
counterbalance the very weakest of those arguments which are urged
against them. They shun accepting the striking arguments, flying
before them like fugitive asses that fly before a lion (Koran, Ixxiv. 51).
What would they say of the monuments of larger races of men which
exist still at the present time, such as the houses which were cut into the
solid rocks in the mountains of Midian, of the graves built in the rocks, 10
and of bones buried in their interior, which are as large as camel-bones
and even larger, of the bad smell of those localities, which is so strong
that you cannot enter there without covering the nose with something ?
And it is the common consent of all who inhabit those places that they
(the authors of those monuments) are " the peojple of darJcness." But,
when they hear of " the day of darhness," they only laugh in a mocking
way, make grimaces in haughty disdain, turn up their noses in joy over
their theories, and in the persuasion that they are infinitely sujoerior to,
and altogether distinguished from all common people. But God is
sufficient for them ; they will get the reward of their doings, and we 20
that of ours !
Chronolog'ical Tables. — In some book 1 have found tables illustrative
of the durations of the reigns of the kings of the Assyrians, i.e. the
people of Mosul, of the kings of the Copts, who reigned in Egypt, and
of the Ptolemaean princes, each of whom was called Ptolemaeus. For
Alexander, when dying, ordered that every king of the Greeks after him
should be called Ptolemaeus, in order to frighten the enemies, because
the word means " the warlike.'" In the same book I have found the
chronology of the later kings of the Greeks.
In this book, the interval between the birth of Abraham and 30
Alexander was reckoned as 2,096 years, which is more than Jews,
Christians, and astrologers (those who apply the conjunctions of Saturn
and Jupiter to history) reckon.
Now I have transferred those identical tables into this place of my
book. Time has not enabled me to correct the names of the kings on
the basis of their true pronunciation. I hope, therefore, that everyone
will endeavour to correct and amend them, who like myself wishes to
facilitate the subject for the student, and to free him from fatigue of
research. And nobody ought to transcribe these tables and the other
ones except him who is well acquainted with the Hurilf-al-jummal, and 40
honestly endeavours to preserve them correct. For they are corrupted
by the tradition of the copyists, when they pass from hand to hand
among them. Their emendation is a work of many years.
ERAS, DATES, AND EEIGNS OP KINGS.
99
Names of the Kings of the Assyrians,
How long
The sum
i.e. the people of Mosul.
eacii 01
of the
They are 37 in number, and they reigned during 1305 years.
tjiieni
reigned.
years.
I. Belos .....
62
62
Ninos. HebuiltNiniveinMosul. Abra-
ham was born in the [43rd year] of
his reign ....
52
114
Semiramis the wife of Ninos. She
10
founded the ancient Samarra west of
Surra-man-ra'd
42
156
Zames the son of Nines. Abraham was
tried by him, and fled therefore to Pa-
lestine in the [23rd year] of his reign
38
194
V. Areios .....
30
224
Aralios .
40
264
Xerxes .
30
294
Armamithres
38
332
Belochos
35
367
20
X. Balaios .
52
419
Altadas .
32
451
Mamythos
30
481
Manchaleus
30
511
Sphairos
20
531
XV. Mamylos
30
561
Sparethus
40
601
Askatades
40
641
Amyntes
45
686
Belochos
25
711
30
XX. Balatores
30
741
Lamprides
32
773
Sosares .
20
793
Lampares
30
823
Panyas .
45
868
XXV. Sosamos
19
887
Mithraios
37
924
Tautanes. In his time Hion was taken
by the Greeks, who had made war
upon it ... .
31
955
40
Teutaios ....
40
995
Thinaios ....
30
1025
XXX. Derkylos ....
40
1065
Eupales. In his time David reigned
over Israel ....
38
1103
Laosthenes. In his time the Israelites
were divided into two kingdoms
40
1143
Piritiades ....
30
1173
Ophrataios ....
20
1193
XXXV. Ophratanes. On the 167th day of the
60
42nd year of his reign Homer was
born, who is with the Greeks the first
poet, as Imru'ul-Kais with the Arabs
50
1243
Akraganes ....
42
1285
XXXVII. Thonos Konkoleros
20
1305
7 *
100
ALBiRI^Ni.
87, Western authors relate that, diiring the reign of this last king
(Thonos Konkoleros, alias Sardanapalus), the prophet Jonah was sent to
Niniveh, and that a foreigner, called Arhdk (Arbaces) in Hebrew, Bah-ak
in Persian, and Dahlidk in Arabic, came forward against this king, made
war upon him, put him to flight, killed him, and took possession of the
empire, holding it till the time when the Kayanians, the kings of
Babylonia, whom western authors are in the habit of calling Chaldseans,
brought the empire under their sway. The reign of Arbaces lasted
seventy-two years.
Here we must remark that the Chaldseans are not identical with the
Kayanians, but were their governors of Babylonia. For the original
residence of the Kayanians was Balkh, and when they came down to
Mesopotamia, people took to calling them by the same name which they
had formerly applied to their governors, i.e. Chaldseans.
According to some chronicler, Nimrod ben Kush ben Ham ben Noah,
founded a kingdom in Babylonia twenty -three years after the Confusion
of Languages. And that was the earliest kingdom established on earth.
The Confusion of Languages happened contemporaneously with the birth
of the patriarch Ee'u. The same chronicler mentions other kings that rose
after Nimrod, until the empire passed into the hands of the Assyrian
kings, the chronology of whom has been illustrated by the preceding
table. The chronology of the kings that have been recorded, is repre-
sented by the following table : —
10
20
The Kings of Babylonia.
How long
they
reigned.
Sum of
the
years.
Nimrod
u-jr^ ......
Samirus ......
Arpakhshadh .....
Babylonia aftaa-iXivros, till it was occupied by the
Assyrians .
69
85
72
10
6
69
154
226
236
241
30
p. 88. I'^oi' the kings of Babylonia, we have also found another chronological
tradition, beginning with Nebukadnezar the First (i.e. Nabonassar), and
ending with the time when in consequence of the death of Alexander
6 Ktio-ttj';, people began to date by the reigns of the Ptolemaean princes.
This tradition, now, we have transferred into this book, having corrected
the numbers for the durations of their reigns. As to the names, how-
ever, I have simply transcribed them letter by letter, since I have not
had an opportunity to correct them according to their pronunciation.
The following table contains this chronological tradition.
40
EEAS, DATES, AND EEIGNS OF KINGS.
101
How long
eacli
The stun
Table of the Kings of the Chaldeans.
of them
of the
reigned.
years.
Bukhtanassar Primus. With him the era in
the Almagest begins
14
14
Nebucadnezar. Nadios
2
16
Chinzeros .....
5
21
Ilulaios .....
5
26
10
Mardokempad . . . .
12
38
Arceaniis .....
5
43
'A/3ao■tAe^;TOS .....
2
45
Bilibes .....
3
48
Aparanadios .....
6
. 54
Erigebalos .....
1
55
Mesesimordakos ....
4
59
' AfSao-iXevTo? Sevrepos ....
8
67
Asaridinos .....
13
80
Saosduchinos ....
20
100
20
Nabopolassaros and Kiniladanos
22
122
Xebucadnezar ....
21
143
Bukhtanassar, who conquered Jerusalem
43
186
J^'^J^
2
188
Belteshassar .....
4
192
Darius the Median, the First
17
209
Cyrus, who rebuilt Jerusalem
9
218
Cambjses . . . . .
8
226
Darius
36
262
Xerxes
21
283
30
Artaxerxes Primus
43
326
Darius
19
345
Artaxerxes Secundus
46
391
Ochus
21
412
WiT* •
2
414
^
Darius
6
420
Alexander ben Macedo, 6 kticttt^s
8
428
Henceforward people commenced to date
from the reign of Philippus,
p. 89
102
ALBIRUNt.
90.
p. 91.
Names of the Coptic Kings in Egypt.
How long
The sum
They are 34 in number, besides the Persians, and
of "tllSIH
of the
they reigned during 894 years.
reigned.
years.
I. Diospolitse ....
178
178
Smendis
26
204
Susennes
101
305
Nepherclieres
4
309
V. Amenoplitliis
9
318
Osoclior
6
324
Psinaches
9
333
Psusennes
35
368
Sesoncliosis
21
389
X. Osorthon
15
404
Takelothis
*13
417
Petubastis
25
442
Osorthon
9
451
Psammos
10
461
XV. u-V^J^ (Euphanias ?)
44
505
Sabakon ^tbiops
12
517
Sebicbos
12
629
Tarakos ^tbiops
20
549
Ammeris ^tbiops
12
561
XX. Stepbinatbis .
7
568
Necbepsos
6
574
Necbao
8
582
Psammeticbos
44
626
Necbepso (?) Necbao (?)
6
632
XXV. Psammutbis .
17
649
Vapbris
25
674
Amasis
42
716
Tbe Persians till Darius
114
830
Amyrtaios
6
836
XXX. Nepberites .
6
842
Acboris
12
854
Psammutbis and Mutbatos (
) *
2
856
Nektanebes .
13
869
Teos .
7
876
XXXV. Nektanebos .
18
894
Henceforward people ceased to dat
e by tbe
reigns of tbese and tbe Cbaldean kings
and commenced to use tbe era of Alex-
ander tbe Greek.
* p. adds 58, L. adds 3, as the reading of another manuscript.
EEAS, DATES, AND EEIGNS OE KINGS.
103
Here we add the chronological tables of the Ptolemaeans and the
Roman Emperors. Chronology since the time of Philij)pns (Aridseus)
consists of three parts : — I. of Anni Philippi ; II. of Anni Augusti ;
III. of Anni Diocletiani. The first are the non-intercalated years of the
Alexandrians ; the second are the intercalated years of the Greeks ; and
of the same kind as the second are the Anni Diocletiani. With this
king a new era commences, because, when the empire had devolved upon
him, it remained with his descendants, and because after his death the
Christian faith was generally adopted. Another (later) era than the
10 ^ra Diocletiani has not been mentioned, although the rule several times
slipped out of the hands of his family. God knows best ! Here follow
the tables : —
20
30
Names of the Kings of Macedonia,
wlio are the Greeks (loiiians), also called
Ptolemseans.
Philippus ......
Alexander II. filius Alexandri
Ptolemgeus filius Lagi 6 XoytKos. He conquered
Palestine, went uj) to Jerusalem and led the
Israelites into captivity. Afterwards he restored
them to liberty and made them a present of the
vases of their Temple ....
Ptolemaeus Philadelphus. He caused the Thora
to be translated into Greek
Ptolemaeus Euergetes Phuskon Primus
Ptolemaeus Philometor
Ptolemaeus Epiphanes Phuskon Secundus
Ptolemaeus Philopator the Deliverer
Ptolemaeus Euergetes Alexander Secundus
Ptolemaeus Soter the Iron-smith, Artium Fautor .
Ptolemaeus Dionysius Optimus
Cleopatra, till the time when Gajus, in Latin
Julius, became Dictator ....
Cleopatra, till the death of Gajus and the succes-
sion of his son Augustus ....
Cleopatra, till the time when he (Augustus) killed
her ......
How long
Snm of
they
the
reigned.
years.
7
7
12
19
20
39
38
77
25
102
17
119
24
143
35
178
29
207
36
243
29
272
—
275
4a. 6m.
279
14a. 6m.
294
p. 92.
The calling Cleopatra by the name of Ptolemceus is a point of dis-
cussion, on account of her being a woman. But as she resided in
4,0 Alexandria, and was the queen of it, she was called by that name. Gajus,
in Latin Julius, means " king of the world."
104
ALBIEUNI.
p. 93.
p. 94.
Names of the Eoman Kings,
i.e. the Caesars wlio resided in Rome. They are
the Banu-arasfar, i.e. the descendants
of Sepho ben 'Eliphaz ben Esau ben Isaak ben Abraham.
Augustus Caesar, after lie had killed Cleopatra
Tiberius filius August! ....
Gajus ......
Claudius, who killed the Apostle Paul and Simeon
Petrus ......
Nero, who killed the believers
Vespasianus. One year after his accession to the
throne he conquered Palestine, and having be-
sieged the Jews in Jerusalem for three years, he
destroyed it, killed many, scattered the rest over
the empire, and abolished their religious rites .
Titus ......
Domitianus. In the 9th year of his reign Johannes
the Evangelist was banished. Thereupon he hid
himself on an island till the emperor's death.
Then he left the island and dwelt in Ej)hesus .
Nerva ......
Trajanus ......
Hadrianus. It was he who destroyed Jerusalem
and forbade anyone entering it in the 18th year
of his reign ....
Antoninus. It was he who rebuilt Jerusalem
Galenus says that he composed a book on ana-
tomy in the beginning of his reign
Commodus .....
Severus and Antoninus ...
Antoninus alone. Towards the end of his reign
Galenus died
Alexander filius Mammsese. Mammsea means
" weak "
Maximinus
Gordianus
Philippus
Decius, who occurs
Sleepers
G alius
Valerianus
Claudius
Aurelianus
Probus
Carus and Carinus
in the story of the Seven
How long
each of
them
reigned.
43
22
4
14
14
10
3
15
1
19
21
23
32
25
13
3
6
6
1
3
15
1
6
7
2
Sum of
the
years.
43
65
69
83
97
107
110
125
126
145
166
189
221
246
250
263
266
272
278
279
282
287!
288
294
301
303
10
20
30
40
EEAS, DATES, AND EEIQNS OF KINGS.
105
10
20
30
40
60
Names op the Kings of Christendom.
Diocletianns .......
Constantinus. The first king -sviio adopted Christianity. He
bnilt the walls of Constantinople. In the 1st year of his
reign his mother, Helene, sought for the wood of the Cross,
which she finally found. In the 19th year the bishops
assembled ta Niceea and established the canons of Chris
tianity ......
Constantinus (Constantius) ....
Julianus Apostata .....
Valentinianus ......
Valens. He was burned, in escaping, in a barn
Theodosius the Great .....
Arcadius, his son .....
Theodosius Minor. In his time Nestorius was excommuni
Gated ........
Marcianns and his wife Pulcheria. In their time the Jacobites
were excommunicated ....
Leo the Great. He belonged to the moderate party .
Zeno Alarminaki. He was a Jacobite .
Anastasius. He built Ammorium, and was a Jacobite
Justiaus .......
Justinianus. He built the church in Ruha (Edessa) .
Tiberius .......
Maui'icius. He helped Kisra against Bahram Shiibin .
Phocas, who was besieged in Constantinople by Shahrbaraz
the general of Kisra .
Heraclius the wise .
Constantinus. He was murdered in the bath
Constantinus ....
Constantinus ....
Justinianus. The Greeks cut off his nose
Leontius. He was found to be a weak man, being decrepit
So he was dethroned
Tiberius. Apsimarus
Justinianus Ehinometos
Philippicus ......
Anastasius. Atlimus (Artemius). He was dethroned, when
he could not carry on the war ....
Theodosius. He was besieged by Maslama ben 'Abd-almaKk
Leo the Great. He deceived Maslama and repulsed hun from
Constantinople
Constantinus, the son of Leo the Great
Leo Junior, the son of Constantinus Senior
Constantinus Junior, the son of Leo Junior
Augusta (Irene) niled the Greek empire
Nicephorus and Stauracius the son of Nicephorus
Michael the son of Georgius ....
Leo, till he was murdered by Michael in the church
Michael Constantinopolitanus, the mm-derer of Leo ben Theo
phUus ben Michael Constantinopolitanus
Basilius the Slavonian, the last of their kings .
How long
each, of
them
reigned.
21
32
24
2
1
14
17
13
42
6
18
17
27
9
37
14
14!
31
1
27
16
10
3
7
6
3
2
1
24
34
4
18
5
18
2
7
7a. 5m.
3a. 5m.
p. 96.
Anni
Diocle-
tiani.
21
53
77
79
80
94
111
124
166
172
190
207
234
243
280
294
298!
318!
349
350
377
393
403
406
413
419
422
424
425
449
483
487
505
510
528
p. 96.
106
ALBfEUNt.
97.
p. 98.
The Kings of Constantinople,
How long
each 0 ""*'"
Sum of
as Hamza Alisfahani records them on the
'j
the.
rears.
authority of the judge Alwaki', who took them
reigiicu..
from a book that belonged to the
Greek Emperor.
1
Tears.
Months.
Tears.
Months.
Constantinus, the sou of Helene, the Victorious
31
0
31
0
Constantinus, his son ....
24
0
55
0
Jalianus his nephew .....
2
6
57
6
Theodosius ......
10
9
68
3
Gratianus. Valentinianus ....
6
0
74
3
Arcadius, the son of Theodosius
13
3
87
6
Theodosius, the son of Arcadiua
42
0
129
6
Marcianus ......
29
0
158
6
Leo Senior ......
16
0
174
6
Leo Junior ......
1
0
175
6
Zeno .......
17
0
192
6
Anastasius ......
27
4
219
10
Antlis .......
11
9
231
7
Kastrondas. During his reign the Prophet was born
38
3
269
10
Stephanus ......
4
3
273!
1
Marcianus (Mauricius). During his reign the Pro-
phet received his Divine mission .
20
4
293
5
Phocas. During his reign the flight of the Prophet
occurred ......
8
0
301
5
Heraclius and his son. During their reign the Pro-
phet died ......
31
0
332
5
Constantinus, the son of Heracles
25
0
367.?
5
Constantinus, the son of Heracles' wife
17
0
384
5
Constantinus, the son of Heracles
10
0
394
5
Leo or Leon (Lawi or Elyun)
3
0
397
5
Tiberius ......
7
0
411?
5
Bstinus (Justinianus) .....
6
0
417
5
Anastasius ......
6
0
423
5
Theodosius ......
2
0
425
5
Leo. During his reign the empire of the Banu-
'Umayya was dismembered
25
3
450
8
Leo, the son of Constantinus. People think that he
was a worthless character, notwithstanding the
length of his reign .....
5
0
455
8
Constantinus, the son of Leo ....
9
10
465
6
Constantinus ......
6
5
471
11
Irene, who received the empire from her father
5
0
476
11
Nicephorus, at the time of Harun Alrashid .
8
11
485
10
Stauracius, his son .....
0
2
486
0
Michael, his son .....
7
5
[476 ?]
5
Theophilus, his son .....
22
3
498
8
Michael, the son of Theophilus. With this king the
dynasty expires — at the time of the Khalif Al-
mu'tazz ......
28
0
526
8
Basilius the Slavonian ....
20
0
546
8
Leo the son of Basihus. Anno Hijrse 273 at the
time of Almu'tadid .....
26
0
[572]
8
Alexander, the son of Basilius. He died from a
tumour in the belly, a.h. 299
1
2
[573]
10
Constantinus, the son of Leo, A.H. 301.
—
—
—
EEAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 107
Chronolog'y of the Persians. — The Persians call the first raan p. 99.
Gayomarth, with the surname Girshdh, i.e. " hing of the mountain," or, as
others say, Gilshah, i.e. " hing of the clay" because at that time there was
no other man in existence (but himself, there being nothing but clay).
People say that his name (Grayomarth) means " a living, rational, mortal
being."
The chronology of the Persians beginning with Gayomarth is divided
into three parts : —
A. Part I. From Grayomarth till the time when Alexander killed
10 Darius, seized upon the provinces of the Persians, and transferred their
scientific treasures to his own country.
B. Part II. From that time till the time when Ardashir ben Babak
came forward, and the Persian empire was re-established.
C. Part III. From that time till the time when Tazdajird ben
Shahryar was killed, when the empire of the Sasanian dynasty was
dissolved and Islam arose.
Regarding the beginning of the world, the Persians relate many
curious traditions, how Ahriman, i.e. the devil, was born out of the
thought of God and of his pride in the world. And also regarding
20 Gayomarth : for God, being bewildered at the sight of Ahriman, was
covered with sweat on the forehead ; this he wiped off and threw away ;
and out of this sweat Gayomarth was born. Then God sent him to
Ahriman, who overpowered him, and began to travel about in the world,
always riding uj)on him. At last, Ahriman asked him what was the
most odious and horrible thing to him. Whereupon he said, that on
arriving at the gate of hell he woidd sufiEer a painful terror. On having
arrived, then, at the gate Of hell, he became i-efractory, and managed by
various contrivances to throw off the rider. But now Ahriman re-
mounted him, and asked him from what side he was to begin devouring
30 him. Gayomarth answered : " From the side of the foot, that I may
still for some time look at the beauty of the world," knowing quite well
that Ahriman would do the contrary of what he told him. Then Ahriman
commenced devouring him from the head, and when he had come as far
as the testicles and the sjDermatic vessels in the loins, two drops of
sperma fell down on the earth. And out of these drops grew two
Eibas bushes {Wie^im rihes), from among which Mesha and Meshana
sprang up, i.e. the Persian Adam and Eve. They are also called Malha
and Malhayana, and the Zoroastrians of Khwarizm call them Mard and
Mardana.
40 This is what I have heard from the geometrician, 'Abu-alhasan
Adharkhur.
In a different form this tradition, regarding the origin of mankind, is
related by 'Abu-'Ali Muhammad ben 'Ahmad Albalkhi, the poet, in the
108 albiri^n}.
Shahnama, who premises that he has corrected his report on the basis of
the following sources : —
I. Kitdh-siyar-almuluk by 'Abdallah ben Almukaffa*.
II. „ „ by Muhammad ben Aljahm Albarmaki.
III. „ „ by Hisham ben Alkasim.
IV. „ „ by Bahram ben Mardanshah, the Maubadh
of the city of Sabur.
V. „ „ by Bahram ben Mihran Alisbahani.
Besides he has compared his account with that of the Zoroastrian
Bahram of Herat. He says : Gayomarth stayed in Paradise 3,000 years, 10
i.e. the millennia of Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. Then he fell down on
the earth and lived there safely and quietly three other millennia, those
of Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, till the time when all that is evil in the world
was brought about by Ahriman. The story is as follows : that Gayo-
marth, who was called GirsMh, because Gir means in Pahlavi "moun-
tain," dwelt in the mountains (Aljibal-Media), being endowed with so
p.lOO. much beauty that no living being could view him without becoming
terrified and losing the control of its senses.
Now, Ahriman had a son called Khrura, who one day met with Gayo-
marth, and was killed by him. Whereupon, Ahriman complained to God 20
of Gayomarth ; and God resolved to punish him in order to keep those
covenants that existed between him and Ahriman. So he showed him
first the punishments of this world and of the day of resurrection and
other things, so that Gayomarth at last desired to die, whereupon God
killed him. At the same moment two drops of sperma fell down out of
his loins on the mountain Damdadh in Istakhr, and out of them grew
two Ribas-bushes, on which at the beginning of the ninth month the
limbs (of two human bodies) began to appear, which by the end of that
month had become complete and assumed human shape. These two are
Mesha and Meshyana. Fifty years they lived without any necessity for 30
eating and drinking, joyfully and without any pain. But then Ahriman
appeared to them in the shape of an old man, and induced them to take
the fruit of the trees. He himself commenced eating them, whereupon
he at once again became a young man. And now they (Mesha and Me-
shyana) began to eat. Then they were plunged into misfortunes and evils.
Lust arose in them, in consequence of which they copulated, A child
was born unto them, but they devoured it from sheer ravenousness.
But then God inspired their hearts with mildness. Afterwards the wife
gave birth to six other children, the names of whom are known in the
Avasta. The seventh birth produced Siyamak and Fravak, who married 40
and begot a son Hoshang.
Regarding the chronology of this first part, the lives of the kings and
their famous deeds, they relate things which do not seem admissible to
the mind of the reader. However, the aim of our undertaking being to
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
109
collect and to communicate chronological material, not to criticize and
correct historical accounts, we record that on which the scholars of the
Persians, the Herbadhs, and Mauhadhs of the Zoroastrians agree among
themselves, and which is received on their authority. At the same time
we collect the materials in tables, as we have done heretofore, in order
that our work may proceed on the same j)lan which we have laid down
for the chronologies of the other nations.
To the names of the kings we add their epithets, because they are
distinguished by individual epithets, whilst as to the other kings, if they
10 have any epithet at all, it is one common to their whole class, by which
he as well as everybody else who reigns in his place is called. Those
common epithets correspond to the Shahanshah of the Persians. A list
of them we give in the following table : —
20
30
40
The Epithets
The Classes of Princes.
that apply to the
Princes of these Classes.
The Sasanian kings of the Persians .
Shahanshah and Kisra.
The G-reek kings ....
Basili, i.e. Caesar.
The kin
gs of Alexandria .
Ptolemseus.
,,
Yaman
Tubba'.
>)
the Turks, Chazar, and
Ta-
gharghuz .
Khakhan.
))
the Grhuzz-Turks .
Hanuta.
5J
the Chinese .
Baghbur.
5J
India . . .
Balhara.
)5
Kannuj
Eabi.
)5
the Ethiopians
Alnajashi.
55
the Nubians
Kabil.
)J
the islands in the eastern
ocean
Maharaj.
5)
the mountains of Tabaristan
Ispahbadh.
)»
Dunbawand
Masmaghan.
J)
Gharjistan .
Shar.
5J
Sarakhs
Zadhawaihi.
JJ
Nasa and Abiward
Bahmana.
)>
Kash ....
Nidun.
)J
Far gh ana
Ikhshid.
5J
Asrushana .
Afshin.
5>
Shash ....
Tudun.
)>
Marw ....
Mahawaihi.
55
Nishapur
Kanbar.
Samarkand .
Tarkhun.
»J
Sarir ....
Alhajjaj.
J»
Dahistan
Sul.
>J
Jurjan
Anahpadh,
p.lOl.
110
ALBtRI^Nt.
The Classes of Princes.
The Epithets
that apply to the
Princes of these Classes.
p.l02. The kings of tlie Sclavonians
„ tlie Syrians .
„ the Egyptians
„ Bamiyan
Egypt .
„ Kabul .
„ Tirmidh
„ Khwarizm
„ Shirwan
„ Bukhara
„ Guzganan
Kabbar.
Nimrodh.
Pharaoh.
Shir- i- Bamiyan.
Al'aziz.
Kabul- Shah.
Tirmidh- Shah.
Khwarizm- Shah.
Shirwan- Shah.
Bukhara- Khudah.
Guzgan-Khudah.
10
Individual epithets (of princes) were not in use before the reign of
Islam, except among the Persians.
Part I. is divided into three parts : —
1. Peshdddhians, those who ruled over the whole world, founded cities,
discovered mines and produced the metals, and found out the elements
of handicrafts and arts ; who practised justice on earth, and worshipped 20
God as is his due.
2. Kings of J^ldn, which mesins " people of the highlands." They did
not rule over the whole earth. The first who divided the empires of the
world was Fredun the Pure, for he divided them between his sons, as a
poet, a descendant of the family of the Kisras, says —
" Then we have divided our empire in our time,
Just as people divide meat on a meat-board.
Syria and Greece as far as the setting-place of the sun
We have given to a champion, to Salm.
To Toz the Turks were given, and so a cousin 30
Holds the country of the Turks.
And to ^rdn Al'irak was given by dint of force. He has
Obtained the rule, and we have obtained the benefits thereof."
3. Kaydnians, the heroes. In their days the rule over the world
became divided between the various nations.
Between these parts (of ancient Persian chronology) there are gaps,
on account of which the order and progress of chronology are much
troubled and obscured.
Here follow the kings of Part I., according to the opinion of the
generality of the Persians. 4q
EEAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
Ill
The
How
classes
of the
Kings.
The Names of the Persian Kings
of Part I.
Their
Epithets.
long
each of
them
reigned.
Sum
of the
years.
Oaydmarth .....
Girshah .
30
30
CO
Till the birth of Mesha and Meshana, who is
^i
called " Mate?- fiUorum et filiarum." These
s i
two are the Persian Adam and Eve .
40
70
10
Till Mesha and Meshana married
—
50
120
Till the birth of H6shang
—
93
213
Hoshang ben Afrawak ben Siyamak ben Mesha
Peshdadh
40
253
Tahinurath ben Wijahan ben Inkahadh ben H6-
shang — till the coming-forward of Budasaf .
Zebawand
1
254
The same — after that event
29
283
Jam ben Wijahan. From the time when he
ordered people to fabricate weapons till the
time when he ordered them to spin and
weave ......
Shedh .
50
333
20
Till the time when he ordered people to divide
themselves into four classes .
—
50
383
Till the time when he made war upon the
1
demons and subdued them
—
50
433
Till the time when he ordered the demons to
0
^
break rocks out of the mountains and to carry
-+J
them ......
—
100
533
oT
Till the time when he ordered a wheeled-
carriage to be constructed. It was con-
<e3
straoted, and he rode upon it .
—
66
599
30
n3
After that, people lived in health and happiness
m
??
— till the time when he hid himself .
—
300
899
P-l
He continued to be hidden — till he was seized
J
by Aldahhak, who tore out his bowels and
H
sawed him with a saw
Aldahhak ben 'Ulwan of the Amalekites or —
with another name — Bevarasp ben Arwand-
asp ben Zingas ben Barishand ben Ghar, who
was the father of the pure Arabians, ben
100
999
Afrawak ben Siyamak ben Mesha
Azhdahak
1000
1999
40
AfrecMn ben Athfiyan Gao ben Athfiyan Nigao
ben Athfiyan ben Shahrgao ben Athfiyan
Akhnnbagao ben Athfiyan Sipedhgao ben
Athfiyan Dizagao ben Athfiyan Nigao ben
Nefurush ben Jam the King .
Almaubadh
200
2199
O
Iraj. He was killed by his brothers Salm and
»
Toj, who reigned after him. They were 'all
o
three sons of Afredun . . ^ .
Almustafa
300
2499
Minoshjihr ben Guzan, the daughter of Iraj —
Q) m
till the time when he killed Toj and Salm,
50
i.e. Sharm in Persian ....
Fer6z
20
2519
S3
Till the time when the son of Toj occupied
Eranshahr, and drove Minoshjihr out of the
country .....
—
60
2579
°^
Firdsiydh ben Bashang ben Inat ben Eishman
S)-"
ben Turk ben Zabanasp ben Arshasp ben Toj
.a
44
— till the time when Minushjihr gained the
<D
victory over him and drove him away. Thex-e-
upon they made a treaty on the basis of the
well-known arrow-shot
—
12
2591
p.l03.
p.l04.
112
ALBlE^^Nt.
p.l05.
The
classes
of the
Kings.
The Names of the Persian Kings
of Part I.
Their
Epithets.
i
How
long
each of
them
reigned.
Sum
of the
years.
The kings of Elan,
the people of
the highlands.
Min6shjihr — till his death
Tozh the Turk occupying Al'irak
Zdh ben Tahmasp ben Kamjahubar ben Zu ben~"
Hushab ben Widinak ben Diisar ben Mi-
noshjihr together with —
Garshdsp, i.e. Sam ben Nariman ben Tahmasp
ben Ashak ben Nosh ben Dusar ben Mi-
noshjihr . . . . .^
Firasiyab
The two
companions.
28
12
2619
2631
2636
03
0
2
00
1
Kaikobddh ben Zagh ben Nudhaga ben Maishu
ben Nudhar ben Min6shjihr .
Kaikdus ben Kainiya ben Kaikobadh — till he
rebelled, whereupon he was taken prisoner
by Shammar and afterwards delivered by
Rustam ben Dastan ben Garshasp the King .
The same — from the latter event till his death
Kaikhusru ben Siyawush ben Kaikaus — till the
time when he went away as a holy pilgrim
and hid himself ....
Kailuhrdsp ben Kaiwaji ben Kaimanish ben
Kaikubadh — till he sent Bukhtanassar to
Jerusalem, who destroyed it .
The same after that event
Eaiwishtdsp ben Luhrasp — till the appearance
of Zoroaster .....
The same after that event
Kai Ai'dasMr — Bahnian ben Isfandiyar ben
WishtasiJ .....
Khumdnt the daughter of Ardashir — Bahman .
Bdrd ben Ardashir — Bahman
Bard hen Bdrd — till he was killed by Alexander
the Greek .....
The First
Nimrud .
Humayun
TheBactrian
Alherbadh
(- Tall in |
i the body, i
Cihrazad .
The great
The second
100
75
75
60
60
60
30
90
112
30
12
14
2736
2811
2886
2946
3006
3066
3096
3186
3298
3328
3340
3354
10
20
30
The account of the chronology of this Part I., which we have given,
is stated very differently in the Kitdh-alsiyar. Our account, however,
comes nearest to that view regarding which people agree. The chro-
nology of this same part, but in a different shape, I have also found in
the book of Hamza ben Alhusain Alisfahani, which he calls " Chronology
of great nations of the past and present." He says that he has endeavoured
to correct his account by means of the Abasia, which is the religious
code (of the Zoroastrians). Therefore I have transferi'ed it into this
place of my book.
40
ERAS, DATES, AXD REIGNS OF KINGS.
113
TABLE II. OF PART I.
10
20
Names of the Peshdadhian Kings,
taken from the Abasttl, beginning with
Gay 6 mar th.
Gayomarth the first man ....
How long
each of
them
reigned.
Sum of
the
Years.
40
40
An interregnum of 170 years.
—
—
Hoshang ......
40
80
Tahmurath ......
30
110
Jam .......
616
726
Bewarasp ......
1000
1726
Afredun ......
500
2226
Minoshcihr ......
120
2346
Firasyab ......
12
2358
An interregnum of unknown length.
—
—
Zab . .
9
2367
Garshasp together with Zab
3
2370
An interregnum.
—
—
Names of the Kayanian Kings.
Kaikobadh . . . .
126
2494
Kaikaus . ...
150
2646
Kaikhusrau ......
80
2726
Kailuhrasp ......
120
2846
Kaibishtasp ......
120
2966
Kaiardashir ......
112
3078
Cihrazad ......
30
3108
Dara ben Bahman .
12
3120
Dara ben Dara .....
14
3134
p.l06.
p.l07.
114
ALBfEUNt.
p. 108. Further, Hamza relates that he has found also this part of Persian
chronology in the copy of the Maubadh, such as is exhibited in the
following table: —
TABLE III. OP PAET I.
p.l09.
Names of the Peshdadhian Kings,
How long
each of
them
reigned.
Sum of
the
Years.
taken from the Copy of the Maubadh.
Gayomarth ......
30
30
Mesha and Meshana — till they got children
50
80
Till their death .....
50
130
Interregnum
94
224
Hoshang
40
2G4
Tahmrirath .
30
294
Jam — till he hid himself
616
910
He remained hidden
100
1010
Bewarasp
1000
2010
Fredun
500
2510
Minoshcihr .
120
2630
Zu and Garshasp
4
2634
Names of the Kayanian Kings.
Kaikobadh ......
100
2734
Kaikaus
150
2884
Kaikhusrau .
60
2944
Luhrasp
120
3064
Bishtasp
120
3184
Ardashir
112
3296
Cihrazad
30
3326
Dara ben Bahman
12
3338
Dara ben Dara
14
3352
10
20
30
p. 110. 1^ the biographical and historical books that have been translated
from the works of Western authors, you find an account of the kings of
Persia and Babylonia, beginning with Fredun, whom they call, as people
say, Yaful (Pul ?), and ending with Dtira, the last of the Persian kings.
Now, we find that these records differ greatly (from Eastern records) as
to the number of the kings and their names, as to the durations of their
reigns, their history, and their description. I am inclined to think that
they confounded the kings of Persia with their governors of Babylonia,
and put both side by side. But if we altogether refrain from mention-
ing those records, we should deprive this book of something that forms
a due part of it, and we should turn away the mind of the reader there-
from. We, now, exhibit this tradition in a special table of its own, in
40
EEAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
115
order to prevent confusion getting into the arrangement of the various
systems and traditions of this book. Here it follows : —
The Kings of Persia,
How long
each of
Sum of
beginning with Fredun, according to
the
Western authors.
reigned.
Years.
Taful, i.e. Fredun .....
35
35
Tighlath Pilesar .....
35
70
Salmanassar, i.e. Salm ....
14
84
10
Sanherib ben Salmanassar, i.e. in Persian : Sana-
raft ......
9
93
Sardum (Ezarhaddon), i.e. Zu ben Tumasp
3
96
After him the following powerful kings
reigned : —
Kaikobadh ......
49
145
Sanherib II. ....
31
176
Majam .....
33
209
Bukhtanassar, i.e. Kaikaus
57
266
Evilad ben Bukhtanassar .
1
267
20
Belteshassar ben Evilad
2
269
Dara Almahi I., i.e. Darius .
9
278
Koresh, i.e. Kaikhusrau
8
286
Cyrus, i.e. Luhrasp .
34
320
Cambyses ....
80
400
Dara II. .
36
436
Xerxes ben Dara, i.e. Khusrau I.
26
462
Ardashir ben Xerxes, called /xaKpox^ip, i-e
Longi-
manus ....
41
503
Khusrau II. .
30
633
30
Sogdianus, ISTotos ben Khusrau
9
542
Ardashir ben Dara II.
41
583
Ardashir III.
27
610
Arses ben Ochus
12
622
Dara, the last king of Persia
16
638
i
The Jews, Zoroastrians, Christians, and the various sects of them,
relate the origines mundi and carry chronology down from them, having
previously admitted the truth of such origines, and having gained certain
views regarding them, on which people either agree or differ. He, how-
ever, who denies such origines, cannot adopt that which is built upon
40 them, except after producing various sorts of interpretations which he
adds of his own.
However, those origines mundi, i.e. Adam and Eve, have been used as
the epoch of an era. And some people maintain that time consists of
cycles, at the end of which all created beings perish, whilst they grow
at their beginning ; that each such cycle has a special Adam and Eve of
its own, and that the chronology of this cycle depends upon them.
p.m.
p.ll2.
116 ALBfRUNt.
Other people, again, maintain that in each cycle a special Adam and
Eve exist for each country in particular, and that hence the difference of
human structure, nature, and language is to be derived.
Other people, besides, hold this foolish persuasion, viz. that time has
no terminus a quo at all ; they take some dogmas from the founders of
religions, in order to construct some system by means of them. Many
philosophers of this class have built up such systems. You could
hardly jB.nd a prettier tale of this kind than that one produced by Sa'id
ben Muhammad Aldhuhli in his book. For he says : " People lived in
bitter enmity and strife with each other ; the better among them were 10
maltreated and oppressed by the worse. But then, at last, the just
king, Peshdildh, transplanted them to a place, called Firclaus (Paradise),
situated between Adan and Serendib. It was a place where aloe, cloves, and
various sorts of perfumes were growing, and all kinds of delicious things
were to be found. There they dwelt, till one day a demon ('Ifrit) came
upon them, the king of the wicked, and began quarrelling with them.
In the same place Peshdadh found a boy and girl, the parents of whom
were unknown. These he educated and called them Meshd and Meshdna,
and made them marry each other. Thereupon they committed sin, and
so he drove them out of that country." The tale as it has been related, 20
is extremely long. He says that the interval between the time of their
settlement in Paradise, the beginning of all chronology, and their
meeting the demon was one year; till the time when Mesha and Meshana
were found, two more years elapsed ; till their marriage, forty-one years ;
till their death, thirty years ; and till the death of Peshdadh, ninety-nine
years elapsed. But then he ceases from going on with his chronological
account and does not carry it on.
Chronology of the Ashkanians.— As to Part II. of Persian chro-
nology from Alexander till the rise of Ardashir ben Babak, it must be
known that during this period the " Petty Princes " existed, i.e. those gQ
princes whom Alexander had installed as rulers over certain special dis-
tricts, who were all totally independent of each other. To the same
period belongs the empire of the Ashkanians, who held 'Irak and the
p. 113. country of Mah, i.e. Aljibal, under their sway. They were the most
valiant among the " Petty Princes ;" still the others did not obey them,
but only honoured them for this reason, that they descended from the
royal Persian house. For the first prince of the Ashkanians was Ashh
ben Ashkan, called Afghurshah ben Balash ben Shapur ben Ashkan ben
jU^\ ^jA ben Siytlwush ben Kaikaus.
Most Persian chroniclers have connected the reign of Alexander 40
immediately with that of the first Ashkanian prince, by which that
period was most improperly curtailed. Others say that the AshkJinians
came into power some time after Alexander, whilst others go on blunder-
ing without any knowledge of the matter,
I shall relate in this place such of their traditions as I have learned,
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
117
20
30
40
and shall endeavour, as much as is in my power, to amend that which is
wrong, to refute that which is false, and to establish the truth, beginning
with that which corresponds most nearly to the Table I. of Parti., I also
call it Table I. (of Part n.) :—
10
Table of the Names of the Ashkanian Kings, How long '
corresponding to the Table I. of Part I. each ^^°^
Their Surnames. reigned. Years.
Alexander the Greek .
Ashk ben Ashkan
Ashk ben Ashk ben Ashk
Shapur ben Ashk
Bahi-am ben Shapur .
Narsi ben Bahram
Hurmuz ben Narsi .
Bahram ben Hurmuz
Feroz ben Bahram
Kisra ben Feroz
Narsi ben Feroz
Ardawan ben Narsi .
Kloshdih
Ashkan
Zarrin
Khurun
Gisuwar
Salar
Roshan
Balad
Baradih
Shikari
The last
14 14
13 27
25 52
30 82
21 103
25 128
40 168
25 193
17 210
20 230
' 30 260
20 280
Next follows what corresponds to the Table II. of the same Part I.,
that which Hamza has taken from the Abasta. This, again, I call the
Tabula II., for the purpose of connecting those portions of the three
parts of Persian chronology that bear the same name (as Table I., II.,
III. of Parts I., II., III.) with each other, and to bring the tables,
thereby, into a good order. It will not be necessary to mention this
another time : —
TABLE II. OF PAET II. in the Arrangement of the Tables.
p.ll4.
Names of the Ashghanian Kings,
according to Hamza.
Alexander the Greek . . . .
Ashk ben Balash ben Shapur ben Ashkan ben Ash
the hero .....
Shapur ben Ashk ....
Judhar ben Wijan ben Shapur
VVijan ben Balash ben Shapiir, the nephew of the
preceding .....
Judhar ben Wijan ben Balash
JSTarsa ben Wijan . . . . .
Hurmuzan ben Balash, the uncle of the preceding
Ferozan ben Hurmuzan
Khusrau ben Ferozan
Balash ben Ferozan
Ardawan ben Balash ben Ferozan .
How long
each
of them
reigned.
i 14
!
I
I 52
I 24
j 50
21
19
30
17
12
40
24
55
Sum
of the
Years.
14
66
90
140
161
180
210
227
239
279
303
358
118
albIrun!.
To this I add that which in the order of the tables is the third one,
which Hamza says he has taken from the copy of the Maubadh, in order
that the snbject may be carried on, as it has been done in the two pre-
ceding tables. Here follows the Table III. of Part II. : —
TABLE in. OP PAET II.
p.115.
How long
Sum
Names of the Ashkanian Kings,
each
of the
Years.
taken by Hamza from the Copy of the Maubadh.
of them
reigned.
Alexander the Greek ....
14
14
After him reigned a class of Greek princes, with
their Persian vizirs, altogether 14 in number
68
82
Ashk ben Bara ben Dara ben Dara
10
92
Ashk ben Ashkan .
20
112
Shapur ben Ashkan
60
172
Bahram ben Shapur
11
183
Balash ben Shapur .
11
194
Hurmuz ben Balash
40
234
Feroz ben Hurmuz .
17
251
BaLish ben Feroz
12
263
Khusrau ben Maladhan
40
303
Balashan
24
327
Ardawan ben Balashan
13
340
ArdawJin the Great, ben Ashkanan
23
363
Khusrau ben Ashkanan
15
378
Bahafirid ben Ashkanan
15
393
1 Judhar ben Ashkanan
22
415
1 Balash ben Ashkanan
30
445
Narsi ben Ashkanan
20
465
Ardawan, the last .
31
496
10
20
30
p.ll6. Next I shall produce what I found in the chronicle of 'Abu-aHaraj
'Ibrahim ben 'Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjani the mathematician. This
man, on having taken pains to compare the discordant traditions with
each other, gives the following account of the " Petty Princes," and the
durations of their reigns, as is exhibited in the following table. He
maintains that the Persians fixed only the historical tradition regarding
the Ashkanian princes, not regarding the other " Petty Princes," and
that the Ashkanians first brought 'Irak and Jibal under their sway Anno
Alexandri 246.
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OE KINGS.
119
10
1
How long
Sum
of the
The Ashkanians, I each of
according to the Chronicle of 'Abli-alfarai. them
reigned.
1
Alexander the Greek ....
14
14
The " Petty Princes "
246
260
Af ghurshah .
10
270
Shapur ben Ashkan
60
330
Judhar, Senior
10
340
Bizan the Ashkanian
21
361
Judhar the Ashkanian
19
380
Narsi the Ashkanian
40
420
Hurmuz
17
437
Ardawan
12
449
Khusrau
40
489
Balash
24
613
Ardawan, Junior
13
526
We have also found a chronological synopsis of this same Part II. in
the Shahnama by 'Abu-Mansur 'Abd-alrazzak, such as we exhibit in the
20 following table : —
30
How long
Sum
of the
The Ashkanians,
each of
according to the Shahnama.
them
reigned.
Ashk ben Dara, according to others a descendant
of Arish ......
13
13
Ashk ben Ashk
25
38
Shapur ben Ashk
30
68
Bahram ben Shapur
51
119
Narsi ben Bahram .
25
144
Hurmuz ben Narsi .
40
184
Bahram ben Hurmuz
5
189
Hurmuz
7
196
Feroz ben Hurmuz .
20
216
Narsi ben Feroz
30
246
Ardawan
20
266
p.ll7.
The nature of this Part II. is brought to light by a comparative
examination of these tables. It is a period that begins with Alexander's
conquest of Persia, and ends with the rising of Ardashir ben Babak
40 and his seizing the empire out of the hands of the Ashkanians. Both
these limits are well known, and generally agreed upon. How, then,
120 ALBiRUNt.
can the interval between them be a matter of doubt to us ? However,
it must be kept in mind that we are not able to make out by a mere
course of reasoning the duration of the rule of each of the Ashkilnian
princes, nor of the other " Petty Princes" nor the number of the persons
who occupied the throne. For all this depends upon historical tradition,
ank it is well-known to what mishap tradition has been subject. The
least, now, we must try to do is to amend this Part II. as much as is in
our power.
It is evident and not unknown to anybody, that the year in which
Yazdajird came to the throne was A. Alex. 943. This undeniable date 10
we shall keej) in mind as a basis, and establish it as a gauge by which
to measure all their records.
Let us first take the sum of years which we get from the Table I. of
Part II., i.e. 280 years. Hereto we add that sum which we shall
p.ll8. exhibit in the Table I. of Part III. for the time from the beginning of
the reign of Ardashir till that of the reign of Yazdajird, ia order to
combine the like tables {i.e. Table I., II., III. of Part II. respectively,
with Table I., II., III. of Part III.) with each other. This latter period
is about 410 years. So we get a sum of
690 years, 20
which is less than our gauge by about 253 years. We shall drop this
calcu^lation and not take further notice of it.
Next we consider the sum of years contained in the Table II. of
Part II., i.e. 358 years. Hereto we add the sum which will be exhibited
by Table II. of Part III., corresponding to the sum that occurs in the
first calculation, and we get the sum total of
818 years,
which is again less than our gauge by about 125 years.
We shall drop this calculation, too, and j^roceed to the Tables III. in
Parts II. and III., and add them together in the same way as we have 30
done with Table I. and II. Then we get the sum of
930 years,
which is again below our gauge by about thirteen years.
We drop this calculation, and do not further notice it. For chronology
does not admit of this difference, although it may be so slight as nearly
to ai)i)roach the truth.
If we make the same calculation with the years exhibited in the book
of 'Abu-alfaraj, combining the corresjjonding tables with each other, we
get the sum of
949 years, 40
which exceeds our gauge by six years.
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 121
If we pass by this and add together the years as reported in the
Shahnama for this Part 11., with the result of any of the tables of
Part in., this calculation would still less agree with our gauge (than the
preceding ones).
Now we shall put aside all these calculations, and try to derive an
emendation of them from the book of Mani, called ShdbilrMn, since, of
all Persian books, it is one that may be relied upon (as a witness) for the
time immediately following the rise of Ardashir (ben Babak). Besides,
Mani in his law has forbidden telling lies, and he had no need what-
10 soever for falsifying history.
Mani, now, says in this book in the chapter of the coming of the
prophet, that he was born in Babylonia Anno Astronomorum Babylonice
527, i.e. Anno Alex. 527, and four years after the beginning of the
reign of the king Adharbdn, whom I believe to be Ardawan the Last.
In the same chapter he says that he first received divine revelation when
he was thirteen years of age, or An7io Astronomorum Bdbyloni(B 539, two
years after the beginning of the reign of Ardashir the king of kings.
Hereby Mani states that the interval between Alexander and Ardashir
is 537 years, and that the interval between Ardashir and the succession
20 of Yazdajird is 406 years. And this result is correct, being based upon
the testimony of a book, favoured by God with a long duration, which
is used as a religious code.
Further, we are informed by traditions, the correctness of which is
proved by their mutual agreement, that the last intercalation was carried
out at the time of Yazdajird ben Shapur, and that the Epagomense were
put at the end of that month, to which the tui'n of intercalation had p. 119.
come, viz. the eighth month (Aban-Mah). If, now, we count the interval
between Alexander and Ardashir as 537 years, we find the interval
between Zoroaster and Yazdajird ben Shapur to be nearly 970 years, in
30 which eight leap months are due, since it was their custom to inter-
calate one month in every 120 years. But if we count that interval
(between Alexander and Ardashir) as 260-270 years, or something more,
as 300 years, as most authors do, we get a sum of about 600 years, in
which only five leap months would be due, whilst we have already men-
tioned their report stating that eight leap months are due in that
period. The latter is therefore an irreconcileable supposition {viz. that
the interval between Alexander and Ardashir is not more than 260-300
years) .
Likewise it is written in the books of astrologers, that the horoscope
40 of the year in which Ardashir (ben Babak) rose was about half of
Gemini, and the horoscope of the year in which Yazdajird rose was the
sixth degree of Cancer. If, now, we multiply 93j degrees, which is the
surplus of the solar cycle over the whole days according to the Persians,
by 407 years, we get the sum of 152| degrees. If we subtract this from
the rising-place of the degree of the horoscope of that year, in which
Yazdajird came to the throne, and take the ai'c of the remainder for the
122 ALBfET^Nf.
rising-place of the region of 'Irak, which was the residence of the
Kisras, the horoscope is half of Gemini close to the place, which the
astrologers mention. If the years, however, are either more or less, the
horoscope does not agree (with what it is reported to have been). So, of
course, that which is confirmed by two witnesses is more trustworthy
than that which is contradicted by many.
If we add to the 407 years, mentioned by the astrologers, the 537
years which are reported by the Shaburkan, we get the sum of 944
years. And that is the year of the ^Era Alexandri for Yazdajird's
accession to the throne. The surplus of one year is only possible in the 10
reports of such authors as do not give detailed statements regarding the
months aud minor fractions of time, in consequence of the fact that
the years of the Persians and Greeks commence at different times.
Hamza relates that Musa ben 'Isa Alkisrawi, on having studied this
subject, and perceived the confusion we have mentioned, said : " The
interval between Alexander and Yazdajird's accession to the throne is
942 years. If we subtract therefrom 266 years for the period of the
reign of the Ashkanians, we get for the rule of the Sasanians, from
Ardashir till the accession of Yazdajird, 676 years. In their own
traditions the Persians have no such chronological system." 20
Further, he says : " Thereupon we studied and examined the number
of their kings. And here be it noticed that they have forgotten the
names of some of them, whom the chroniclers have not mentioned,
blending together some of their names on account of their similarity.
I shall enumerate them as they really are." Accordingly, he, i.e. Musa,
has increased the durations of their reigns and their number, as we
shall explain, when the order of our exposition comes to that subject, if
God permits.
p.l20. Chronology of the Sasanians. — Now we proceed to treat of the
third part of Persian chronology, the beginning of which is the rising 30
of Ardashir ben Babak of the family of Bahman ben Isfandiyar. For
he was the son of Babak Shah ben Sasan ben Babak ben Sasan ben
Bahafirid ben Mihrmish ben Sasan senior ben Bahman ben Isfandiyar.
This part of chronology also is not free from the same defects that beset
the former two parts, but still they are less considerable. I commence
this part with the Table I., corresponding to the (first) tables of each of
the two preceding parts, and I shall proceed hereafter with Table II.
and III. If you gather the dates from the single tables of the three
parts, you get the consecutive course of Persian chronology. Here
follows Table I. 40
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
123
KO (MNU5Ui»flU5lO>niO»nW5eq(MOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQO
^ i-lrHi-Hi-ii-lrHi-Hr-lrHi-li— I i— l^i— li-(rH>-(T— I
00 00 00 00 00 00
-gO-*(M>0»OOS05N(M(MtOtOOO(MN(MIMN(MlN01'#-*iOT?Ottit» r-l05i-'»a«0<0
g 1-1 1-1 i-l rH
s
g-'^USt^Ot^t^CD-rfltDOiOtDOOCOVO-MCD-^CDO'-iOOQO^i-lCDt^OOOO
Si— l-<7(T:J<U5CDCDi>-00m^COl>Oii— ICOCDCOOO'-^VftlOCOOOOOOO
jH t-irHi-Hi— iiM(jq(M(M(MeocowcococO'*TTiT7<^-'*i#
05 O O 1-1 1-1 1-1
O 1-^ i-H 1— I 1— I CO
o o o o o o
tao'3
-gOt0Oe0O'*Ovr5OO'*O»OO00OOOOOOt>i>Oi-iO«C0r-( -^OrHCO^O
o 1-1 rH rH r-l ,-1
S-#Oi-ICCii*00>t>iM'<?>Oi-li-lOOOOX>-*QOO<l-*i-lt»05COO'*Oi-<0
0)1—103 rH t> 1— IS<lrHrH<MCO -^ CO
o o o o o
M -
O
■33 rs ^ ti 13 0 c3
-^ :5 !^ ^\.
s* s M <^
<c3 .iJ ^ c3 ^ '^ ce fO 'O J ;2 c3 o '^ 3 ^ =«
^■^a
!z;^
^
NH
= ^ &:
. o .
CI
^^ g
CQ Eh M
d O rr; !D
d CO ^ 1-5
o ja :^ ^
P=tE-iME-i
- o
El
03 1-1
m g
^
1^ &, c
2-5
, c3 <g3 H -C
) - s d c
i ^ a g g
! &, K tn ti
oQMfqpq
^ ^ b CO
<c3
<=!
. -d
P N
^«2
o
<5 'H S ^ ■
'-^ 2 PQ S -o .
•50:3
^- O 3
-1^ -a ,
o p
d 01 2 "
TJ O u-i t«
O o o
• CO O {IL,
. -^^ I-
g o o •
o r;>
CO C^
© o
P. -Q
^M
ri r3 g
O N
&1> J
j-H X "^ '43
PM
tHg
P^Er
N
13 " -d
5 ;? M OC <i
o
^'S-S^
<D
'be g 'be d "T
c3 c3 c3 S c3
§ d^ =^
-^ S d g
iT3
w
i^ d c3
d ^ ^ ■
d -d ti^
a> ,
1 ti^ ^-4
g g
<d CD g
^ I
h m m (D
p .^ _:- _r1
hW
tt) .^,^ tc ^ nj
3 |g^ s d
1 g d °^-^
<d -I o s-i jd t3
2 ^ ^ -S ^ ^
^ " N- d t. M
" •" <3S cS © -
© t, tH ra +3 d
-o <-! c3 ^ g •
^ -2 -S ^- bD-=5
<2 2 t3 d 0 ,^ N
J r^ -5 *!! =« i^'O
d • ^*'
•^ r:3 ©
=j- ^ ^
v« a
•d _, ^
^ J .3
S d =2
■u n —
<; 72 a* M &:( ■
I— I
124
ALijtRUNt.
p,123. The following Table II. rests on tlie authority of Hamza, who says
that he has amended it by means of the Abasta, and transcribed it from
the Kitdb-alsiyar-Alkabir.
TABLE II. OF PAET III.
p. 124.
How long each of them
Sum of the Years.
Names of the Sasanian
Kings.
IClgllCU.
Years.
Months.
Days.
Years.
Months.
Days.
Ardashir Babak
14
6
0
14
6
0
Shapur ben Ardashir
30
0
28
44
6
28
Hurmuz ben Shapur
1
10
0
46
4
28
Bahram ben Hurmuz
3
3
3
49
8
6. Bahram ben Bahram .
17
0
0
6&
8
Bahram ben Bahram ben
Bahram
0
4
0
67
0
Narsi ben Bahram
9
0
0
76
0
Hurmuz ben Narsi
7
5
0
83
5
Shapur ben Hurmuz
Dhu-al'aktaf
72
0
0
155
5
10. Ardashir ben Hurmuz
4
0
0
159
5
Shapur ben Shapur
50
4
0
209
9
Bahram ben Shapur
11
0
0
220
9
Yazdagird ben Bahram
Sceleratus .
21
6
8
242
2
9
Bahram ben Yazdagird,
Gur .
23
0
0
265
2
9
15. Yazdagird ben Bahram
18
4
28
283
7
7
Feroz ben Yazdagird
27
0
1
310
7
8
Balash ben Feroz .
4
0
0
314
7
8
Kobad ben Feroz .
43
0
0
357
7
8
Anoshirwan ben Kobad .
47
7
0
405
2
8
20. Hurmuz ben Anoshir-
wan ....
11
7
10
416
9
18
Parwiz ben Hurmuz
38
0
0
454
9
18
Shirawaihi ben Parwiz .
0
8
0
455
5
18
Ardashir ben Shirawaihi
1
6
0
456
11
18
Purandukht, daughter of
Parwiz
1
4
0
458
3
18
25. Guskanasptadha .
0
2
0
458
6
18
Azarmidukht, daughter
of Parwiz .
1
4
0
459
9
18
Khurzad Khusra .
0
1
0
459
10
18
Yazdagird ben Shahryar
20
0
0
479
10
18
10
20
30
40
ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
125
The following Table III. in this Part is that one which Hamza says he p.l25.
transcribed from the copy of the Maubadh.
Names of the Sasanian Kings
1 How long each of them
'» ' rpicrnfifl.
Sum of the Years.
such as Hamza says he has
taken from the Copy of
the Maubadh.
j
Years.
Months.
Days.
Years.
Months.
Days.
Ardashir b. Babak (aftei
having made war upoi
the "Petty Princes")
. 14
10
0
14
10
0
10
Shapur ben Ardashir
. 30
0
15
44
10
15
Hurmuz ben Shapur
3
3
0
48
1
15
Bahram ben Hurmuz
17
0
0
65
1
15
5. Bahram Sakan-shah
. 40
4
0
105
5
15
Narsa ben Bahram
9
0
0
114
5
15
Hurmuz ben Narsa
7
0
0
121
5
15
Shapur Dhu-al'aktaf
. 72
0
0
193
5
15
Ardashir ben Hurmuz
4
0
0
197
5
15
10. Shapur ben Shapur
5
0
0
202
5
15
Bahram ben Shapur
11
0
0
213
5
15
20
Yazdagird Sceleratus
21
5
18
234
11
3
Bahram Grur .
19
11
0
254
10
3
Yazdagii'd ben Bahrilm
14
4
18
269
2
21
15. Feroz ben Yazdagird
17
0
0
286
2
21
Balash ben Feroz .
4
0
0
290
2
21
Kobad ben Teroz .
41
0
0
331
2
21
Anoshirwan .
48
0
0
379
2
21
Hurmuz ben Anoshirwan
12
0
0
391
2
21
20. Parwiz
38
0
0
429
2
21
Kobad Shirawaihi .
0
8
0
429
10
21
30
Ardashir ben Shirawaih;
1
6
0
431
4
21
Pur an, daughter of Parw
LZ 1
4
0
432
8
21
Feroz .
0
1
0
432
9
21
25. Azarmidukht
0
6
0
433
3
21
Khurradadh Khusra
1
0
0
434
3
21
Yazdagird ben Shahryai
20
0
0
454
3
21
p.l26.
126
ALBfRUNi.
In the boot of 'Abu-alfaraj Alzanjani we have found the chronology
of this Part differing from our accounts in the preceding three tables ;
we have added his account in this place, in conformity with what we
have done in the preceding two Parts. And herewith the Chronological
Table ends.
p.l27.
p.l28.
1
How long eacli of them ,
Sum of the Years.
Names of the Sasanian Kings,
reigned.
according to the Tradition of
'Abu-alfaraj Alzanjani.
]
Years. Months.
Days.
Years. '.
ilonths.
Days.
Ardashir ben Babak
14
10
0
14 ^
10
0
Shapur ben Ardashir .
31 i
6
18
46
4
18
Hurmuz ben Shapur
1 i
6
0 i
47
10
18
Bahram ben Hurmuz
3
3
3
51
1
21
5. Bahram ben Bahram .
17
0
0
68
1
21
Bahram ben Bahram ben
!
Bahram
4
4
0
72
5
21
Narsi ben Bahram .
9
0
0
81 1
5
21
Hurmuz ben Narsi
9
0
0
90 j
5
21
Shapur ben Hurmuz
Dhual'aktaf
72
0
0
162
6
21
10. Ardashir ben Hurmuz
4
0
0
166
6
21
Shapur ben Shapur
5
4
0
171
9
21
Bahram ben Shapur
11
0
0
182
9
21
Yazdagird Sceleratus
21
5
18
204
3
9
Bahram Gur .
18 ;
11
3
223
2
12
15. Yazdagird ben Bahram
18
4
18
241
7
0
Hurmuz
7
0
0
248
7
0
Feroz ben Yazdagird
27
0
0
275
7
0
Balash ben Feroz .
4
0
0
279
7
0
Kobad and Tamasp, sons
of Feroz
43
0
0
322
7
0
20. AnoshirwanbenTTobad
47
7
6
370
2
6
Hurmuz ben Anoshirwan
11
7
15
381
9
20
Parwiz ben Hurmuz
38
0
0
419
9
20
Shirawaihi ben Parwiz .
0
7
' 0
420
4
20
Ardashir ben Shirawaihi
0
5
1 ^
420
9
20
25. Khuhan, who besieged
■
the Greeks
0
0
22
420
10
12
Kisra ben Kobad .
0
3
0
421
1
12
Puran, daughter of Parwiz
1
6
0
422
7
12
Gushanasptadha .
0
2
0
422
9
12
Azarmidukht, daughter
of Parwiz .
0
4
0
423
1
12
30. Farrukhzad Khusrau .
0
1
1 0
423
2
12
Yazdagird ben Shahryar
20
0
0
443
2
12
10
20
30
40
EEAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS.
127
Next we return to fulfil our promise of explaining the way in which p. 129.
Alkisrawi works out the chronology of this Part III., having perceived
the confusion of the former two parts, although we cannot help wonder-
ing very much at him and at his method. For, whilst trying and experi-
menting, he has subtracted from the period between Alexander and
Yazdagird 266 years for the period of the Ashghanian rule. Hamza,
however, records only that tradition, which he says he has taken from
and amended by means of the Abastd, and the other tradition which he
says he has taken from the copy of the Maubadh. And according to
10 both these traditions, this period is longer even than 350 years (Hamza-
Abasta, 358 years ; Hamza-Maubadh, 496 years). Now it is necessary
for us to use either of these two traditions, or to add to them that one
which Alkisrawi holds to be correct (as a third tradition), in order not
to use any other tradition but those which he himself mentions. Or did
he possibly place his confidence in that one which we have mentioned,
and derived from the Shahnama (266 years) ?
Further, now, as Alkisrawi has done this, and thinks that the existence
of such confusion is an established fact, I should like to know why he
refers it to the period of the Sasanian, not to that of the Ashghanian
20 rule. For there was much more opportunity for mistakes creeping into
the chronology of the Ashghanians (than into that of the Sasanians),
because during their period the Persian empire was disorganized, every-
one minded only his own affairs, and people were prevented by various
circumstances from preserving their chronology. Such were, e.g. the
calamities which Alexander and his Greek lieutenants brought upon
them, further the conflagration of all the literature in which people
delighted, the ruin of all fine arts which were the recreation and the
desire of the jjeople. And more than that. He (Alexander) burned the
greatest part of their religious code, he destroyed the wonderful archi-
30 tectural monuments, e.g. those in the mountains of Istakhr, now-a-days
known as the Mosque of Solomon ben David, and delivered them up to
the flames. People even say that even at the present time the traces of
the fire are visible in some places.
This is the reason why they have neglected a certain space of time in
the first part of the period, between Alexander and Ardashir, viz. when
the Greeks reigned over them. And they did not begin to settle their
chronology until their fright and terror had subsided in consequence of
the establishment of the Ashkanian rule over them. Therefore the
period preceding this event was much more liable to confusion (than the
40 later period of the Sasanians), because under the Sasanians the empire
was in good order, and the royal dignity was transmitted in their family
in uninterrupted succession, whilst in the time of those (their predeces-
sors) there was much confusion. This is proved by all the testimonies
which we have produced in support of this our view.
Here follows the table containing the so-called emendation of
Alkisrawi.
128
ALBIEiyNt.
p.l30.
p.l31.
Names of the Sasanian Kings,
How long each of them
reis-ned.
Sum of the Years.
as reported by Hamza, 1
according to the Emendation
1
of Alkisrawi.
Years.
Months.
Days.
Years.
Months.
Days.
Ardashir ben Babak
19
10
0
19
10
0
Sabur-aljunud
32
4
0
62
2
0
Hurmuz b. Sabur-aljunud
1
10
0
54
0
0
Babram ben Hurmuz
9
3
0
63
3
0
6. Bahram ben Babram
23
0
0
86
3
0
Babram ben Babram ben
Babram
13
4
0
99
7
0
Narsa ben Bahram
9
0
0
108
7
0
Hurmuz ben Narsa
13
0
0
121
7
0
Sbapur Dbu-al'aktaf
72
0
0
193
7
0
10. Ardasbir, brother of
the preceding .
4
0
0
197
7
0
Sbapur ben Sbapur Dbu-
al'aktaf
82
0
0
279
7
0
Babram, son of the pre-
ceding
12
0
0
291
7
0
Yazdagird ben Babram,
Clemens, Prince of
Sbarwin
82
0
0
373
7
0
Yazdagird ben Yazda-
gird, Atrox .
23
0
0
396
7
0
15. Babram Gur, son of
tbe preceding .
23
0
0
419
7
0
Yaz dagird b . Babram Gur
18
5
0
437!
0
0
Babram ben Yazdagird .
26
1
0
463
1
0
Feroz ben Babram
29
0
1
492
1
Balasb ben Feroz .
3
0
0
495
1
20. Kubad,brotberof Balasb
68
0
0
663
1
Anoshirwan ben Kubad
47
7
0
610
8
Hurmuz benAnosbirwan
23
0
0
633
8
Parwiz ben Hurmuz
38
0
0
671
8
Sbirawaibi ben Hurmuz
0
8
0
672
4
25. Ardasbir ben Sbirawaibi
1
0
0
673
4
Sbabrbaraz .
0
1
8
673
5
9
Buran, daughter of Kisra
Parwiz
1
0
0
674
5
9
Khushnushbanda (Gush-
anasptadba)
0
2
0
674
7
9
Khusrau ben Kubad ben
Hurmuz
0
10
0
675
5
9
30. Feroz, a descendant of
Ardasbir ben Babak .
0
2
0
675
7
9
Azarmidukht, daughter
of Parwiz ,
0
4
0
675
11
9
Farrukhz ad ben Khusrau
b. Parwiz. Hismother
was Girawaibi, sister
of Bahram Shubin
0
1
0
676
0
9
34. Yazdagird ben Shahryar
20
0
0
696
0
9
EEAS, DATES, AND EEIGNS OF KINGS. 129
On Titles in the Khalifate. — It is a theory of the astrologers that p.l32.
none of the khalifs of Islam and the other kings of the Muslims reigns
longer than twenty- four years. As to the reign of Almuti' that extended
to nearly thirty years, they account for it in this way, saying that already
at the end of the reign of Almuttaki, and at the beginning of that of
Almustakf i, the empire and the rule had been transferred from the hands
of the family of 'Abbas into those of the family of Buwaihi (Buya,
Boy a), and that the authority which remained with the Bani-' Abbas
was only a juridical and religious, not a political and secular affair, in
10 fact something like the dignity of the Bosh-gdliWid with the Jews, who
exercises a sort of religious authority without any actual rule and
empire. Therefore the 'Abbaside prince, who at present occupies the
throne of the KMldfa, is held by the astrologers to be only the (spiri-
tual) head of Islam, but not a king.
Already in ancient times astrologers used to prophesy this state of
affairs. Such a prophecy you find, e.g. in the book of 'Ahmad ben
Altayyib Alsarakhsi, where he speaks of the conjunction of Saturn and
Mars in the sign of Cancer. The same was distinctly declared by the
Hindu Kanaka, the astrologer of Alrashid, for he maintained that the
20 reign of the Bani 'Abbas would be transferred to a man who would come
from Ispahan. He determined, also, the time when 'Ali bt^n Buwaihi,
called 'Imad-aldaula, should come forward in Isj)ahan (as a claimant to
supreme power).
When the Bani- 'Abbas had decorated their assistants, friends and
enemies indiscriminately, with vain titles, compounded with the word
Daula (i.e. empire, such as Heljier of the Empire, Sword of the Empire,
etc.), their empire perished ; for in this they went beyond all reasonable
limits. This went on so long till those who were especially attached to
their court claimed something new as a distinction between themselves
30 and the others. Thereupon the khalifs bestowed double titles. But then
also the others wanted the same titles, and knew how to carry their
point by bribery. Now it became necessary a second time to create a
distinction between this class and those who were directly attached to
their court. So the khalifs bestowed triple titles, adding besides the
title of Shahinshah. In this way the matter became utterly opposed to
common sense, and clumsy to the highest degree, so that he who men-
tions them gets tired before he has scarcely commenced, that he who
writes them loses his time and writing, and he who addresses them runs
the risk of missing the time for prayer.
40 It will not do any harm, if we mention here the titles which, up to
our time, have been bestowed by their majesties the khalifs. We shall
comprise them in the following table.
130
ALBiRUNi.
p.l33. The Names of those on whom
Titles were bestowed.
Alkasim ben 'Ubaid-allali.
His son. ....
'Abu-Muhammad ben Hamdan
His son ....
'Abu-alhasan 'Ali ben Hamdan
'All ben Buwaihi .
'Abu-alhasan 'Ahmad ben Buwaihi
Alhasan ben Buwaihi
'Abu-Mansur Bakhtiyar ben 'Abi-
alhasan.
'Abu-'Ishak ben Alhusain
'Abu-Harb Alhabashi ben 'Abi-
alhusain.
'Abu-Mansur Bisutun ben Washm-
gir.
'Abu-Mansur Biiwaihi ben Alhasan
Almarzuban ben Bakhtiyar .
Kabus ben Washmgir .
'Abu-'Ahmad Harith ben 'Ahmad
'Abu-Shuja' Fanakhusra ben Al-
hasan.
'Abu-Kalinjar ben Fanakhusra
'Abu-Kalinjar Marzuban ben
Fanakhusra.
'Abu-alfawaris ben Fanakhusra
'Abu-Talib Eustam ben 'Ali .
p.l34. 'Abu-alkasim Mahmud ben Sabuk-
tagin.
'Abu-Nasr Khurra Feroz ben
Fanfikhusra.
'Abu-alhasan Muhammad ben
'Ibrahim.
'Abu-al'abbas Tash Alhajib .
'Abu-alhasan Fa'ik-alkhassa .
'Abu-'Ali Muhammad ben Muham-
mad ben 'Ibrahim.
Sabuktagin, first .
Afterwards he received the title of
Mahmud ben Sabuktagin
'Abu-alfawaris Bektuzun Alhajib
'Abu-alkasim Muhammad ben
'Ibrahim.
'Abu-Mansur Alp Arslan Albalawi
The Titles which were bestowed
by Their Majesties the Khalifs.
Waliyy-al-daula.
*Amid-al-daula.
Nasir-al-daula.
Sa'd-al-daula.
Saif-al-
Cronología de las Naciones Antiguas
Al-Biruni