← Volver a la ficha del texto
VISUDDHIMAGGA
The Path of
Purification
The Buddhist Publication Society is an approved charity dedicated to making
known the Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital message for people of
all creeds.
Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books and book-
lets covering a great range of topics. Its publications include accurate annotated
translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard reference works, as well as
original contemporary expositions of Buddhist thought and practice. These
works present Buddhism as it truly is — a dynamic force which has influenced
receptive minds for the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was
when it first arose.
Buddhist Publication Society
PO. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha, Kandy Sri Lanka
http: / / www.bps.lk
Printed Hardbound Copy: A printed hardbound version of this book is avail-
able from the Buddhist Publication Society; see the "Translations from the Pali"
page at the BPS online bookshop at http://www.bps.lk.
Copyright: Copyright © 2011 Buddhist Publication Society
You may redistribute this file provided that: (1) you must only make such cop-
ies available free of charge; (2) you clearly indicate that any parts of this work
reproduced into other publications are derived from this source document; and
(3) you include the full text of this license in any copies of this work. Otherwise,
all rights reserved.
Publisher's Note: The BPS thanks all those who assisted with making this book
available in a digital as well as printed edition. This book is the result of the
work of Mr John Bullitt of Access to Insight who initiated this digital edition,
the several volunteers who helped him to convert the previous edition of this
book to digital text, the other volunteers who helped the BPS with proofread-
ing, Bhikkhu Nyanatusita, the BPS editor, who helped with and coordinated the
proofreading, formatting, and typesetting, corrected the Pali, etc., and the work
of the BPS typesetters Bhikkhu Sacramento Upatissa and Mr Nalin Ariyaratna
who skilfully typeset the text.
http:/ /www.bps.lk
http: / /www.accesstoinsight.org
The Path of Purification
Visuddhimagga
dram titthatu saddhammo
sabbe sattd bhavantu sukhitattd
To my Upajjhaya,
the late venerable Palane Siri Vajiranana
Mahanayakathera of Vajirarama,
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
The Path of Purification
(Visuddhimt igga)
by
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa
Translated from the Pali by
Bhikkhu Nanamoli
©1975, 1991, 2010 Buddhist Publication Society. All rights reserved.
First edition: 1956 by Mr. Ananda Semage, Colombo.
Second edition: 1964
Reprinted: 1979 by BPS
Third edition: 1991
Reprinted: 1999
Fourth edition: 2010
National Library and Documentation Centre— Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Buddhaghosa Himi
The Path of Purification: Visuddhimaga/ Buddhaghosa Himi; tr. by
Nyanamoli Himi.- Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2010, 794p.; 23cm.-
(BP No 207)
ISBN 978-955-24-0023-6
i. 294.391 D DC 22 ii. Title
iii. Nyanamoli Himi tr.
1. Buddhism 2. Theravada Buddhism
ISBN 978-955-24-0023-6
Contents
(General)
Bibliography xix
List of Abbreviations for Texts Used xxi
Message from his Holiness the Dalai Lama xxiii
Publisher's Foreword to Third Edition xxiv
Publisher's Foreword to Fourth Edition xxiv
Translator's Preface xxv
Introduction xxviii
The Path of Purification
Part I — Virtue (Sila)
Ch. I Description of Virtue 5
L Introductory 5
II. Virtue 10
Ch. II The Ascetic Practices 55
Part II — Concentration (Samadhi)
Ch. Ill Taking a Meditation Subject 81
A. Development in Brief 86
B. Development in Detail 87
The Ten Impediments 87
Ch. IV The Earth Kasina 113
The Eighteen Faults of a Monastery 113
The Five Factors of the Resting Place 116
The Lesser Impediments 116
Detailed Instructions for Development 117
The Earth Kasina 117
Making an Earth Kasina 118
Starting Contemplation 119
The Counterpart Sign 120
The Two Kinds of Concentration 121
Guarding the Sign 122
The Ten Kinds of Skill in Absorption 124
The Five Similes 130
Absorption in the Cognitive Series 131
The First Jhana 133
Extension of the Sign 145
The Second Jhana 148
The Third Jhana 151
v
Path of Purification
The Fourth Jhana 156
The Fivefold Reckoning of Jhana 160
Ch. V The Remaining Kasinas 162
The Water Kasina 162
The Fire and Air Kasinas 163
The Blue and Yellow Kasina 164
The Red, White, and Light Kasinas 165
The Limited-Space Kasina 166
General 166
Ch. VI Foulness as a Meditation Subject 169
General Definitions 169
The Bloated, Livid, Festering, and Cut Up 179
The Gnawed, Scattered, Hacked and Scattered, Bleeding,
Worm-infested, and a Skeleton 180
General 182
Ch. VII Six Recollections 186
(1) Recollection of the Enlightened One 188
Accomplished 188
Fully Enlightened 192
Endowed With Clear Vision and Virtuous Conduct 194
Sublime 196
Knower of Worlds 197
Incomparable Leader of Men to be Tamed 201
Teacher of Gods and Men 203
Enlightened, Blessed 204
(2) Recollection of the Dhamma 209
Well Proclaimed 209
Visible Here and Now 211
Not Delayed 212
Inviting of Inspection, Onward-Leading 213
Is Directly Experienceable by the Wise 214
(3) Recollection of the Sangha 215
Entered on the Good, Straight, True, Proper Way 215
Fit for Gifts, Fit for Hospitality 216
Fit for Offering, Fit for Salutation, As an Incomparable
Field of Merit for the World 217
(4) Recollection of Virtue 218
(5) Recollection of Generosity 219
(6) Recollection of Deities 221
General 222
Ch. VIII Other Recollections as Meditation Subjects 225
[(7) Mindfulness of Death] 225
[(8) Mindfulness Occupied with the Body] 236
[(9) Mindfulness of Breathing] 259
[(10) Recollection of Peace] 286
vi
Contents (General)
Ch. IX The Divine Abidings 291
[(1) Loving-Kindness] 291
[(2) Compassion] 308
[(3) Gladness] 309
[(4) Equanimity] 310
Ch. X The Immaterial States 321
[(1) The Base Consisting of Boundless Space] 321
[(2) The Base Consisting of Boundless Consciousness] 326
[(3) The Base Consisting of Nothingness] 328
[(4) The Base Consisting of Neither Perception nor
Non-Perception] 330
[General] 333
Ch. XI Concentration — Conclusion:
Nutriment and the Elements 337
[Perception of Repulsiveness in Nutriment] 337
[Defining of The Elements: Word Definitions] 344
[Texts and Commentary in Brief] 345
[In Detail] 346
[Method of Development in Brief] 348
[Method of Development in Detail] 349
[(1) With Constituents in Brief] 349
[(2) With Constituents by Analysis] 349
[(3) With Characteristics in Brief] 357
[(4) With Characteristics by Analysis] 358
[Additional Ways of Giving Attention] 358
[Development of Concentration — Conclusion] 367
[The Benefits of Developing Concentration] 367
Ch. XII The Supernormal Powers 369
[The Benefits of Concentration (Continued)] 369
[(1) The Kinds of Supernormal Power] 369
Ch. XIII Other Direct-knowledges 400
[(2) The Divine Ear Element] 400
[(3) Penetration of Minds] 402
[(4) Recollection of Past Lives] 404
[(5) The Divine Eye — Knowledge of Passing Away and
Reappearance of Beings] 415
[General] 421
Part III — Understanding (Panna)
Ch. XIV The Aggregates 431
[A. Understanding] 431
[B. Description of the Five Aggregates] 439
[The Materiality Aggregate] 439
[The Consciousness Aggregate] 455
vii
Path of Purification
[The 89 Kinds of Consciousness — see Table III] 456
[The 14 Modes of Occurrence of Consciousness] 462
[The Feeling Aggregate] 466
[The Perception Aggregate] 468
[The Formations Aggregate — see Tables II & IV] 468
[According to Association with Consciousness] 469
[C. Classification of the Aggregates] 481
[Materiality] 481
[Feeling] 484
[Perception, Formations and Consciousness] 486
[D. Classes of Knowledge of the Aggregates] 486
Ch. XV The Bases and Elements 492
[A. Description of the Bases] 492
[B. Description of the Elements] 496
Ch. XVI The Faculties and Truths 503
[A. Description of the Faculties] 503
[B. Description of the Truths] 506
[The Truth of Suffering] 510
[(i) Birth] 510
[(ii) Ageing] 514
[(iii) Death] 514
[(iv) Sorrow] 515
[(v) Lamentation] 515
[(vi) Pain] 516
[(vii) Grief] 516
[(viii) Despair] 516
[(ix) Association with the Unloved] 517
[(x) Separation from the Loved] 517
[(xi) Not to Get What One Wants] 517
[(xii) The Five Aggregates] 518
[The Truth of the Origin of Suffering] 518
[The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering] 519
[Discussion on Nibbana] 520
[The Truth of the Way] 524
[General] 526
Ch. XVII The Soil of Understanding — Conclusion:
Dependent Origination 533
[Section A. Definition of Dependent Origination] 533
[Section B. Exposition] 539
[I. Preamble] 539
[II. Brief Exposition] 540
[III. Detailed Exposition] 547
[(i) Ignorance] 547
[(ii) Formations] 548
[(iii) Consciousness] 563
[(iv) Mentality-Materiality] 579
viii
Contents (General)
[(v) The Sixfold Base] 583
[(vi) Contact] 586
[(vii) Feeling] 588
[(viii) Craving] 589
[(ix) Clinging] 590
[(x) Becoming] 593
[(xi)-(xii) Birth, Etc.] 597
[Section C. The Wheel of Becoming] 598
[(i) The Wheel] 598
[(ii) The Three Times] 600
[(iii) Cause and Fruit] 600
[(iv) Various] 603
Ch. XVIII Purification of View 609
[Defining of Mentality-Materiality] 609
[(1) Definition Based on the Four Primaries] 609
[(2) Definition Based on the Eighteen Elements] 612
[(3) Definition Based on the Twelve Bases] 612
[(4) Definition Based on the Five Aggregates] 613
[(5) Brief Definition Based on the Four Primaries] 613
[If the Immaterial Fails to Become Evident] 614
[How the Immaterial States Become Evident] 614
[No Being Apart from Mentality- Materiality] 616
[Interdependence of Mentality and Materiality] 618
Ch. XIX Purification by Overcoming Doubt 621
[Ways of Discerning Cause and Condition] 621
[Neither Created by a Creator nor Causeless] 621
[Its Occurance is Always Due to Conditions] 622
[General and Particular Conditions] 622
[Dependent Origination in Reverse Order] 623
[Dependent Origination in Direct Order] 623
[Kamma and Kamma-Result] 623
[No Doer Apart from Kamma and Result] 627
[Full-Understanding of the Known] 628
Ch. XX Purification by Knowledge & Vision of What is/is not the Path 631
[The Three Kinds of Full-Understanding] 631
[Insight: Comprehension by Groups] 633
[Comprehension by Groups — Application of Text] 635
[Strengthening of Comprehension in Forty Ways] 637
[Nine Ways of Sharpening the Faculties, Etc 639
[Comprehension of the Material] 639
[(a) Kamma-Born Materiality] 640
[(b) Consciousness-Born Materiality] 641
[(c) Nutriment-Born Materiality] 642
[(d) Temperature-Born Materiality] 643
[Comprehension of the Immaterial] 644
[The Material Septad] 645
ix
Path of Purification
[The Immaterial Septad] 652
[The Eighteen Principal Insights] 654
[Knowledge of Rise and Fall — I] 657
[The Ten Imperfections of Insight] 660
Ch. XXI Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Way 666
[Insight: The Eight Knowledges] 667
[1. Knowledge of Rise and Fall — II] 667
[2. Knowledge of Dissolution] 668
[3. Knowledge of Appearance as Terror] 673
[4. Knowledge of Danger] 675
[5. Knowledge of Dispassion] 678
[6. Knowledge of Desire for Deliverance] 679
[7. Knowledge of Reflection] 679
[Discerning Formations as Void] 681
[8. Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations] 684
[The Triple Gateway to Liberation] 685
[The Seven Kinds of Noble Persons] 688
[The Last Three Knowledges are One] 689
[Insight Leading to Emergence] 690
[The Twelve Similes] 692
[The Difference in the Noble Path's Factors, Etc.] 695
[9. Conformity Knowledge] 698
[Sutta References] 699
Ch. XXII Purification by Knowledge and Vision 701
[I. Change-of-Lineage, Paths, and Fruits] 701
[The First Path — First Noble Person] 701
[The First Fruition — Second Noble Person] 704
[The Second Path — Third Noble Person] 705
[The Second Fruition — Fourth Noble Person] 706
[The Third Path — Fifth Noble Person] 706
[The Third Fruition — Sixth Noble Person] 706
[The Fourth Path — Seventh Noble Person] 706
[The Fourth Fruition — Eighth Noble Person] 707
[II. The States Associated with the Path, Etc.] 707
[The Four Functions] 721
[The Four Functions in a Single Moment] 721
[The Four Functions Described Separately] 723
[Conclusion] 728
Ch. XXIII The Benefits In Developing Understanding 730
[A. Removal of the Defilements] 730
[B. The Taste of the Noble Fruit] 730
[C. The Attainment of Cessation] 734
[D. Worthiness to Receive Gifts] 742
x
Contents (General)
Conclusion 745
Index of Subjects & Proper Names 751
Pali-English Glossary of Some Subjects and Technical Terms 774
Table I The Materiality Aggregate 788
Table II The Formations Aggregate 789
Table III The Consciousness Aggregate 790
Table IV The Combination of the Formations Aggregate and
Consciousness Aggregate 792
Table V The Cognitive Series in the occurrence of consciousness as
PRESENTED IN THE V ISUDDHIMAGGA AND COMMENTARIES 793
Table VI Dependent Origination 794
Contents
(Detailed, by Topic and Paragraph No.)
PART I — VIRTUE
1. Purification of Virtue
Para. Page
Chapter I — Description of Virtue 5
L Introductory 1
II. Virtue 16
(i) What is virtue? 16
(ii) In what sense is it virtue? 19
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 20
(iv) What are the benefits of virtue? 23
(v) How many kinds of virtue are there? 25
1. Monad 26
2. -8. Dyads 26
9.-13. Triads 33
14.-17. Tetrads 39
Virtue of the fourfold purification 42
18.-19. Pentads 131
(vi) , (vii) What are the defiling and the cleansing of it? 143
Chapter II — The Ascetic Practices 55
PART II — CONCENTRATION
2. Purification of Consciousness
Para. Page
Chapter III — Taking a Meditation Subject 81
Concentration 1
(i) What is concentration? 2
(ii) In what sense is it concentration? 3
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 4
(iv) How many kinds of concentration are there? 5
(v) , (vi) What are the defiling and the cleansing of it? 26
(vii) How is it developed?
(Note: this heading applies as far as Ch. XI, §110) 27
A. Development in brief 27
B. Development in detail (see note above) 29
The ten impediments 29
The good friend 57
xii
Contents (Detailed)
Meditation subjects, etc 57
Temperaments 74
Definition of meditation subjects 103
Self-dedication 123
Ways of expounding 130
Chapter IV — The Earth Kasina 113
The eighteen faults of a monastery 2
The five factors of the resting-place 19
The lesser impediments 20
Detailed instructions for development 21
The earth kasina 21
The two kinds of concentration 32
Guarding the sign 34
The ten kinds of skill in absorption 42
Balancing the effort 66
Absorption in the cognitive series 74
The first jhana 79
Extending the sign 126
Mastery in five ways 131
The second jhana 139
The third jhana 153
The fourth jhana 183
The fivefold reckoning of jhana 198
Chapter V — The Remaining Kasinas 162
The Water Kasina 1
The Fire Kasina 5
The Air Kasina 9
The Blue Kasina 12
The Yellow Kasina 15
The Red Kasina 17
The White Kasina 19
The Light Kasina 21
The Limited-Space Kasina 24
General 27
Chapter VI — Foulness as a Meditation Subject 169
General definitions 1
The bloated 1 2
The Livid 70
The Festering 71
The Cut Up 72
The Gnawed 73
The Scattered 74
xiii
Path of Purification
The Hacked and Scattered 75
The Bleeding 76
Worm-infested 77
A Skeleton 78
General 82
Chapter VII — Six Recollections 186
(1) Recollection of the Buddha 2
(2) Recollection of the Dhamma 68
(3) Recollection of the Sangha 89
(4) Recollection of virtue 101
(5) Recollection of generosity 107
(6) Recollection of deities 115
General 119
Chapter VIII — Other Recollections as Meditation Subjects 225
(7) Mindfulness of death 1
(8) Mindfulness occupied with the body 42
(9) Mindfulness of breathing 145
(10) The recollection of peace 245
Chapter IX — The Divine Abidings 291
Loving kindness 1
Compassion 77
Gladness 84
Equanimity 88
General 91
Chapter X — The Immaterial States 321
The base consisting of boundless space 1
The base consisting of boundless consciousness 25
The base consisting of nothingness 32
The base consisting of neither perception nor non-perception 40
General 56
Chapter XI — Concentration (Conclusion):
Nutriment and the Elements 337
Perception of repulsiveness in nutriment 1
Definition of the four elements 27
Development of concentration — conclusion 118
(viii) What are the benefits of concentration? (see Ch. Ill, §1) .120
Chapter XII — The Supernormal Powers 369
The benefits of concentration 1
The five kinds of direct-knowledge 2
xiv
Contents (Detailed)
(1) The kinds of supernormal power 2
(i) Supernormal power as resolve 46
(ii) Supernormal power as transformation 137
(iii) Supernormal power as the mind-made body 139
Chapter XIII — Other Direct-knowledges 400
(2) The divine ear element 1
(3) Penetration of minds 8
(4) Recollection of past life 13
(5) The divine eye 72
General 102
Part III — Understanding (Panna)
The Soil in which Understanding Grows
(Chs. XIV through XVII)
Para. Page
Chapter XIV — The Aggregates 431
A. Understanding 1
(i) What is understanding? 2
(ii) In what sense is it understanding? 3
(iii) What are its characteristic, etc.? 7
(iv) How many kinds of understanding are there? 8
(v) How is it developed? (ends with end of Ch. XXII) 32
B. Description of the five aggregates 33
The materiality aggregate 34
The consciousness aggregate 81
The feeling aggregate 125
The perception aggregate 129
The formations aggregate 131
C. Classification of the aggregates 185
D. Classes of knowledge of the aggregates 210
Chapter XV — The Bases and Elements 492
A. Description of the bases 1
B. Description of the elements 17
Chapter XVI — The Faculties and Truths 503
A. Description of the faculties 1
B. Description of the truths 13
1. The truth of suffering 32
2. The truth of the origin of suffering 61
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering 62
Discussion of nibbana 67
xv
Path of Purification
4. The truth of the way 75
General 84
Chapter XVII — The Soil of Understanding (Conclusion):
Dependent Origination 533
A. Definition of dependent origination 1
B. Exposition 25
I. Preamble 25
II. Brief exposition 27
III. Detailed exposition 58
(1) Ignorance 58
(2) Formations 60
The 24 conditions 66
How ignorance is a condition for formations 101
(3) Consciousnes 120
(4) Mentality-materiality 186
(5) The sixfold base 203
(6) Contact 220
(7) Feeling 228
(8) Craving 233
(9) Clinging 239
(10) Becoming (being) 249
(11-12) Birth, etc 270
C. The Wheel of Becoming 273
i. The Wheel 273
ii. The three times 284
iii. Cause and fruit 288
iv. Various 299
3. Purification of View
Chapter XVIII — Purification of View 609
I. Introductory 1
II. Defining of mentality-materiality 3
1 . Definitions of mentality-materiality 3
(1) Based on the four primaries 3
(a) Starting with mentality 3
(b) Starting with materiality 5
(2) Based on the eighteen elements 9
(3) Based on the twelve bases 12
(4) Based on the five aggregates 13
(5) Brief definition 14
2. If the immaterial fails to become evident 15
3. How the immaterial states become evident 18
4. No being apart from mentality-materiality 24
5. Interdependence of mentality and materiality 32
Conclusion 37
xvi
Contents (Detailed)
4. Purification by Overcoming Doubt
Chapter XIX — Purification by Overcoming Doubt 621
L Introductory 1
II. Ways of discerning cause and condition 2
1. Neither created by a creator nor causeless 3
2. Its occurrence is always due to conditions 5
3. General and particular conditions 7
4. Dependent origination in reverse order 11
5. Dependent origination in direct order 12
6. Kamma and kamma-result 13
7. No doer apart from kamma and result 19
III. Full-understanding of the known 21
5. Purification by Knowledge and Vision of What Is and What
Is Not the Path
Chapter XX — Purification by Knowledge & Vision of What Is
and What Is Not the Path 631
I. Introductory 1
The Fifth Purificdation 2
The three kinds of full-understanding 3
II. Insight 6
1. Comprehension by groups 6
2. Strengthening of comprehension in forty ways 18
3. Nine ways of sharpening the faculties 21
4. Comprehension of the material 22
(a) Kamma-bommateriality 27
(b) Consciousness-born materiality 30
(c) Nutriment-born materiality 35
(d) Temperature-born materiality 39
5. Comprehension of the immaterial 43
6. The material septad 45
7. The immaterial septad 76
8. The eighteen principal insights 89
9. Knowledge of rise and fall — (I) 93
The ten imperfections of insight 105
Conclusion 130
6. Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Way
Chapter XXI — Purification by Knowledge and Vision
of the Way 666
Introductory 1
Insight: the eight knowledges 3
1 . Knowledge of rise and fall — II 3
2. Knowledge of dissolution 10
xvii
Path of Purification
3. Knowledge of appearance as terror 29
4. Knowledge of danger 35
5. Knowledge of dispassion 43
6. Knowledge of desire for deliverance 45
7. Knowledge of reflexion 47
Discerning formations as void 53
8. Knowledge of equanimity about formations 61
The triple gateway to liberation 66
The seven kinds of noble persons 74
Tha last three knowledges are one 79
Insight leading to emergence 83
The twelve similes 90
The difference in the noble path's factors, etc Ill
9. Conformity knowledge 128
Sutta references 135
7. Purification by Knowledge and Vision
Chapter XXII — Purification by Knowledge and Vision 701
L Change-of-lineage, paths and fruits 1
II. The states associated with the path, etc 32
1. The 37 states partaking of enlightenment 33
2. Emergence and coupling of the powers 44
3. States to be abandoned 47
4. Four functions in a single moment 92
5. Four functions separately 104
Conclusion 129
The Benefits of Understanding
Chapter XXIII — The Benefits in Developing Understanding 730
(vi) What are the benefits in developing understanding? 1
A. Removal of the defilements 2
B. The taste of the noble fruit 3
C. The attainment of cessation 16
D. Worthiness to receive gifts 53
Conclusion (Epilogue) 745
xviii
Bibliography
Printed Editions of the Visuddhimagga
Sinhalese script: Hewavitarne Bequest edition, Colombo.
Burmese script: Hanthawaddy Press edition, Rangoon, 1900.
Siamese script: Royal Siamese edition, Bangkok.
Latin script: Pali Text Society's edition, London. Harvard University Press edition,
Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. 41, Cambridge, Mass., 1950.
Translations of the Visuddhimagga
English: The Path of Purity by Pe Maung Tin, PTS, London. 3 vols., 1922-31.
German: Visuddhimagga ( der Weg zur Reinheit ) by Nyanatiloka, Verlag Christiani,
Konstanz, 1952. Reprinted by Jhana- Verlag, Uttenbiihl, 1997.
Sinhala: Visuddhimarga-mahasanne, ed. Ratanapala Medhankara et al, 2 vols.,
Kalutara, 1949. (Also called Parakramabahu-sannaya. A Pali-Sinhala
paraphrase composed by King Pandita Parakramabahu II in the 13th cent.
CE.) Visuddhimargaya, Sinhala translation by Pandita Matara Sri Dharmavamsa
Sthavira, Matara, 1953. Etc.
French: Le Chemin de la purete, transl. by Christian Maes, Editions Fayard, Paris
2002 .
Italian: Visuddhimagga: II sentiero della purificazione, transl. of samadhi-bheda by
Antonella Serena Comba, Lulu.com, Raleigh, 2008.
Other Works
Buddhaghosuppatti, edited and translated into English, by J. Gray Luzac and Co.,
London, 1892.
Critical Pali Dictionary (Pali-English), Vol. I (letter a), Copenhagen, 1924-48.
Cidavamsa or Minor Chronicle of Ceylon (or Mahavamsa Part II), English translation
by W. Geiger, PTS London.
Dtpavamsa (Chronicle of Ceylon), English translation by H. Oldenberg, London,
1879.
The Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, by E. W Adikaram, Sri Lanka, 1946.
Guide through Visuddhimagga, U. Dhammaratana, Sarnath, 1964
History of Indian Literature, by M. Winternitz, English translation by Mrs. S. Ketkar
and Miss H. Kohn, Calcutta University, 1933.
History of Pali Literature, by B.C. Law, London, 1933 (2 Vols.).
xix
Path of Purification
The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, by B.C. Law, Thacker, and Spink, Calcutta and
Simla, 1923.
Mahavamsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon, English translation by W Geiger, PTS,
London.
Pali-English Dictionary, Pali Text Society London.
The Pali Literature of Ceylon, by G.P Malalasekera, Royal Asiatic Society, London,
1928. Reprinted by BPS, Kandy 1994.
Pali Literature and Language, by W. Geiger, English translation by Batakrishna
Ghosh, Calcutta University, 1943.
Paramatthamanjusa, Acariya Dhammapala, commentary to the Visuddhimagga
(Visuddhimaggamaha-tlka). Vidyodaya ed. in Sinhalese script, Colombo
(Chapters I to XVII only). EC. Mundyne Pitaka Press ed. in Burmese script,
Rangoon, 1909 (Chapters I to XI), 1910 (Chapters XII to XXIII). Siamese ed. in
Siamese script, Bangkok. Latin script edition on Chattha Sahgayana CDROM
of Vipassana Research Institute, Igatpuri. No English translation.
Theravada Buddhism in Burma, by Niharranjan Ray, Calcutta University, 1946
(pp. 24 ff.).
Vimuttimagga, Chinese translation: jie-tu-dcio-lun by Tipitaka Sanghapala of
Funan (6th cent. CE). Taisho edition at T 32, no. 1648, p. 399c-461c (Nanjio
no. 1293).
The Path of Freedom ( Vimuttimagga ), privately circulated English translation from
the Chinese by N.R.M. Ehara, VE.E Pulle and G.S. Prelis. Printed edition,
Colombo 1961; reprinted by BPS, Kandy 1995. (Revised, BPS edition
forthcoming in 2010.)
Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga — Comparative Study, by EV Bapat, Poona, 1937.
((Reprinted by BPS, 2010))
xx
List of Abbreviations for Texts Used
All editions Pali Text Society unless otherwise stated.
A
A-a
Cp
Cp-a
Dhp
Dhp-a
Dhs
Dhs-a
Dhs-t
Dhatuk
D
D-a
It
J-a
Kv
Mhv
M
M-a
Mil
Netti
Nidd I
Nidd II
Nikaya-s
Patis
Patis-a
Patth I
Patth II
Pet
Pv
S
S-a
Sn
Sn-a
Th
Ud
Vibh
Vibh-a
Vibh-t
Vv
VinI
Vinll
Vin III
VinlV
Vin V
Vism
Anguttara Nikaya
Ahguttara Nikaya Atthakatha = Manorathapurdni
Cariyapitaka
Cariyapitaka Atthakatha
Dhammapada
Dhammapada Atthakatha
DhammasanganI
Dhammasahgani Atthakatha = Atthasalint
DhammasanganI Tika = Mula Tika II
Dhatukatha
Dlgha Nikaya
Dlgha Nikaya Atthakatha = Sunmhgala-vilasinl
Itivuttaka
Jatoka-atthakatlm
Kathavatthu
Mahavamsa
Majjhima Nikaya
Majjhima Nikaya Atthakatha = Papanca-sudam
Milindapanha
Nettipakarana
Maha Niddesa
Cula Niddesa (Siamese ed.)
Nikayasamgrahaya
Patisambhidamagga
Patisambhidamagga Atthakatha = Saddhammappakasim (Sinhalese
Hewavitame ed.).
Patthana, Tika Patthana
Patthana, Duka Patthana (Se and Be.)
Petakopadesa
Petavatthu
Samyutta Nikaya
Samyutta Nikaya Atthakatha = Saratthappakasim
Sutta-nipata
Sutta-nipata Atthakatha = Paramatthajotika
Thera-gatha
Udana
Vibhahga
Vibhanga Atthakatha = Sammohavinodanl
Vibhahga Tika = Milla Tika II
Vimanavatthu
Vinaya Pitaka (3) — Mahavagga
Vinaya Pitaka (4) — Culavagga
Vinaya Pitaka (1) — Suttavibhaiiga 1
Vinaya Pitaka (2) — Suttavibhaiiga 2
Vinaya Pitaka (5) — Parivara
Visuddhimagga (PTS ed. [= Ee] and Harvard Oriental Series ed. [= Ae])
xxi
Path of Purification
Vism-mht Pammatthamanjusa, Visuddhimagga Atthakatha = Maha Tika (Chs. I to
XVII Sinhalese Vidyodaya ed.; Chs. XVIII to XXIII Be ed.)
Other Abbreviations
Ae American Edition (= Harvard Oriental Series)
Be Burmese Edition
Ce Ceylonese Edition
CPD Critical Pali Dictionary; Treckner
Ee European Edition (= PTS)
EHBC The Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, E. W. Adikaram.
PED Pali-English Dictionary
PLC Pali Literature of Ceylon, Malalasekera.
PTS Pali Text Society
Se Siamese Edition
Numbers in square brackets in the text thus [25] refer to the page numbers of the
Pali Text Society's edition of the Pali.
Paragraph numbers on the left correspond to the paragraph numbers of the
Harvard edition of the Pali.
Chapter and section headings and other numberings have been inserted for
clarity.
XXII
Message from his Holiness the Dalai Lama
The history of the development of Buddhist literature seems to be marked by periods
in which the received teachings and established scriptures are assimilated and
consolidated and periods of mature creativity when the essence of that transmission
is expressed afresh. Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga is a classic
text of the latter type. It represents the epitome of Pali Buddhist literature, weaving
together its many strands to create this wonderful meditation manual, which even
today retains the clarity it revealed when it was written.
there are occasions when people like to make much of the supposed differences
in the various traditions of Buddhism that have evolved in different times and places.
What I find especially encouraging about a book such as this is that it shows so
clearly how much all schools of Buddhism have fundamentally in common. Within
a structure based on the traditional three trainings of ethical discipline, concentration
and wisdom are detailed instructions on how to take an ethical approach to life,
how to meditate and calm the mind, and on the basis of those how to develop a
correct understanding of reality. We find practical advice about creating an
appropriate environment for meditation, the importance of developing love and
compassion, and discussion of dependent origination that underlies the Buddhist
view of reality The very title of the work, the Path of Purification, refers to the essential
Buddhist understanding of the basic nature of the mind as clear and aware,
unobstructed by disturbing emotions. This quality is possessed by all sentient beings
which all may realize if we pursue such a path.
Sometimes I am asked whether Buddhism is suitable for Westerners or not. I
believe that the essence of all religions deals with basic human problems and
Buddhism is no exception. As long as we continue to experience the basic human
sufferings of birth, disease, old age, and death, there is no question of whether it
is suitable or not as a remedy. Inner peace is the key In that state of mind you can
face difficulties with calm and reason. The teachings of love, kindness and
tolerance, the conduct of non-violence, and especially the Buddhist theory that
all things are relative can be a source of that inner peace.
While the essence of Buddhism does not change, superficial cultural aspects
will change. But how they will change in a particular place, we cannot say This
evolves over time. When Buddhism first came from India to countries like Sri Lanka
or Tibet, it gradually evolved, and in time a unique tradition arose. This is also
happening in the West, and gradually Buddhism may evolve with Western culture.
Of course, what distinguishes the contemporary situation from past
transmissions of Buddhism is that almost the entire array of traditions that
evolved elsewhere is now accessible to anyone who is interested. And it is in
such a context that I welcome this new edition of Bhikkhu Nanamoli's celebrated
English translation of the Path of Purification. I offer my prayers that readers,
wherever they are, may find in it advice and inspiration to develop that inner
peace that will contribute to creating a happier and more peaceful world.
May 2000
xxiii
Path of Purification
Publisher's Foreword to Third Edition
Bhikkhu Nanamoli's translation of the Visuddhimagga not only makes available
in fluent English this difficult and intricate classical work of Theravada
Buddhism, the high point of the commentarial era, but itself ranks as an
outstanding cultural achievement perhaps unmatched by Pali Buddhist
scholarship in the twentieth century This achievement is even more remarkable
in that the translator had completed the first draft within his first four years as a
bhikkhu, which is also the amount of time he had been a student of Pali.
The Buddhist Publication Society first issued this work beginning in 1975,
with the kind consent of the original publisher, Mr. Ananda Semage of Colombo.
This was a reprint produced by photolithographic process from the 1964 edition.
The 1979 reprint was also a photolithographic reprint, with some minor
corrections..
For this edition the text has been entirely recomposed, this time with the aid
of the astonishing electronic typesetting equipment that has proliferated during
the past few years. The text itself has not been altered except in a few places
where the original translator had evidently made an oversight. However,
numerous minor stylistic changes have been introduced, particularly in the
lower casing of many technical terms that Ven. Nanamoli had set in initial capitals
and, occasionally, in the paragraphing.
Buddhist Publication Society
1991
Publisher's Foreword to Fourth Edition
This fourth edition had to be retypeset again because the digital files of the
previous edition, prepared “with the aid of the astonishing electronic typesetting
equipment" (as mentioned in the Foreword to the Third Edition) were lost.
Like in the previous edition, the text itself has not been altered except in a few
places where Ven. Nanamoli had evidently made an oversight. A few minor
stylistic changes have been introduced again, such as the utilisation of the
Critical Pali Dictionary system of abbreviation instead of the PTS system
The BPS would like to thank John Bullitt, Ester Barias-Wolf, Michael Zoll,
Manfred Wierich and all others who helped with this project.
Buddhist Publication Society
2010
XXIV
Translator's Preface
Originally I made this translation for my own instruction because the only
published version was then no longer obtainable. So it was not done with any
intention at all of publication; but rather it grew together out of notes made on
some of the book's passages. By the end of 1953 it had been completed, more or
less, and put aside. Early in the following year a suggestion to publish it was put
to me, and I eventually agreed, though not without a good deal of hesitation.
Reasons for agreeing, however, seemed not entirely lacking. The only previous
English version of this remarkable work had long been out of print. Justification
too could in some degree be founded on the rather different angle from which
this version is made.
Over a year was then spent in typing out the manuscript during which time,
and since, a good deal of revision has taken place, the intention of the revision
being always to propitiate the demon of inaccuracy and at the same time to make
the translation perspicuous and the translator inconspicuous. Had publication
been delayed, it might well have been more polished. Nevertheless the work of
polishing is probably endless. Somewhere a halt must be made.
A guiding principle — the foremost, in fact — has throughout been avoidance
of misrepresentation or distortion; for the ideal translation (which has yet to be
made) should, like a looking glass, not discolour or blur or warp the original
which it reflects. Literalness, however, on the one hand and considerations of
clarity and style on the other make irreconcilable claims on a translator, who has
to choose and to compromise. Vindication of his choice is sometimes difficult.
I have dealt at the end of the Introduction with some particular problems. Not,
however, with all of them or completely; for the space allotted to an introduction
is limited.
Much that is circumstantial has now changed since the Buddha discovered
and made known his liberating doctrine 2,500 years ago, and likewise since this
work was composed some nine centuries later. On the other hand, the Truth he
discovered has remained untouched by all that circumstantial change. Old
cosmologies give place to new; but the questions of consciousness, of pain and
death, of responsibility for acts, and of what should be looked to in the scale it
values as the highest of all, remain. Reasons for the perennial freshness of the
Buddha's teaching — of his handling of these questions — are several, but not
least among them is its independence of any particular cosmology Established
as it is for its foundation on the self-evident insecurity of the human situation
(the truth of suffering), the structure of the Four Noble Truths provides an
unfailing standard of value, unique in its simplicity its completeness and its
ethical purity by means of which any situation can be assessed and a profitable
choice made.
Now I should like to make acknowledgements, as follows, to all those without
whose help this translation would never have been begun, persisted with or
completed.
xxv
Path of Purification
To the venerable Nanatiloka Mahathera (from whom I first learned Pali) for
his most kind consent to check the draft manuscript. However, although he had
actually read through the first two chapters, a long spell of illness unfortunately
prevented him from continuing with this himself.
To the venerable Soma Thera for his unfailing assistance both in helping me
to gain familiarity with the often difficult Pali idiom of the Commentaries and to
get something of the feel — as it were, "from inside" — of Pali literature against its
Indian background. Failing that, no translation would ever have been made: I
cannot tell how far I have been able to express any of it in the rendering.
To the venerable Nyanaponika Thera, German pupil of the venerable
Nanatiloka Mahathera, for very kindly undertaking to check the whole
manuscript in detail with the venerable Nanatiloka Mahathera's German
translation (I knowing no German).
To all those with whom I have had discussions on the Dhamma, which have
been many and have contributed to the clearing up of not a few unclear points.
Lastly, and what is mentioned last bears its own special emphasis, it has been
an act of singular merit on the part of Mr. A. Semage, of Colombo, to undertake
to publish this translation.
Island Hermitage Nanamoli Bhikkhu,
Dodanduwa, Sri Lanka Vesakhamase, 2499: May, 1956
xxvi
Introduction
The Visuddhimagga — here rendered Path of Purification — is perhaps unique in
the literature of the world. It systematically summarizes and interprets the
teaching of the Buddha contained in the Pali Tipitaka, which is now recognized
in Europe as the oldest and most authentic record of the Buddha's words. As
the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada, it forms the hub of a
complete and coherent method of exegesis of the Tipitaka, using the
"Abhidhamma method" as it is called. And it sets out detailed practical
instructions for developing purification of mind.
Background and Main Facts
The works of Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa fill more than thirty volumes in the
Pali Text Society's Latin-script edition; but what is known of the writer himself is
meager enough for a page or two to contain the bare facts.
Before dealing with those facts, however, and in order that they may appear
oriented, it is worth while first to digress a little by noting how Pali literature falls
naturally into three main historical periods. The early or classical period, which
may be called the First Period, begins with the Tipitaka itself in the 6th century
BCE and ends with the Milindapanha about five centuries later. These works,
composed in India, were brought to Sri Tanka, where they were maintained in Pali
but written about in Sinhalese. By the first century CE, Sanskrit (independently of
the rise of Mahayana) or a vernacular had probably quite displaced Pali as the
medium of study in all the Buddhist "schools" on the Indian mainland. Literary
activity in Sri Lanka declined and, it seems, fell into virtual abeyance between CE
150 and 350, as will appear below. The first Pali renascence was under way in Sri
Lanka and South India by about 400 and was made viable by Bhadantacariya
Buddhaghosa. This can be called the Middle Period. Many of its principal figures
were Indian. It developed in several centres in the South Indian mainland and
spread to Burma, and it can be said to have lasted till about the 12th century.
Meanwhile the renewed literary activity again declined in Sri Lanka till it was
eclipsed by the disastrous invasion of Magha in the 11th century The second
renascence, or the Third Period as it may be termed, begins in the following century
with Sri Lanka's recovery, coinciding more or less with major political changes in
Burma. In Sri Lanka it lasted for several centuries and in Burma for much longer,
though India about that time or soon after lost all forms of Buddhism. But this
period does not concern the present purpose and is only sketched in for the sake
of perspective.
The recorded facts relating from the standpoint of Sri Lanka to the rise of the
Middle Period are very few, and it is worthwhile tabling them. 1
1. Exact dates are not agreed. The Sri Lanka Chronicles give the lengths of reigns of
kings of Sri Lanka back to the time of the Buddha and also of kings of Magadha
from Asoka back to the same time. Calculated backwards the list gives 543 BCE as
the year of the Buddha's parinibbana (see list of kings in Codrington's Short History
of Ceylon, Macmillan 1947, p. xvi.). For adjustments to this calculation that bring
XXVll
Path of Purification
Why did Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa come to Sri Lanka? And why did his
work become famous beyond the island's shores? The bare facts without some
interpretation will hardly answer these questions. Certainly any interpretation must
be speculative; but if this is borne in mind, some attempt (without claim for
originality) may perhaps be made on the following lines.
Up till the reign of King Vattagamani Abhaya in the first century BCE the Great
Monastery founded by Asoka's son, the Arahant Mahinda, and hitherto without a
rival for the royal favour, had preserved a reputation for the saintliness of its
KINGS OF
CEYLON
RELEVANT EVENTS
REFS.
Devanam piya-
Arrival in Sri Lanka of the Arahant Mahinda
Mahavamsa, Mliv XIII.
Tissa:
bringing Pali Tipitaka with Commentaries;
BCE 307-267
Commentaries translated into Sinhalese;
Great Monastery founded.
Duttliagamani BCE
Expulsion of invaders after 76 years of
Mhv XXV-XXXII
161-137
foreign occupation of capital; restoration of
unity and independence.
Many names of Great Monastery elders.
Adikaram , Early History
noted in Commentaries for virtuous
of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,
behaviour, traceable to this and following
reign.
pp. 65-70
Vattagamani
Reign interrupted after 5 months by
Mhv XXXIII.33f.
BCE 104-88
rebellion of Brahman Tissa, famine,
invasion, and king's exile.
Bhikkhus all disperse from Great Monastery
to South SL and to India.
A-a I 92
Restoration of king after 14 years and return
of bhikkhus.
Mhv XXXIII.78
Foundation of Abhayagiri Monastery by
king.
Mhv XXXIII.81
Abhayagiri Monastery secedes from Great
Monastery and becomes schismatic.
Mhv XXXIII.96
Committal by Great Monastery of Pali
Mhv XXXIII. 100;
Tipitaka to writing for first time (away from
Nikaya-s (translation)
royal capital).
10-11
Abhayagiri Monastery adopts
"Dhammaruci Nikaya of Vajjiputtaka Sect"
of India.
Nikaya-s 11
the date of the parinibbana forward to 483 BCE (the date most generally accepted
in Europe), see e.g. Geiger, Mahavamsa translation (introduction) Epigraphia Zeylanica
1, 156; E. J. Thomas, Life of the Buddha, Kegan Paul, p. 26, n.l. It seems certain, however,
that Mahanama was reigning in the year 428 because of a letter sent by him to the
Chinese court (Codrington p.29; E.Z. Ill, 12). If the adjusted date is accepted then
60 extra years have somehow to be squeezed out without displacing Mahanama's
reign. Here the older date has been used.
xxviii
Introduction
Kutakanna Tissa
BCE 30-33
Bhatikabhaya BCE
20-CE 9
Khaniraj anu-Tis s a
30-33
Vasabha
66-110
Gajabahu I
113-135
6 kings
135-215
Voliarika-Tissa 215
-237
Gothabhaya
254-267
Meeting of Great Monastery bhikkhus
decides that care of texts and preaching
comes before practice of their contents.
Many Great Monastery elders' names noted
in Commentaries for learning and
contributions to decision of textual
problems, traceable to this reign.
Many elders as last stated traceable to tills
reign too.
Last Sri Lanka elders' names in Vinaya
Parivara (p. 2) traceable to this reign;
Parivara can thus have been completed by
Great Monastery any time later, before 5th
cent
Dispute between Great Monastery and
Abhayagiri Monastery over Vinaya adjudged
by Brahman Dlghakarayana in favour of
Great Monastery
60 bhikkhus punished for treason.
Last reign to be mentioned in body of
Com m entaries.
Sinhalese Commentaries can have been
closed at any time after this reign.
Abhayagiri Monastery supported by king
and enlarged.
Mentions of royal support for Great
Monastery and Abhayagiri Monastery
King supports both monasteries.
Abhayagiri Monastery has adopted Vetulya
(Maliayana?) Pitaka.
King suppresses Vetulya doctrines.
Vetulya books burnt and heretic bhikkhus
disgraced
Corruption of bhikkhus by Vitandavadins
(heretics or destructive critics).
Great Monastery supported by king.
60 bhikkhus in Abhayagiri Monastery
banished by king for upholding Vetulya
doctrines.
Secession from Abhayagiri Monastery; new
sect formed
Indian bliikkliu Saiighamitta supports
Abhayagiri Monastery
A-a I 92f; EHBC 78
EHBC 76
EHBC 80
EHBC 86
Vin-a 582; EHBC 99
Mliv XXXV10
EHBC 3, 86-7
EHBC 3, 86-7
Mliv XXXV119
Mliv XXXVI, 7, 24, 33,
65
Nikaya-s 12
Mliv XXXVI.41
Nikaya-s 12
Dipavainsa XXII-XXIII
Mliv XXXVI.102
Mliv XXXVI.lll
Nikaya-s 13
Mliv XXXVI.112
XXIX
Path of Purification
Jettha-Tissa
267-277
King favours Great Monastery; Sang ham itta
flees to India.
Mhv XXXVI.123
Mahasena 277-304
King protects Sanghamitta, who returns.
Persecution of Great Monastery; its
bhikkhus driven from capital for 9 years.
Mhv XXXVII. 1-50
Sanghamitta assassinated.
Mhv XXXVII.27
Restoration of Great Monastery
EHBC 92
Vetulya books burnt again.
EHBC 92
Dispute over Great Monastery boundary;
bhikkhus again absent from Great
Monastery for 9 months.
Mhv XXXVII.32
Siri Meghavanna
304-332
King favours Great Monastery
EHBC 92;
Mhv XXXVH.51f
Sinhalese monastery established at Buddha
Gaya in India
Malalasekera PLC, p.68;
Epigraphia Zeylaiiica
hi, 11
Jettha-Tissa II
332-34
Dipavamsa composed in this period.
Quoted in Vin-a
Buddhadasa
341-70
Upatissa
370-412
Also perhaps Mulasikkha and Khuddasikkha
(Vinaya summaries) and some of
Buddhadatta Thera's works.
PLC, p.77
Mahanam a
412-434
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa arrives in Sri
Lanka.
Mhv XXXVII.215-46
Samantapasadika (Vinaya commentary) begun
in 20th and finished in 21st year of this
king's reign.
Vin-a Epilogue
bhikkhus. The violent upsets in his reign followed by his founding of the Abhayagiri
Monastery its secession and schism, changed the whole situation at home. Sensing
insecurity the Great Monastery took the precaution to commit the Tipitaka for the
first time to writing, doing so in the provinces away from the king's presence.
Now by about the end of the first century BCE (dates are very vague), with Sanskrit
Buddhist literature just launching out upon its long era of magnificence, Sanskrit
was on its way to become a language of international culture. In Sri Lanka the
Great Monastery already committed by tradition to strict orthodoxy based on Pali,
had been confirmed in that attitude by the schism of its rival, which now began
publicly to study the new ideas from India. In the first century BCE probably the
influx of Sanskrit thought was still quite small, so that the Great Monastery could
well maintain its name in Anuradhapura as the principal centre of learning by
developing its ancient Tipitaka commentaries in Sinhalese. This might account for
the shift of emphasis from practice to scholarship in King Vattagamani's reign.
Evidence shows great activity in this latter field throughout the first century BCE,
and all this material was doubtless written down too.
In the first century CE, Sanskrit Buddhism (“Hinayana," and perhaps by then
Mahayana) was growing rapidly and spreading abroad. The Abhayagiri Monastery
would naturally have been busy studying and advocating some of these weighty
xxx
Introduction
developments while the Great Monastery had nothing new to offer: the rival was
thus able, at some risk, to appear go-ahead and up-to-date while the old institution
perhaps began to fall behind for want of new material, new inspiration and
international connections, because its studies being restricted to the orthodox
presentation in the Sinhalese language, it had already done what it could in
developing Tipitaka learning (on the mainland Theravada was doubtless deeper
in the same predicament). Anyway we find that from the first century onwards its
constructive scholarship dries up, and instead, with the reign of King Bhatika
Abhaya (BCE 20-CE 9), public wrangles begin to break out between the two
monasteries. This scene indeed drags on, gradually worsening through the next
three centuries, almost bare as they are of illuminating information. King Vasabha's
reign (CE 66-110) seems to be the last mentioned in the Commentaries as we have
them now, from which it may be assumed that soon afterwards they were closed
(or no longer kept up), nothing further being added. Perhaps the Great Monastery
now living only on its past, was itself getting infected with heresies. But without
speculating on the immediate reasons that induced it to let its chain of teachers
lapse and to cease adding to its body of Sinhalese learning, it is enough to note
that the situation went on deteriorating, further complicated by intrigues, till in
Mahasena's reign (CE 277-304) things came to a head.
With the persecution of the Great Monastery given royal assent and the expulsion
of its bhikkhus from the capital, the Abhayagiri Monastery enjoyed nine years of
triumph. But the ancient institution rallied its supporters in the southern provinces
and the king repented. The bhikkhus returned and the king restored the buildings,
which had been stripped to adorn the rival. Still, the Great Monastery must have
foreseen, after this affair, that unless it could successfully compete with Sanskrit it
had small hope of holding its position. With that the only course open was to
launch a drive for the rehabilitation of Pali — a drive to bring the study of that
language up to a standard fit to compete with the "modem" Sanskrit in the field
of international Buddhist culture: by cultivating Pali at home and abroad it could
assure its position at home. It was a revolutionary project, involving the
displacement of Sinhalese by Pali as the language for the study and discussion of
Buddhist teachings, and the founding of a school of Pali literary composition. Earlier
it would doubtless have been impracticable; but the atmosphere had changed.
Though various Sanskrit non-Mahayana sects are well known to have continued to
flourish all over India, there is almost nothing to show the status of the Pali language
there by now. Only the Mahavamsa [XXXVII. 215f. quoted below] suggests that the
Theravada sect there had not only put aside but lost perhaps all of its old non-
Pitaka material dating from Asoka's time. 2 One may guess that the pattern of things
in Sri Lanka only echoed a process that had gone much further in India. But in the
2. See also A Record of Buddhist Religion by I-tsing, translation by J. Takakusu, Claren
do Press, 1896, p. xxiii, where a geographical distribution of various schools gives
Mulasarvastivada mainly in the north and Ariyasthavira mainly in the south of India.
I-tsing, who did not visit Sri Lanka, was in India at the end of the 7th cent.; but he does
not mention whether the Ariyasthavira (Theravada) Nikaya in India pursued its studies
in the Pali of its Tipitaka or in Sanskrit or in a local vernacular.
xxxi
Path of Purification
island of Sri Lanka the ancient body of learning, much of it pre-Asokan, had been
kept lying by, as it were maturing in its two and a half centuries of neglect, and it
had now acquired a new and great potential value due to the purity of its pedigree
in contrast with the welter of new original thinking. Theravada centres of learning
on the mainland were also doubtless much interested and themselves anxious for
help in a repristinization. 3 Without such cooperation there was little hope of success.
It is not known what was the first original Pali composition in this period; but
the Dipavamsa (dealing with historical evidence) belongs here (for it ends with
Mahasena's reign and is quoted in the Samantapasadika), and quite possibly the
Vimuttimagga (dealing with practice — see below) was another early attempt by the
Great Monastery in this period (4th cent.) to reassert its supremacy through original
Pali literary composition: there will have been others too. 4 Of course, much of this
is very conjectural. Still it is plain enough that by 400 CE a movement had begun,
not confined to Sri Lanka, and that the time was ripe for the crucial work, for a Pali
recension of the Sinhalese Commentaries with their unique tradition. Only the
right personality able to handle it competently, was yet lacking. That personality
appeared in the first quarter of the fifth century.
The Visuddhimagga and its Author
Sources of information about that person fall into three groups. There are firstly
the scraps contained in the prologues and epilogues to the works ascribed to him.
Then there is the account given in the second part of the Sri Lankan Chronicle, the
Mahavamsa (or Culavamsa as the part of it is often called), written in about the 13th
century, describing occurrences placed by it in the 5th century, and, lastly, the still
later Buddhaghosuppatti (15 th cent.?) and other later works.
It seems still uncertain how to evaluate the old Talaing records of Burma, which
may not refer to the same person (see below). India herself tells us nothing at all.
It seems worthwhile, therefore, to give a rendering here of the principal passage
from the prologues and epilogues of the works ascribed to him by name; for they
are few and short, and they have special authentic value as evidence. The Mahavamsa
account will be reproduced in full, too, since it is held to have been composed from
evidence and records before its author, and to have the ring of truth behind the
legends it contains. But the later works (which European scholars hold to be
legendary rather than historical in what they add to the accounts already
mentioned) can only be dealt with very summarily here.
3. In the epilogues and prologues of various works between the 5th and 12th centuries
there is mention of e.g., Badaratittha (Vism-a prol.: near Chennai), Kancipura (A-a epil.:
= Conjevaram near Chennai), and other places where different teachers accepting the
Great Monastery tradition lived and worked. See also Malalasekera, Pali Literature of
Ceylon, p. 13; E.Z., iy 69-71; Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. XIX, pp. 278f.
4. Possibly the Vinaya summaries, Mulasikkha and Khuddasikkha (though Geiger places
these much later), as well as some works of Buddhadatta Thera. It has not been
satisfactorily explained why the Mahavamsa, composed in the late 4th or early 5th cent.,
ends abruptly in the middle of Chapter 37 with Mahasena's reign (the Chronicle being
only resumed eight centuries later).
xxxii
Introduction
The books actually ascribed to Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa have each a
“postscript" identical in form with that at the end of Chapter XXIII of the present
work, mentioning the title and author by name. This can be taken to have been
appended, presumably contemporaneously, by the Great Monastery (the
Mahavamsa) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka as their official seal of approval. Here is
a list of the works (also listed in the modern Gandhavamsa and Sasanavamsa with
one or two discrepancies): 5
Commentaries to the Vinaya Pitaka
Title Commentary to
Samantapasadika Vinaya
Kahkhavitaram Patimokkha
Commentaries to the Sutta Pitaka
Title
Sumahgalavildsim
Papahcasudani
Sdratthappakdsinl
Manorathapurdnl
Paramatthajotika
Commentary to Snttanipdta
Title
Dhammapadatthakatha
Jdtakatthakathd
Commentary to
Dlgha Nikaya
Majjhima Nikaya
Samyutta Nikaya
Anguttara Nikaya
Khuddakapatha
Commentary to
Dhammapada
Jataka
Commentaries to the Abhidhamma Pitaka
Title Commentary to
Atthasalinl Dhammasanganl
Sammohavinodam Vibhaiiga
Pahcappakaranatthakatha Remaining 5 books
Beyond the bare hint that he came to Sri Lanka from India his actual works tell
nothing about his origins or background. He mentions “The Elder Buddhamitta
with whom I formerly lived at Mayura suttapattana" (M-a epil.), 6 and “The well
known Elder Jotipala, with whom I once lived at Kancipura and elsewhere" (A-a
epil.). 7 Also the "postscript" attached to the Visuddhimagga says, besides mentioning
his name, that he "should be called 'of Morandacetaka.'" 8 And that is all.
5. The Gandhavamsa also gives the Apadana Commentary as by him.
6. Other readings are: Mayurarupattana, Mayuradutapattana. Identified with
Mylapore near Chennai (J.O.R., Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 281).
7. Identified with Conjevaram near Chennai: PLC, p. 113. Acariya Ananda, author of
the sub-commentary to the Abhidhamma Pitaka ( Mula Tlka), also lived there, perhaps
any time after the middle of the 5th century The Elder Dhammapala sometimes refers
to the old Sinhalese commentaries as if they were still available to him.
8. Other readings are: Morandakhetaka, Mudantakhedaka, Murandakhetaka, etc.;
not yet identified. Refers more probably to his birthplace than to his place of pabbajja.
See also J.O.R., Madras, Vol. XIX, p. 282, article "Buddhaghosa — His Place of Birth" by
xxxiii
Path of Purification
On coming to Sri Lanka, he went to Anuradhapura, the royal capital, and set
himself to study He seems to have lived and worked there during the whole of his
stay in the island, though we do not know how long that stay lasted. To render his
own words: "I learned three Sinhalese commentaries — the Maha-attha-[katha] ,
Mahapaccarl, Kurundl — from the famed elder known by the name of Buddhamitta,
who has expert knowledge of the Vinaya. Set in the grounds of the Maha Meghavana
Park [in Anuradhapura] there is the Great Monastery graced by the [sapling from
the] Master's Enlightenment Tree. A constant supporter of the Community trusting
with unwavering faith in the Three Jewels, belonging to an illustrious family and
known by the name of Mahanigamasami (Lord of the Great City), had an excellent
work-room built there on its southern side accessible to the ever virtuously
conducted Community of Bhikkhus. The building was beautifully appointed,
agreeably endowed with cool shade and had a lavish water supply The Vinaya
Commentary was begun by me for the sake of the Elder Buddhasiri of pure virtuous
behaviour while I was living there in Mahanigamasami's building, and it is now
complete. It was begun by me in the twentieth year of the reign of peace of the
King Sirinivasa (Of Glorious Life), the renowned and glorious guardian who has
kept the whole of Lanka's island free from trouble. It was finished in one year
without mishap in a world beset by mishaps, so may all beings attain..." (Vin-a
Epilogue).
Mostly it is assumed that he wrote and "published" his works one by one as
authors do today. The assumption may not be correct. There is an unerring
consistency throughout the system of explanation he adopts, and there are cross-
references between works. This suggests that while the Visuddliimagga itself may
perhaps have been composed and produced first, the others as they exist now
were more likely worked over contemporaneously and all more or less finished
before any one of them was given out. They may well have been given out then
following the order of the books in the Tipitaka which they explain. So in that way
it may be taken that the Vinaya Commentary came next to the Visuddhimagga; then
the Commentaries on the four Nikayas (Collections of Suttas), and after them the
Abhidhamma Commentaries. Though it is not said that the Vinaya Commentary
was given out first of these, still the prologue and epilogue contain the most
information. The four Nikaya Commentaries all have the same basic prologue; but
the Samyutta Nikaya Commentary inserts in its prologue a stanza referring the
reader to "the two previous Collections" (i.e. the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas) for
explanations of the names of towns and for illustrative stories, while the Anguttara
R. Subramaniam and S. E Nainar, where a certain coincidence of names is mentioned
that might suggest a possible identification of Morandakhetaka (moranda being Pali for
'peacock egg' and khedaka Skr. for "village" — see Vism Ae ed., p. xv) with adjacent
villages, 51 miles from Nagarjunakonda and 58 miles from Amaravatl, called
Kotanemalipuri and Gundlapalli ( nemnli and gundla being Telegu respectively for
"peacock" and "egg"). However, more specific information will be needed in support
before it can be accepted as an indication that the Mahavamsa is wrong about his
birthplace. More information about any connection between Sri Lanka and those great
South Indian Buddhist centres is badly needed.
xxxiv
Introduction
Nikaya Commentary replaces this stanza with another referring to “the Digha
and Majjhima" by name for the same purpose. The point may seem laboured and
even trivial, but it is not irrelevant; for if it is assumed that these works were written
and “published" in some historical order of composition, one expects to find some
corresponding development of thought and perhaps discovers what one's
assumption has projected upon them. The more likely assumption, based on
consideration of the actual contents, is that their form and content was settled before
any one of them was given out.
Sometimes it is argued that the commentaries to the Dhammapada and the
Jataka may not be by the same author because the style is different. But that fact
could be accounted for by the difference in the subject matter; for these two
commentaries consist mainly of popular stories, which play only a very minor role
in the other works. Besides, while this author is quite inexorably consistent
throughout his works in his explanations of Dhamma, he by no means always
maintains that consistency in different versions of the same story in, say, different
Nikaya Commentaries (compare for instance, the version of the story of Elder
Tissabhuti given in the commentary to AN 1:2.6, with that at M-a I 66; also the
version of the story of the Elder Maha Tissa in the A-a, same ref., with that at M-a
1 185). Perhaps less need for strictness was felt with such story material. And there
is also another possibility It may not unreasonably be supposed that he did not
work alone, without help, and that he had competent assistants. If so, he might
well have delegated the drafting of the Khuddaka Nikaya commentaries — those
of the Khuddakapatha and Suttanipata, Dhammapada, and the Jataka — or part of
them, supervising and completing them himself, after which the official "postscript"
was appended. This assumption seems not implausible and involves less difficulties
than its alternatives. 9 These secondary commentaries may well have been composed
after the others.
The full early history of the Pali Tipitaka and its commentaries in Sinhalese is
given in the Sri Lanka Chronicle, the Dipavamsa, and Mahavamsa, and also in the
introduction to the Vinaya Commentary In the prologue to each of the four Nikaya
Commentaries it is conveniently summarized by Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa
himself as follows: “[I shall now take] the commentary, whose object is to clarify
the meaning of the subtle and most excellent Long Collection (Digha Nikaya) . . .
set forth in detail by the Buddha and by his like [i.e. the Elder Sariputta and other
expounders of discourses in the Sutta Pitaka] — the commentary that in the
beginning was chanted [at the First Council] and later re-chanted [at the Second
and Third], and was brought to the Sihala Island (Sri Lanka) by the Arahant
Mahinda the Great and rendered into the Sihala tongue for the benefit of the
islanders — and from that commentary I shall remove the Sihala tongue, replacing
it by the graceful language that conforms with Scripture and is purified and free
from flaws. Not diverging from the standpoint of the elders residing in the Great
Monastery [in Anuradhapura], who illumine the elders' heritage and are all well
9. A definite statement that the Dhp-a was written later by someone else can hardly
avoid the inference that the "postscript" was a fraud, or at least misleading.
xxxv
Path of Purification
versed in exposition, and rejecting subject matter needlessly repeated, I shall make
the meaning clear for the purpose of bringing contentment to good people and
contributing to the long endurance of the Dhamma."
There are references in these works to "the Ancients" (porana) or "Former
Teachers" (pubbacariya) as well as to a number of Sinhalese commentaries additional
to the three referred to in the quotation given earlier. The fact is plain enough that
a complete body of commentary had been built up during the nine centuries or so
that separate Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa from the Buddha. A good proportion
of it dated no doubt from the actual time of the Buddha himself, and this core had
been added to in India (probably in Pali), and later by learned elders in Sri Lanka
(in Sinhalese) as references to their pronouncements show (e.g. XII. 105 and 117).
This body of material — one may guess that its volume was enormous —
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa set himself to edit and render into Pali (the Tipitaka
itself had been left in the original Pali). For this he had approval and express
invitation (see, e.g., the epilogue to the present work, which the Elder Sanghapala
invited him to compose). Modern critics have reproached him with lack of
originality: but if we are to judge by his declared aims, originality, or to use his
own phrase "advertising his own standpoint" (XVII. 25), seems likely to have been
one of the things he would have wished to avoid. He says, for instance, "I shall
expound the comforting Path of Purification, pure in expositions, relying on the
teaching of the dwellers in the Great Monastery" (1.4; see also epilogue), and again
"Now, as to the entire trustworthiness (samantapasadikatta) of this Samantapasadika :
the wise see nothing untrustworthy here when they look — in the chain of teachers,
in the citations of circumstance, instance and category [in each case], in the avoidance
of others' standpoints, in the purity of [our] own standpoint, in the correctness of
details, in the word-meanings, in the order of construing the text, in the exposition
of the training precepts, in the use of classification by the analytical method —
which is why this detailed commentary on the Vinaya ... is called Samantapasadika
(Vin-a epilogue). And then: "The commentary on the Patimokkha, which I began
at the request of the Elder Sona for the purpose of removing doubts in those
uncertain of the Vinaya, and which covers the whole Sinhalese commentarial system
based upon the arrangement adopted by the dwellers in the Great Monastery is
finished. The whole essence of the commentary and the entire meaning of the text
has been extracted and there is no sentence here that might conflict with the text
or with the commentaries of the dwellers in the Great Monastery or those of the
Ancients" (Patimokkha Commentary epilogue). Such examples could be multiplied
(see especially also XVII. 25).
There is only one instance in the Visuddhimagga where he openly advances
an opinion of his own, with the words "our preference here is this" (XIII. 123).
He does so once in the Majjhima Nikaya Commentary, too, saying "the point is
not dealt with by the Ancients, but this is my opinion" (M-a I 28). The rarity of
such instances and the caution expressed in them imply that he himself was
disinclined to speculate and felt the need to point the fact out when he did. He
actually says "one's own opinion is the weakest authority of all and should
only be accepted if it accords with the Suttas" (D-a 567-68). So it is likely that
xxxvi
Introduction
he regarded what we should call original thinking as the province of the Buddha,
and his own task as the fortification of that thought by coordinating the
explanations of it. However, not every detail that he edited can claim direct
support in the Suttas.
The following considerations lend some support to the assumptions just made.
It has been pointed out 10 that in describing in the Vinaya Commentary how the
tradition had been "maintained up to the present day by the chain of teachers and
pupils" (Vin-a 61-62) the list of teachers' names that follows contains names only
traceable down to about the middle of the 2 nd century CE, but not later. Again,
there appear in his works numbers of illustrative stories, all of which are set either
in India or Sri Lanka. However, no single one of them can be pointed to as
contemporary. Stories about India in every case where a date can be assigned are
not later than Asoka (3 rd cent. BCE). Many stories about Sri Lanka cannot be dated,
but of those that can none seems later than the 2 nd century CE. This suggests that
the material which he had before him to edit and translate had been already
completed and fixed more than two centuries earlier in Sri Lanka, and that the
words "present day" were not used by him to refer to his own time, but were
already in the material he was coordinating. This final fixing, if it is a fact, might
have been the aftermath of the decision taken in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE
to commit the Pali Tipitaka to writing.
Something now needs to be said about the relation of the Visuddhimagga to
the other books. This author's work is characterized by relentless accuracy,
consistency, and fluency of erudition, and much dominated by formalism. Not
only is this formalism evident in the elaborate pattern of the Visuddhimagga but
also that work's relationship to the others is governed by it. The Visuddhimagga
itself extracts from the Tipitaka all the central doctrines that pivot upon the
Four Noble Truths, presenting them as a coherent systematic whole by way of
quotation and explanation interspersed with treatises on subjects of more or
less relative importance, all being welded into an intricate edifice. The work
can thus stand alone. But the aim of the commentaries to the four main Nikayas
or Collections of Suttas is to explain the subject matter of individual discourses
and, as well, certain topics and special doctrines not dealt with in the
Visuddhimagga (many passages commenting on identical material in the Suttas
in different Nikayas are reproduced verbatim in each commentary, and
elsewhere, e.g., MN 10, cf. DN 22, Satipatthana Vibhanga, etc., etc., and
respective commentaries). But these commentaries always refer the reader to
the Visuddhimagga for explanations of the central doctrines. And though the
Vinaya and Abhidhamma (commentaries are less closely bound to the
Visuddhimagga, still they too either refer the reader to it or reproduce large
blocks of it. The author himself says: "The treatises on virtue and on the ascetic's
rules, all the meditation subjects, the details of the attainments of the jhanas,
together with the directions for each temperament, all the various kinds of
direct-knowledge, the exposition of the definition of understanding, the
aggregates, elements, bases, and faculties, the Four Noble Truths, the explanation
10. Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, pp. 3 and 86.
xxxv ii
Path of Purification
of the structure of conditions (dependent origination), and lastly the
development of insight, by methods that are purified and sure and not divergent
from Scripture — since these things have already been quite clearly stated in
the Visuddhimagga I shall no more dwell upon them here; for the Visuddhimagga
stands between and in the midst of all four Collections (Nikayas) and will clarify
the meaning of such things stated therein. It was made in that way: take it
therefore along with this same commentary and know the meaning of the Long
Collection (Digha Nikaya)" (prologue to the four Nikayas).
This is all that can, without unsafe inferences, be gleaned of Bhadantacariya
Buddhaghosa himself from his own works (but see below). Now, there is the
Mahavamsa account. The composition of the second part (often called Culavamsa)
of that historical poem is attributed to an Elder Dhammakitti, who lived in or
about the thirteenth century. Here is a translation of the relevant passage:
"There was a Brahman student who was born near the site of the
Enlightenment Tree. He was acquainted with the arts and accomplishments
of the sciences and was qualified in the Vedas. He was well versed in what he
knew and unhesitant over any phrase. Being interested in doctrines, he
wandered over Jambudipa (India) engaging in disputation.
"He came to a certain monastery, and there in the night he recited
Patanjali's system with each phrase complete and well rounded. The senior
elder there, Revata by name, recognized, 'This is a being of great
understanding who ought to be tamed.' He said, 'Who is that braying the
ass's bray?' The other asked, 'What, then, do you know the meaning of the
ass's bray?' The elder answered, 'I know it,' and he then not only expounded
it himself, but explained each statement in the proper way and also pointed
out contradictions. The other then urged him, 'Now expound your own
doctrine,' and the elder repeated a text from the Abhidhamma, but the visitor
could not solve its meaning. He asked, 'Whose system is this?' and the elder
replied, 'It is the Enlightened One's system.' 'Give it to me,' he said, but the
elder answered, 'You will have to take the going forth into homelessness.' So
he took the going forth, since he was interested in the system, and he learned
the three Pitakas, after which he believed, 'This is the only way' (M I 55).
Because his speech (ghosa) was profound (voice was deep) like that of the
Enlightened One (Buddha) they called him Buddhaghosa, so that like the
Enlightened One he might be voiced over the surface of the earth.
"He prepared a treatise there called Nanodaya, and then the Atthasalinl, a
commentary on the Dhammasanganl. Next he began work on a commentary
to the Partita. 11 When the Elder Revata saw that, he said, 'Here only the text
has been preserved. There is no commentary here, and likewise no Teachers'
Doctrine; for that has been allowed to go to pieces and is no longer known.
However, a Sinhalese commentary still exists, which is pure. It was rendered
into the Sinhalese tongue by the learned Mahinda with proper regard for the
11. Partita or "protection": a name for certain suttas recited for that purpose. See
M-a IV 114.
xxxviii
Introduction
way of commenting that was handed down by the three Councils as taught
by the Enlightened One and inculcated by Sariputta and others. Go there,
and after you have learnt it translate it into the language of the Magadhans.
That will bring benefit to the whole world.' As soon as this was said, he
made up his mind to set out.
"He came from there to this island in the reign of this king (Mahanama). He
came to the (Great Monastery, the monastery of all true men. There he stayed in
a large workroom, and he learnt the whole Sinhalese Commentary of the Elders'
Doctrine (theravada) under Sanghapala. 12 He decided, 'This alone is the intention
of the Dhamma's Lord.' So he assembled the Community there and asked, 'Give
me all the books to make a commentary' Then in order to test him tire Community
gave him two stanzas, saying 'Show your ability with these; when we have seen
that you have it, we will give you all the books.' On that text alone he summarized
the three Pitakas together with the Commentary as an epitome, which was named
the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Then, in the precincts of the (sapling of
the) Enlightenment Tree (in Anuradhapura), he assembled the Community expert
in tire Fully Enlightened One's system, and he began to read it out. In order to
demonstrate his skill to the multitude deities hid the book, and he was obliged
to prepare it a second time, and again a third time. When the book was brought
for the third time to be read out, the gods replaced the other two copies with it.
Then the bhikkhus read out the three copies together, and it was found that
there was no difference between the three in either the chapters or the meaning
or the order of the material or the phrases and syllables of the Theravada texts.
With that the Community applauded in high delight and again and again it was
said, 'Surely this is (the Bodhisatta) Metteyya.' "They gave him the books of the
three Pitakas together with the Commentary Then, while staying undisturbed
in the Library Monastery he translated the Sinhalese Commentary into the
Magacthan language, the root-speech of all, by which he brought benefit to beings
of all tongues. The teachers of the Elders' Tradition accepted it as equal in
authority with the texts themselves. Then, when the tasks to be done were finished,
he went back to Jambudipa to pay homage to the Great Enlightenment Tree.
"And when Mahanama had enjoyed twenty-two years' reign upon earth
and had performed a variety of meritorious works, he passed on according
to his deeds"— (Mhv XXXVII.215-47).
King Mahanama is identified with the "King Sirinivasa" and the "King
Sirikudda" mentioned respectively in the epilogues to the Vinaya and
Dhammapada Commentaries. There is no trace, and no other mention anywhere,
of the Nanodaya. The Atthasalini described as composed in India could not be the
version extant today which cites the Sri Lankan Commentaries and refers to the
Visuddhimagga; it will have been revised later.
The prologues and epilogues of this author's works are the only instances in
which we can be sure that he is speaking of his own experience and not only simply
editing; and while they point only to his residence in South India, they neither
12. See Vism epilogue.
Path of Purification
confute nor confirm the Mahavamsa statement than he was born in Magadha (see
note 8). The Sri Lankan Chronicles survived the historical criticism to which they
were subjected in the last hundred years. The independent evidence that could be
brought to bear supported them, and Western scholars ended by pronouncing them
reliable in essentials. The account just quoted is considered to be based on historical
fact even if it contains legendary matter.
It is not possible to make use of the body of Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa's
works to test the Mahavamsa' s claim that he was a learned Brahman from central
India, and so on. It has been shown already how the presumption is always, where
the contrary is not explicitly stated, that he is editing and translating material placed
before him rather than displaying his own private knowledge, experience and
opinions. And so it would be a critical mistake to use any such passage in his work
for assessing his personal traits; for in them it is, pretty certainly, not him we are
dealing with at all but people who lived three or more centuries earlier. Those
passages probably tell us merely that he was a scrupulously accurate and
conscientious editor. His geographical descriptions are translations, not eyewitness
accounts. Then such a sutta passage as that commented on in Chapter I, 86-97 of
the present work, which is a part of a sutta used by bhikkhus for daily reflection
on the four requisites of the life of a bhikkhu, is certain to have been fully commented
on from the earliest times, so that it would be just such a critical mistake to infer
from this comment anything about his abilities as an original commentator, or
anything else of a personal nature about him or his own past experience. 13 And
again, the controversial subject of the origin of the Brahman caste (see M-a II 418)
must have been fully explained from the Buddhist standpoint from the very start.
If then that account disagrees with Brahmanical lore — and it would be odd, all
things considered, if it did not — there is no justification for concluding on those
grounds that the author of the Visuddhimagga was not of Brahman origin and that
the Mahavamsa is wrong. What does indeed seem improbable is that the authorities
of the Great Monastery resolutely committed to oppose unorthodoxy, would have
given him a free hand to “correct" their traditions to accord with Brahmanical
texts or with other alien sources, even if he had so wished. Again, the fact that
there are allusions to extraneous, non-Buddhist literature (e.g. VII. 58; XVI.4 n.2;
XVI. 85, etc.) hardly affects this issue because they too can have been already in the
13. For instance. Prof. Kosambi, in his preface to the Visuddhimagga, Harvard ed.,
overlooks these considerations when he says: "More positive evidence (that he was not
a North-Indian Brahman) is in the passage 'Unhassa ti aggisantapassa. Tassa vanadahadisu
sambhavo veditabbo' (1.86). 'Heat: the heat of fire, such as occurs at the time of forest
fires, etc.'" This is a comment upon protection against heat given by a clvara. His
explanation is obviously ridiculous: "It is not known to Indian southerners that a bare
skin is sure to be sunburnt in the northern summer" (p. xii). And Professor Kosambi
has not only overlooked the fact that it is almost certainly translated material that he is
criticizing as original composition, but he appears not to have even read the whole
passage. The sutta sentence (M I 10) commented on in the Visuddhimagga (1.86-87)
contains two words unha and atapa. If, before condemning the explanation as
"ridiculous," he had read on, he would have found, a line or two below, the words
Atapo ti suriyatapo ("'Burning' is burning of the sun" — 1.87).
xl
Introduction
material he was editing or supplied to him by the elders with whom he was working.
What might repay careful study are perhaps those things, such as certain Mahayana
teachings and names, as well as much Brahmanical philosophy, which he ignores
though he must have known about them. This ignoring cannot safely be ascribed
to ignorance unless we are sure it was not dictated by policy; and we are not sure
at all. His silences (in contrast to the author of the Paramatthamanjusa) are sometimes
notable in this respect.
The "popular novel" called Buddhaghosuppatti, which was composed in Burma by
an elder called Mahamangala, perhaps as early as the 15th century is less dependable.
But a survey without some account of it would be incomplete. So here is a precis :
Near the Bodhi Tree at Gaya there was a town called Ghosa. Its ruler had a
Brahman chaplain called Kesi married to a wife called Kesinl. An elder bhikkhu,
who was a friend of Kesi, used to wonder, when the Buddha's teaching was recited
in Sinhalese, and people did not therefore understand it, who would be able to
translate it into Magadhan (Pali). He saw that there was the son of a deity living in
the Tavatimsa heaven, whose name was Ghosa and who was capable of doing it.
This deity was persuaded to be reborn in the human world as the son of the Brahman
Kesi. He learnt the Vedas. One day he sat down in a place sacred to Vishnu and ate
peas. Brahmans angrily rebuked him, but he uttered a stanza, "The pea itself is
Vishnu; who is there called Vishnu? And how shall I know which is Vishnu?" and
no one could answer him. Then one day while Kesi was instructing the town's
ruler in the Vedas a certain passage puzzled him, but Ghosa wrote down the
explanations on a palm leaf, which was found later by his father — (Chapter I).
Once when the elder bhikkhu was invited to Kesi's house for a meal Ghosa's
mat was given to him to sit on. Ghosa was furious and abused the elder. Then he
asked him if he knew the Vedas and any other system. The elder gave a recitation
from the Vedas. Then Ghosa asked him for his own system, whereupon the elder
expounded the first triad of the Abhidhamma schedule, on profitable, unprofitable,
and indeterminate thought-arisings. Ghosa asked whose the system was. He was
told that it was the Buddha's and that it could only be learnt after becoming a
bhikkhu. He accordingly went forth into homelessness as a bhikkhu, and in one
month he learned the three Pitakas. After receiving the full admission he acquired
the four discriminations. The name given to him was Buddhaghosa — (Chapter II).
One day the question arose in his mind: "Who has more understanding of the
Buddha-word, I or my preceptor?" His preceptor, whose cankers were exhausted,
read the thought in his mind and rebuked him, telling him to ask his forgiveness.
The pupil was then very afraid, and after asking for forgiveness, he was told that in
order to make amends he must go to Sri Lanka and translate the Buddha-word
(sic) from Sinhalese into Magadhan. He agreed, but asked that he might first be
allowed to convert his father from the Brahman religion to the Buddha's teaching.
In order to achieve this he had a brick apartment fitted with locks and furnished
with food and water. He set a contrivance so that when his father went inside he
was trapped. He then preached to his father on the virtues of the Buddha, and on
the pains of hell resulting from wrong belief. After three days his father was
converted, and he took the Three Refuges. The son then opened the door and made
xli
Path of Purification
opened the door and made amends to his father with flowers and such things
for the offence done to him. Kesi became a stream-enterer — (Chapter III).
This done, he set sail in a ship for Sri Lanka. The Mahathera Buddhadatta 14
had set sail that day from Sri Lanka for India. The two ships met by the
intervention of Sakka Ruler of Gods. When the two elders saw each other, the
Elder Buddhaghosa told the other: "The Buddha's Dispensation has been put
into Sinhalese; I shall go and translate it and put it into Magadhan." The other
said, "I was sent to go and translate the Buddha-word and write it in Magadhan.
I have only done the Jinalankara, the Dantavamsa, the Dhdtuvamsa and the
Bodhivamsa, not the commentaries and the sub-commentaries (tika). If you, sir,
are translating the Dispensation from Sinhalese into Magadhan, do the
commentaries to the Three Pitakas." Then praising the Elder Buddhaghosa, he
gave him the gall-nut, the iron stylus, and the stone given him by Sakka Ruler of
Gods, adding, "If you have eye trouble or backache, rub the gall-nut on the stone
and wet the place that hurts; then your ailment will vanish." Then he recited a
stanza from his Jinalankara. The other said, "Venerable sir, your book is written
in very ornate style. Future clansmen will not be able to follow its meaning. It is
hard for simple people to understand it." — "Friend Buddhaghosa, I went to Sri
Lanka before you to work on the Blessed One's Dispensation. But I have little
time before me and shall not live long. So I cannot do it. Do it therefore yourself,
and do it well." Then the two ships separated. Soon after they had completed
their voyages the Elder Buddhadatta died and was reborn in the Tusita heaven —
(Chapter IV).
The Elder Buddhaghosa stayed near the port of Dvijathana in Sri Lanka.
While there he saw one woman water-carrier accidentally break another's jar,
which led to a violent quarrel between them with foul abuse. Knowing that he
might be called as a witness, he wrote down what they said in a book. When the
case came before the king, the elder was cited as a witness. He sent his notebook,
which decided the case. The king then asked to see him — (Chapter V).
After this the elder went to pay homage to the Sangharaja, 15 the senior elder of
Sri Lanka. One day while the senior elder was teaching bhikkhus he came upon a
difficult point of Abhidhamma that he could not explain. The Elder Buddhaghosa
knew its meaning and wrote it on a board after the senior elder had left. Next day
it was discovered and then the senior elder suggested that he should teach the
Order of Bhikkhus. The reply was: "I have come to translate the Buddha's
Dispensation into Magadhan." The senior elder told him, "If so, then construe the
Three Pitakas upon the text beginning, 'When a wise man, established well in
virtue. . . '" He began the work that day, the stars being favourable, and wrote very
quickly. When finished, he put it aside and went to sleep. Meanwhile Sakka, Ruler
of Gods, abstracted the book. The elder awoke, and missing it, he wrote another
copy very fast by lamplight then he put it aside and slept. Sakka abstracted that
14. The allusion is to the author of various Pali works including the Abhidhammavatara;
see n. 4.
15. Sangharaja ("Ruler of the Community" — a title existing in Thailand today): possibly
a mistake for Sanghapala here (see Vis. epil.).
xlii
Introduction
too. The elder awoke, and not seeing his book, he wrote a third copy very fast by
lamplight and wrapped it in his robe. Then he slept again. While he was asleep
Sakka put the other two books beside him, and when he awoke he found all three
copies. He took them to the senior elder and told him what had happened. When
they were read over there was no difference even in a single letter. Thereupon the
senior elder gave permission for the translating of the Buddha's Dispensation. From
then on the elder was known to the people of Sri Lanka by the name of
Buddhaghosa — (Chapter VI).
He was given apartments in the Brazen Palace, of whose seven floors he occupied
the lowest. He observed the ascetic practices and was expert in all the scriptures. It
was during his stay there that he translated the Buddha's Dispensation. When on
his alms round he saw fallen palm leaves he would pick them up; this was a duty
undertaken by him. One day a man who had climbed a palm tree saw him. He left
some palm leaves on the ground, watched him pick them up, and then followed
him. Afterwards he brought him a gift of food. The elder concluded his writing of
the Dispensation in three months. When the rainy season was over and he had
completed the Pavarana ceremony he consigned the books to the senior elder, the
Saiigharaja. Then the Elder Buddhaghosa had the books written by Elder Mahinda
piled up and burnt near the Great Shrine; the pile was as high as seven elephants.
Now that this work was done, and wanting to see his parents, he took his leave
before going back to India. Before he left, however, his knowledge of Sanskrit was
queried by bhikkhus; but he silenced this by delivering a sermon in the language
by the Great Shrine. Then he departed — (Chapter VIII).
On his return he went to his preceptor and cleared himself of his penance. His
parents too forgave him his offences; and when they died they were reborn in the
Tusita heaven. He himself, knowing that he would not live much longer, paid
homage to his preceptor and went to the Great Enlightenment Tree. Foreseeing his
approaching death, he considered thus: "There are three kinds of death: death as
cutting off, momentary death, and conventional death. Death as cutting off belongs
to those whose cankers are exhausted (and are Arahants). Momentary death is
that of each consciousness of the cognitive series beginning with life-continuum
consciousness, which arise each immediately on the cessation of the one preceding.
Conventional death is that of all (so-called) living beings. 16 Mine will be conventional
death." After his death he was reborn in the Tusita heaven in a golden mansion
seven leagues broad surrounded with divine nymphs. When the Bodhisatta
Metteyya comes to this human world, he will be his disciple. After his cremation
his relics were deposited near the Enlightenment Tree and shrines erected over
them — (Chapter VIII).
It has already been remarked that the general opinion of European scholars is
that where this imaginative tale differs from, or adds to, the Mahavamsa's account
it is in legend rather than history
Finally there is the question of the Talaing Chronicles of Burma, which mention
an elder named Buddhaghosa, of brahman stock, who went from Thaton (the
16. A learned allusion to VIII. 1.
xliii
Path of Purification
(the ancient Buddhist stronghold in the Ramannadesa of Burma) to Sri Lanka
(perhaps via India) to translate the Buddha-word into Talaing and bring it
back. It is hard to evaluate this tradition on the evidence available; but according
to the opinion of the more reliable Western scholars another elder of the same
name is involved here. 17
What can be said of the Visuddhimagga's author without venturing into
unfounded speculation is now exhausted, at least in so far as the restricted scope
of this introduction permits. The facts are tantalizingly few. Indeed this, like many
scenes in Indian history, has something of the enigmatic transparencies and
uncommunicative shadows of a moonlit landscape — at the same time inescapable
and ungraspable.
Some answer has, however, been furnished to the two questions: why did he
come to Sri Lanka? And why did his work become famous beyond its shores?
Trends such as have been outlined, working not quite parallel on the Theravada of
India and Sri Lanka, had evolved a situation favouring a rehabilitation of Pali, and
consequently the question was already one of interest not only to Sri Lanka, where
the old material was preserved. Again the author possessed outstandingly just
those personal qualities most fitted to the need — accuracy an indefatigable mental
orderliness, and insight able to crystallize the vast, unwieldy, accumulated exegesis
of the Tipitaka into a coherent workable whole with a dignified vigorous style,
respect for authenticity and dislike of speculation, and (in the circumstances not at
all paradoxically) preference for self-effacement. The impetus given by him to Pali
scholarship left an indelible mark on the centuries that followed, enabling it to
survive from then on the Sanskrit siege as well as the continuing schism and the
political difficulties and disasters that harassed Sri Lanka before the “Second
Renascence." A long epoch of culture stems from him. His successors in the Great
Monastery tradition continued to write in various centres in South India till the
12 th century or so, while his own works spread to Burma and beyond. Today in Sri
Lanka and South East Asia his authority is as weighty as it ever was and his name
is venerated as before.
The VlMUTTIMAGGA
Besides the books in Sinhala Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa names as available to
him (which have all disappeared) there was also a manual (existing now only in a
Chinese translation of the 6th century CE), presumed to have been written in Pali.
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa himself makes no mention of it; but his commentator,
Bhadantacariya Dhammapala (writing perhaps within two centuries of him),
mentions it by name (see Ch. Ill, n.19). The Visuddhimagga refutes a certain method
of classifying temperaments as unsound. The Elder Dhammapala ascribes the
theory refuted to the Vimuttimagga. The theory refuted is actually found in the
Chinese version. Then other points rejected by the Visuddhimagga are found in the
17. Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion, article "Buddhaghosa" by T. W. Rhys Davids.
Note also that another elder of the same name invited the writing of the
Sammohavinodanl. The problem is discussed at some length by Prof. Niharranjan Ray,
Theravada Buddhism in Burma, pp. 24ff.
xliv
Introduction
Vimuttimagga. Some of these are attributed by the Elder Dhammapala to the
Abhayagiri Monastery However, the Vimuttimagga itself contains nothing at all
of the Mahayana, its unorthodoxies being well within the "Hinayana" field.
The book is much shorter than the Visuddhimagga. Though set out in the same
three general divisions of virtue, concentration, and understanding, it does not
superimpose the pattern of the seven purifications. Proportionately much less space
is devoted to understanding, and there are no stories. Though the appearance in
both books of numbers of nearly identical passages suggests that they both drew a
good deal from the same sources, the general style differs widely. The four
measureless states and the four immaterial states are handled differently in the
two books. Besides the "material octads," "enneads" and "decads," it mentions
"endecads," etc., too. Its description of the thirteen ascetic practices is quite different.
Also Abhidhamma, which is the keystone of Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa's exegesis,
is not used at all in the Vimuttimagga (aggregates, truths, etc., do not in themselves
constitute Abhidhamma in the sense of that Pitaka). There is for instance even in its
description of the consciousness aggregate, no reference to the Dhammasanganl's
classification of 89 types, and nothing from the Patthana; and though the cognitive
series is stated once in its full form (in Ch. 11) no use is made of it to explain conscious
workings. This Vimuttimagga is in fact a book of practical instructions, not of exegesis.
Its authorship is ascribed to an Elder Upatissa. But the mere coincidence of
names is insufficient to identify him with the Arahant Upatissa (prior to 3 rd cent.
CE) mentioned in the Vinaya Parivara. A plausible theory puts its composition
sometime before the Visuddhimagga, possibly in India. That is quite compatible
with its being a product of the Great Monastery before the Visuddhimagga was
written, though again evidence is needed to support the hypothesis. That it contains
some minor points accepted by the Abhayagiri Monastery does not necessarily
imply that it had any special connections with that centre. The source may have
been common to both. The disputed points are not schismatical. Bhadantacariya
Buddhaghosa himself never mentions it.
Trends in the Development of TheravAda Doctrine
The doctrines (Dhamma) of the Theravada Pali tradition can be conveniently traced
in three main layers. (1) The first of these contains the main books of the Pali Sutta
Pitakas. (2) The second is the Abhidhamma Pitaka, notably the closely related books,
the Dhammasanganl, Vibhanga, Patthana. (3) The third is the system which the
author of the Visuddhimagga completed, or found completed, and which he set
himself to edit and translate back into Pali (some further minor developments took
place subsequently particularly with the 12th century (?) Abhidhammatthasahgaha,
but they are outside the present scope). The point at issue here is not the much-
debated historical question of how far the Abhidhamma books (leaving aside the
Kathavatthu) were contemporary with the Vinaya and Suttas, but rather what
discernible direction they show in evolution of thought.
(1) The Suttas being taken as the original exposition of the Buddha's teaching,
(2) the Abhidhamma Pitaka itself appears as a highly technical and specialized
systematization, or complementary set of modifications built upon that. Its
xlv
Path of Purification
upon that. Its immediate purpose is, one may say, to describe and pin-point
mental constituents and characteristics and relate them to their material basis
and to each other (with the secondary object, perhaps, of providing an efficient
defence in disputes with heretics and exponents of outsiders' doctrines). Its
ultimate purpose is to furnish additional techniques for getting rid of
unjustified assumptions that favour clinging and so obstruct the attainment
of the extinction of clinging. Various instruments have been forged in it for
sorting and re-sorting experience expressed as dhammas (see Ch. VII, n.l).
These instruments are new to the Suttas, though partly traceable to them.
The principal instruments peculiar to it are three: (a) the strict treatment of
experience (or the knowable and knowledge, using the words in their widest
possible sense) in terms of momentary cognizable states (dhamma) and the
definition of these states, which is done in the Dhammasangani and Vibhaiiga;
(b) the creation of a "schedule" (matika) consisting of a set of triple (tika) and
double (duka) classifications for sorting these states; and (c) the enumeration
of twenty-four kinds of conditioning relations (paccaya), which is done in the
Patthana. The states as defined are thus, as it were, momentary "stills"; the
structure of relations combines the stills into continuities; the schedule
classifications indicate the direction of the continuities.
The three Abhidhamma books already mentioned are the essential basis
for what later came to be called the "Abhidhamma method": together they
form an integral whole. The other four books, which may be said to support
them in various technical fields, need not be discussed here. This, then, is a
bare outline of what is in fact an enormous maze with many unexplored
side-turnings.
(3) The system found in the Commentaries has moved on (perhaps slightly
diverged) from the strict Abhidhamma Pitaka standpoint. The Suttas offered
descriptions of discovery; the Abhidhamma map-making; but emphasis now is
not on discovery, or even on mapping, so much as on consolidating, filling in and
explaining. The material is worked over for consistency Among the principal new
developments here are these. The "cognitive series" (citta-vithi) in the occurrence
of the conscious process is organized (see Ch. I V n.13 and Table V) and completed,
and its association with three different kinds of kamma is laid down. The term
sabhdva ("individual essence," "own-being" or "it-ness," see Ch. VII, n.68) is
introduced to explain the key word dhamma, thereby submitting that term to
ontological criticism, while the samaya ("event" or "occasion") of the Dhamm-
asangani is now termed a khana ("moment"), thus shifting the weight and balance
a little in the treatment of time. Then there is the specific ascription of the three
"instants" (khana, too) of arising, presence and dissolution ( uppada-tthiti-bhanga )
to each "moment" (khana), one "material moment" being calculated to last as long
as sixteen "mental moments" (XX.24; Dhs-a 60). 18 New to the Pitakas are also the
rather unwieldy enumeration of concepts (pahnatti, see Ch. VIII, n.ll), and the
18. The legitimateness of the mental moment of "presence" (thiti) as deducible from
A 1 152 is questioned by Acariya Ananda (Vibh-t), who wrote early in the Middle Period;
he cites the Yamaka (refs.: II 13-14; and I 216-17) against it.
xlvi
Introduction
handy defining-formula of word-meaning, characteristic, function,
manifestation, and proximate cause (locus); also many minor instances such as
the substitution of the specific “heart-basis" for the Patthana's "material basis
of mind," the conception of "material octads," etc., the detailed descriptions of
the thirty-two parts of the body instead of the bare enumeration of the names in
the Suttas (thirty-one in the four Nikayas and thirty- two in the Khuddakapatha
and the Patisambhidamagga), and many more. And the word paramattha acquires
a new and slightly altered currency. The question of how much this process of
development owes to the post-Mauryan evolution of Sanskrit thought on the
Indian mainland (either through assimilation or opposition) still remains to be
explored, like so many others in this field. The object of this sketch is only to
point to a few landmarks.
The Paramatthamanjusa
The notes to this translation contain many quotations from the commentary to
the Visuddhimagga, called the Paramatthamanjusa or Maha-tika. It is regarded as
an authoritative work. The quotations are included both for the light they shed
on difficult passages in the Visuddhimagga and for the sake o'f rendering for the
first time some of the essays interspersed in it. The prologue and epilogue give
its author as an elder named Dhammapala, who lived at Badaratittha (identified
as near Chennai). This author, himself also an Indian, is usually held to have
lived within two centuries or so of Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa. There is
nothing to say that he ever came to Sri Lanka.
The Visuddhimagga quotes freely from the Patisambhidamagga, the
commentary to which was written by an elder named Mahanama (date in the
Middle Period and place of residence uncertain). Mostly but not quite always,
the Elder Dhammapala says the same thing, when commenting on these quoted
passages, as the Elder Mahanama but in more words. 19 He relies much on
syllogisms and logical arguments. Also there are several discussions of some of
the systems of the "Six Schools" of Brahmanical philosophy. There are no stories.
This academic writer is difficult, formalistic, and often involved, very careful
and accurate. Various other works are attributed to him.
19. The Elder Dhammapala, commenting on Vism XXI. 77, takes the reading
phutthantam sacchikato and explains that (cf. Mula Tlka, Pug-t 32), but the Elder
Mahanama, commenting on the Patisambhidamagga from which the passage is quoted,
takes the reading phutthatta sacchikato and comments differently (Patis-a 396,
Hewavitarne ed.). Again, what is referred to as "said by some (keci)" in the Elder
Dhammapala's comment on the Visuddhimagga (see Vism VIII, n.46) is put forward by
the Elder Mahanama with no such reservation (Patis-a 351). It is the usual standard of
strict consistency that makes such very minor divergences noticeable. These two
commentators, though, rarely reproduce each other verbatim. Contrastingly, where the
Paramatthamanjusa and the Mulattka similarly overlap, the sentences are mostly verbatim,
but the former, with extra material, looks like an expanded version of the latter, or the
latter a cut version of the former.
xlvii
Path of Purification
Some Main Threads in the Visuddhimagga
The Visuddhimagga is probably best regarded as a detailed manual for meditation
masters, and as a work of reference. As to its rather intricate construction, the List
of Contents is given rather fully in order to serve as a guide to the often
complicated form of the chapters and to the work as a whole. In addition, the
following considerations may be noted.
Chapters I and II, which deal with virtue as the practice of restraint, or
withdrawal, need present no difficulties. It can be remarked here, though, that
when the Buddhist ascetic goes into seclusion (restrains the sense doors), it would
be incorrect to say of him that he "leaves the world"; for where a man is, there is his
world (loka), as appears in the discourse quoted in VII.36 (cf. also S IV 116 as well
as many other suttas on the same subject). So when he retreats from the clamour
of society to the woods and rocks, he takes his world with him, as though
withdrawing to his laboratory, in order to better analyze it.
Chapters III to XI describe the process of concentration and give directions for
attaining it by means of a choice of forty meditation subjects for developing
concentration. The account of each single meditation subject as given here is
incomplete unless taken in conjunction with the whole of Part III (Understanding),
which applies to all. Concentration is training in intensity and depth of focus and
in single-mindedness. While Buddhism makes no exclusive claim to teach jhana
concentration (samatha = samadhi), it does claim that the development of insight
(vipassand) culminating in penetration of the Four Noble Truths is peculiar to it.
The two have to be coupled together in order to attain the Truths 20 and the end of
suffering. Insight is initially training to see experience as it occurs, without
misperception, invalid assumptions, or wrong inferences.
Chapters XII and XIII describe the rewards of concentration fully developed
without insight.
Chapters XIV to XVII on understanding are entirely theoretical. Experience in
general is dissected, and the separated components are described and grouped in
several alternative patterns in Chapters XIV to XVI. 1-12. The rest of Chapter XVI
expounds the Four Noble Truths, the centre of the Buddha's teaching. After that,
dependent origination, or the structure of conditionality is dealt with in its aspect
of arising, or the process of being (Ch. XVII; as cessation, or Nibbana, it is dealt with
separately in Chapters XVI and XIX). The formula of dependent origination in its
varying modes describes the working economics of the first two truths (suffering
as outcome of craving, and craving itself — see also Ch. XVII, n.48). Without an
understanding of conditionality the Buddha's teaching cannot be grasped: "He
who sees dependent origination sees the Dhamma" (M 1 191), though not all details
in this work are always necessary Since the detailed part of this chapter is very
elaborate (§58-272), a first reading confined to §1-6, §20-57, and §273-314, might
help to avoid losing the thread. These four chapters are "theoretical" because they
contain in detailed form what needs to be learnt, if only in outline, as "book-learning"
20. See A II 56; Patis II 92f.
xlviii
Introduction
(sotavadhana-mna). They furnish techniques for describing the total experience and
the experienceable rather as the branches of arithmetic and double-entry bookkeeping
are to be learned as techniques for keeping accurate business accounts.
Chapters XVIII to XXI, on the contrary are practical and give instructions for
applying the book-knowledge learnt from Chapters XIV to XVII by analyzing in
its terms the meditator's individual experience, dealing also with what may be
expected to happen in the course of development. Chapter XVIII as "defining of
mentality-materiality" (first application of Chapters XIV to XVI) and Chapter XIX
as "discerning conditions" (first application of Chapter XVII) are preparatory to
insight proper, which begins in Chapter XX with contemplation of rise and fall.
After this, progress continues through the "eight knowledges" with successive
clarification — clarification of view of the object and consequent alterations of
subjective attitude towards it — till a point, called "conformity knowledge," is
reached which, through one of the "three gateways to liberation," heralds the
attainment of the first supramundane path.
In Chapter XXII, the attainment of the four successive supramundane paths (or
successive stages in realization) is described, with the first of which Nibbana
(extinction of the craving which originates suffering) is 'seen' for the first time,
having till then been only intellectually conceived. At that moment suffering as a
noble truth is fully understood, craving, its origin, is abandoned, suffering's
cessation is realized, and the way to its cessation is developed. 21 The three remaining
paths develop further and complete that vision.
Finally Chapter XXIII, as the counterpart of Chapters XII and XIII, describes
the benefits of understanding. The description of Nibbana is given at Chapter VIII,
§245ff., and a discussion of it at Chapter XVI, §66ff.
Concerning the Translation
The pitfalls that await anyone translating from another European language into
his own native English are familiar enough; there is no need for him to fall into
them. But when he ventures upon rendering an Oriental language, he will often
have to be his own guide.
Naturally, a translator from Pali today owes a large debt to his predecessors and
to the Pali Text Society's publications, including in particular the Society's invaluable
Pali-English Dictionary. A translator of the Visuddhimagga, too, must make due
acknowledgement of its pioneer translation 22 U Pe Maung Tin.
21. In the present work the development of serenity (concentration) is carried to its
limit before insight (understanding) is dealt with. This is for clarity. But in the
commentary to the Satipatthana Sutta (DN 22, MN 10) either the two are developed
contemporaneously or insight is allowed to precede jhana concentration. According to
the Suttas, concentration of jhana strength is necessary for the manifestation of the
path (see e.g. XIV127; XV n.7; D II 313 = M III 252; A II 156, quoted at Patis II 92f.).
22. Reprinted by the Pali Text Society as Path of Purity, 1922-31.
xlix
Path of Purification
The word pali is translatable by “text." The pali language (the “text language/'
which the commentators call Magadhan) holds a special position, with no European
parallel, being reserved to one field, namely, the Buddha's teaching. So there are
no alien echoes. In the Suttas, the Sanskrit is silent, and it is heavily muted in the
later literature. This fact, coupled with the richness and integrity of the subject
itself, gives it a singular limpidness and depth in its early form, as in a string quartet
or the clear ocean, which attains in the style of the Suttas to an exquisite and
unrivalled beauty unreflectable by any rendering. Traces seem to linger even in
the intricate formalism preferred by the commentators.
This translation presents many formidable problems. Mainly either
epistemological and psychological, or else linguistic, they relate either to what
ideas and things are being discussed, or else to the manipulation of dictionary
meanings of words used in discussion.
The first is perhaps dominant. As mentioned earlier, the Visuddhimagga can be
properly studied only as part of the whole commentarial edifice, whose cornerstone
it is. But while indexes of words and subjects to the PTS edition of the Visuddhimagga
exist, most of its author's works have only indexes of Pitaka words and names
commented on but none for the mass of subject matter. So the student has to make
his own. Of the commentaries too, only the Atthasdlinl, the Dhammapada
Commentary, and the Jataka Commentary have so far been translated (and the
latter two are rather in a separate class). But that is a minor aspect.
This book is largely technical and presents all the difficulties peculiar to technical
translation: it deals, besides, with mental happenings. Now where many synonyms
are used, as they often are in Pali, for public material objects — an elephant, say or
gold or the sun — the "material objects" should be pointable to, if there is doubt
about what is referred to. Again even such generally recognized private experiences
as those referred to by the words “consciousness" or “pain" seem too obvious to
introspection for uncertainty to arise (communication to fail) if they are given variant
symbols. Here the English translator can forsake the Pali allotment of synonyms
and indulge a liking for “elegant variation," if he has it, without fear of muddle.
But mind is fluid, as it were, and materially negative, and its analysis needs a
different and a strict treatment. In the Suttas, and still more in the Abhidhamma,
charting by analysis and definition of pin-pointed mental states is carried far into
unfamiliar waters. It was already recognized then that this is no more a solid
landscape of “things" to be pointed to when variation has resulted in vagueness.
As an instance of disregard of this fact: a greater scholar with impeccable historical
and philological judgment (perhaps the most eminent of the English translators)
has in a single work rendered the cattdro satipatthana (here represented by “four
foundations of mindfulness") by “four inceptions of deliberation," "fourfold setting
up of mindfulness," "fourfold setting up of starting," "four applications of
mindfulness," and other variants. The PED foreword observes: "No one needs now
to use the one English word 'desire' as a translation of sixteen distinct Pali words,
no one of which means precisely desire. Yet this was done in Vol. X of the Sacred
Books of the East by Max Muller and Fausboll." True; but need one go to the other
extreme? How without looking up the Pali can one be sure if the same idea is
1
Introduction
referred to by all these variants and not some other such as those referred to by
cattaro iddhipada ("'four roads to power" or "bases of success"), cattaro sam ma ppadha na
("four right endeavours"), etc., or one of the many other "fours"? It is customary
not to vary say, the "call for the categorical imperative" in a new context by some
such alternative as "uncompromising order" or "plain-speaking bidding" or "call
for unconditional surrender," which the dictionaries would justify, or "faith"
which the exegetists might recommend; that is to say, if it is hoped to avoid
confusion. The choosing of an adequate rendering is, however, a quite different
problem.
But there is something more to be considered before coming to that. So far
only the difficulty of isolating, symbolizing, and describing individual mental
states has been touched on. But here the whole mental structure with its temporal-
dynamic process is dealt with too. Identified mental as well as material states (none
of which can arise independently) must be recognizable with their associations
when encountered in new circumstances: for here arises the central question of
thought-association and its manipulation. That is tacitly recognized in the Pali. If
disregarded in the English rendering the tenuous structure with its inferences and
negations — the flexible pattern of thought-associations — can no longer be
communicated or followed, because the pattern of speech no longer reflects it, and
whatever may be communicated is only fragmentary and perhaps deceptive.
Renderings of words have to be distinguished, too, from renderings of words used
to explain those words. From this aspect the Oriental system of word-by-word
translation, which transliterates the sound of the principal substantive and verb
stems and attaches to them local inflections, has much to recommend it, though, of
course, it is not readable as "literature." One is handling instead of pictures of
isolated ideas or even groups of ideas a whole coherent chart system. And besides,
words, like maps and charts, are conventionally used to represent high dimensions.
When already identified states or currents are encountered from new angles,
the new situation can be verbalized in one of two ways at least: either by using in a
new appropriate verbal setting the words already allotted to these states, or by
describing the whole situation afresh in different terminology chosen ad hoc. While
the second may gain in individual brightness, connections with other allied
references can hardly fail to be lost. Aerial photographs must be taken from
consistent altitudes, if they are to be used for making maps. And words serve the
double purpose of recording ideas already formed and of arousing new ones.
Structural coherence between different parts in the Pali of the present work
needs reflecting in the translation — especially in the last ten chapters — if the thread
is not soon to be lost. In fact, in the Pali (just as much in the Tipitaka as in its
Commentaries), when such subjects are being handled, one finds that a tacit rule,
"One term and one flexible definition for one idea (or state or event or situation)
referred to," is adhered to pretty thoroughly. The reason has already been made
clear. With no such rule, ideas are apt to disintegrate or coalesce or fictitiously
multiply (and, of course, any serious attempt at indexing in English is stultified).
23. See Prof. I. A. Richards, Mencius on Mind, Kegan Paul, 1932.
li
Path of Purification
One thing needs to be made clear, though; for there is confusion of thought on
this whole subject (one so far only partly investigated). 23 This "rule of parsimony
in variants" has nothing to do with mechanical transliteration, which is a
translator's refuge when he is unsure of himself. The guiding rule, "One
recognizable idea, one word, or phrase to symbolize it," in no sense implies any
such rule as, "One Pali word, one English word," which is neither desirable nor
practicable. Nor in translating need the rule apply beyond the scope reviewed.
So much for the epistemological and psychological problems.
The linguistic problem is scarcely less formidable though much better
recognized. While English is extremely analytic, Pali (another Indo-European
language) is one of the groups of tongues regarded as dominated by Sanskrit,
strongly agglutinative, forming long compounds and heavily inflected. The
vocabulary chosen occasioned much heart-searching but is still very imperfect.
If a few of the words encountered seem a bit algebraical at first, contexts and
definitions should make them clear. In the translation of an Oriental language,
especially a classical one, the translator must recognize that such knowledge
which the Oriental reader is taken for granted to possess is lacking in his
European counterpart, who tends unawares to fill the gaps from his own foreign
store: the result can be like taking two pictures on one film. Not only is the
common background evoked by the words shadowy and patchy but European
thought and Indian thought tend to approach the problems of human existence
from opposite directions. This affects word formations. And so double meanings
(utraquisms, puns, and metaphors) and etymological links often follow quite
different tracks, a fact which is particularly intrusive in describing mental events,
where the terms employed are mainly "material" ones used metaphorically.
Unwanted contexts constantly creep in and wanted ones stay out. Then there are no
well-defined techniques for recognizing and handling idioms, literal rendering of
which misleads (while, say one may not wonder whether to render tour deforce by
"enforced tour" or "tower of strength," one cannot always be so confident in Pali).
Then again in the Visuddhimagga alone the actual words and word-meanings
not in the PED come to more than two hundred and forty The PED, as its preface
states, is "essentially preliminary"; for when it was published many books had
still not been collated; it leaves out many words even from the Sutta Pitaka, and
the Sub-commentaries are not touched by it. Also — and most important here — in
the making of that dictionary the study of Pali literature had for the most part not
been tackled much from, shall one say, the philosophical, or better, epistemological,
angle, 24 work and interest having been concentrated till then almost exclusively on
history and philology For instance, the epistemologically unimportant word vimann
(divine mansion) is given more than twice the space allotted to the term paticca-
samuppada (dependent origination), a difficult subject of central importance, the
article on which is altogether inadequate and misleading (owing partly to
misapplication of the "historical method"). Then gala (throat) has been found more
24. Exceptions are certain early works of Mrs. C.A.E Rhys Davids. See also discussions
in appendixes to the translations of the Kathavatthu ( Points of Controversy, PTS) and the
Abhidhammatthasangaha ( Compendium of Philosophy , PTS).
lii
Introduction
glossarialy interesting than patisandhi (rebirth-linking), the original use of which
word at M III 230 is ignored. Under ndma, too, nama-rupa is confused with nama-
kaya. And so one might continue. By this, however, it is not intended at all to
depreciate that great dictionary, but only to observe that in using it the Pali student
has sometimes to be wary: if it is criticized in particular here (and it can well hold
its own against criticism), tribute must also be paid to its own inestimable general
value.
Concluding Remarks
Current standard English has been aimed at and preference given always to
simplicity This has often necessitated cutting up long involved sentences, omitting
connecting particles (such as pana, pan'ettha, yasma when followed by tasma, hi, kho,
etc.), which serve simply as grammatical grease in long chains of subordinate
periods. Conversely the author is sometimes extraordinarily elliptic (as in XIV46
and XVI. 68f.), and then the device of square brackets has been used to add
supplementary matter, without which the sentence would be too enigmatically
shorthand. Such additions (kept to the minimum) are in almost every case taken
from elsewhere in the work itself or from the Pammatthamanjusa. Round brackets
have been reserved for references and for alternative renderings (as, e.g., in 1.140)
where there is a sense too wide for any appropriate English word to straddle.
A few words have been left untranslated (see individual notes). The choice is
necessarily arbitrary. It includes kamma, dhamma (sometimes), jhana, Buddha
(sometimes), bhikkhu, Nibbana, Pdtimokkha, kasina, Pitaka, and arahant. There seemed
no advantage and much disadvantage in using the Sanskrit forms, bhiksu, dharma,
dhyana, arhat, etc., as is sometimes done (even though "karma" and "nirvana" are
in the Concise Oxford Dictionary), and no reason against absorbing the Pali words
into English as they are by dropping the diacritical marks. Proper names appear in
their Pali spelling without italics and with diacritical marks. Wherever Pali words
or names appear, the stem form has been used (e.g. Buddha, kamma) rather than the
inflected nominative (Buddho, kammam), unless there were reasons against it. 25
Accepted renderings have not been departed from nor earlier translators gone
against capriciously It seemed advisable to treat certain emotionally charged words
such as "real" (especially with a capital R) with caution. Certain other words have
been avoided altogether. For example, vassa ("rains") signifies a three-month period
of residence in one place during the rainy season, enjoined upon bhikkhus by the
Buddha in order that they should not travel about trampling down crops and so
25. Pronounce letters as follows: a as in countryman, a father, e whey, i chin, z machine,
u full, u rule; c church (always), g give (always); h always sounded separately, e.g. bh in
cab-horse, ch in catch him (not kitchen), ph in upholstery (not telephone), th in hot-
house (not pathos), etc.; j joke; in and h as ng in singer, n as ni in onion; d, /, n and t are
pronounced with tongue-tip on palate; d, t, n and with tongue-tip on teeth; double
consonants as in Italian, e.g. dd as in mad dog (not madder), gg as in big gun (not
bigger); rest as in English.
26. Of the principal English value words, "real," "truth," "beauty" "good," "absolute,"
"being," etc.: "real" has been used for tatha (XVI. 24), "truth" allotted to sacca (XVI. 25)
and "beauty" to subha (IX.119); "good" has been used sometimes for the prefix su- and
liii
Path of Purification
annoy farmers. To translate it by "lent" as is sometimes done lets in a historical
background and religious atmosphere of mourning and fasting quite alien to it
(with no etymological support). "Metempsychosis" for patisandhi is another
notable instance. 26
The handling of three words, dhamma, citta, and rupa (see Glossary and relevant
notes) is admittedly something of a makeshift. The only English word that might
with some agility be used consistently for dhamma seems to be "idea"; but it has
been crippled by philosophers and would perhaps mislead. Citta might with
advantage have been rendered throughout by "cognizance," in order to preserve
its independence, instead of rendering it sometimes by "mind" (shared with mano)
and sometimes by "consciousness" (shared with vihhana) as has been done. But in
many contexts all three Pali words are synonyms for the same general notion (see
XIV82); and technically, the notion of "cognition," referred to in its bare aspect by
vihhana, is also referred to along with its concomitant affective colouring, thought
and memory, etc., by citta. So the treatment accorded to citta here finds support to
that extent. Lastly "mentality-materiality" for nama-rupa is inadequate and "name-
and-form" in some ways preferable. "Name" (see Ch. XVIII, n.4) still suggests
nama's function of "naming"; and "form" for the rupa of the rupakkhandha
("materiality aggregate") can preserve the link with the rupa of the rupayatana,
("visible-object base") by rendering them respectively with "material form
aggregate" and "visible form base" — a point not without philosophical importance.
A compromise has been made at Chapter X.13. "Materiality" or "matter" wherever
used should not be taken as implying any hypostasis, any "permanent or semi-
permanent substance behind appearances" (the objective counterpart of the
subjective ego), which would find no support in the Pali.
The editions of Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand have been consulted as well as
the two Latin-script editions; and Sinhalese translations, besides. The paragraph
numbers of the Harvard University Press edition will be found at the start of
paragraphs and the page numbers of the Pali Text Society's edition in square
brackets in the text (the latter, though sometimes appearing at the end of paragraphs,
mark the beginnings of the PTS pages). Errors of readings and punctuation in the
PTS edition not in the Harvard edition have not been referred to in the notes.
For the quotations from the Tipitaka it was found impossible to make use of
existing published translations because they lacked the kind of treatment sought.
However, other translation work in hand served as the basis for all the Pitaka
quotations.
Rhymes seemed unsuitable for the verses from the Tipitaka and the "Ancients";
but they have been resorted to for the summarizing verses belonging to the
Visuddhimagga itself. The English language is too weak in fixed stresses to lend
also for the adj. kalyana and the subst. attha. "Absolute" has not been employed, though
it might perhaps be used for the word advaya, which qualifies the word kasina
("universality," "totalization") at M II 14, and then: "One (man) perceives earth as a
universality above, below, around, absolute, measureless" could be an alternative for
the rendering given in V38. "Being" (as abstract subst.) has sometimes been used for
bhava, which is otherwise rendered by "becoming."
liv
Introduction
itself to Pali rhythms, though one attempt to reproduce them was made in
Chapter IV
Where a passage from a sutta is commented on, the order of the explanatory
comments follows the Pali order of words in the original sentence, which is not
always that of the translation of it.
In Indian books the titles and subtitles are placed only at, the end of the subject
matter. In the translations they have been inserted at the beginning, and some
subtitles added for the sake of clarity In this connection the title at the end of
Chapter XI, "Description of Concentration" is a "heading" applying not only to
that chapter but as far back as the beginning of Chapter III. Similarly, the title at the
end of Chapter XIII refers back to the beginning of Chapter XII. The heading
"Description of the Soil in which Understanding Grows" (panna-bhumi-niddesa)
refers back from the end of Chapter XVII to the beginning of Chapter XIV.
The book abounds in "shorthand" allusions to the Pitakas and to other parts of
itself. They are often hard to recognize, and failure to do so results in a sentence
with a half-meaning. It is hoped that most of them have been hunted down.
Criticism has been strictly confined to the application of Pali Buddhist standards
in an attempt to produce a balanced and uncoloured English counterpart of the
original. The use of words has been stricter in the translation itself than the
Introduction to it.
The translator will, of course, have sometimes slipped or failed to follow his
own rules; and there are many passages any rendering of which is bound to evoke
query from some quarter where there is interest in the subject. As to the rules,
however, and the vocabulary chosen, it has not been intended to lay down laws,
and when the methods adopted are described above that is done simply to indicate
the line taken: Janapada-niruttim nabhiniveseyya, samanham ndti-dhaveyyd ti (see
XVII.24).
lv
The Path of Purification
(Visuddhimagga)
Part I
Virtue (Silo)
Namo tassa bhagavato arahato
sammasambuddhassa
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
(Slla-niddesa)
[I. Introductory]
1. [1] “When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle" (S 1 13).
This was said. But why was it said? While the Blessed One was living at Savatthi,
it seems, a certain deity came to him in the night, and in order to do away with his
doubts, he asked this question:
"The inner tangle and the outer tangle —
This generation is entangled in a tangle.
And so I ask of Gotama this question:
Who succeeds in disentangling this tangle?" (S 1 13).
2. Here is the meaning in brief. Tangle is a term for the network of craving. For
that is a tangle in the sense of lacing together, like the tangle called network of
branches in bamboo thickets, etc., because it goes on arising again and again up
and down 1 among the objects [of consciousness] beginning with what is visible.
But it is called the inner tangle and the outer tangle because it arises [as craving] for
one's own requisites and another's, for one's own person and another's, and for
the internal and external bases [for consciousness]. Since it arises in this way, this
generation is entangled in a tangle. As the bamboos, etc., are entangled by the bamboo
tangle, etc., so too this generation, in other words, this order of living beings, is all
entangled by the tangle of craving — the meaning is that it is intertwined, interlaced
by it. [2] And because it is entangled like this, so I ask of Gotama this question, that is
why I ask this. He addressed the Blessed One by his clan name as Gotama. Who
1. "From a visible datum sometimes as far down as a mental datum, or vice versa,
following the order of the six kinds of objects of consciousness as given in the teaching"
(Vism-mht 5, see XV32).
5
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
succeeds in disentangling this tangle: who may disentangle this tangle that keeps the
three kinds of existence entangled in this way? — What he asks is, who is capable of
disentangling it?
3. However, when questioned thus, the Blessed One, whose knowledge of all
things is unimpeded, deity of deities, excelling Sakka (Ruler of Gods), excelling
Brahma, fearless in the possession of the four kinds of perfect confidence, wielder
of the ten powers, all-seer with unobstructed knowledge, uttered this stanza in
reply to explain the meaning:
"When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle."
4. My task is now to set out the true sense,
Divided into virtue and the rest.
Of this same verse composed by the Great Sage.
There are here in the Victor's Dispensation
Seekers gone forth from home to homelessness,
And who although desiring purity
Have no right knowledge of the sure straight way
Comprising virtue and the other two,
Right hard to find, that leads to purity —
Who, though they strive, here gain no purity
To them I shall expound the comforting Path
Of Purification, pure in expositions,
Relying on the teaching of the dwellers
In the Great Monastery; 2 let all those
Good men who do desire purity
Listen intently to my exposition.
5. Herein, purification should be understood as Nibbana, which being devoid of
all stains, is utterly pure. The path of purification is the path to that purification; it is
the means of approach that is called the path. The meaning is, I shall expound that
path of purification.
6. In some instances this path of purification is taught by insight alone, 3 according
as it is said:
2. The Great Monastery (Mahavihara) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka.
3. "The words 'insight alone' are meant to exclude not virtue, etc., but serenity (i.e.
jhana ), which is the opposite number in the pair, serenity and insight. This is for
emphasis. But the word 'alone' actually excludes only that concentration with distinction
[of jhana]; for concentration is classed as both access and absorption (see IV32). Taking
this stanza as the teaching for one whose vehicle is insight does not imply that there is
no concentration; for no insight comes about without momentary concentration. And
again, insight should be understood as the three contemplations of impermanence,
pain, and not-self; not contemplation of impermanence alone" (Vism-mht 9-10).
6
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
"Formations are all impermanent:
When he sees thus with understanding
And turns away from what is ill,
That is the path to purity" (Dhp 277). [3]
And in some instances by jhana and understanding, according as it is said:
"He is near unto Nibbana
In whom are jhana and understanding" (Dhp 372).
And in some instances by deeds (kamma), etc., according as it is said:
"By deeds, vision and righteousness,
By virtue, the sublimest life —
By these are mortals purified,
And not by lineage and wealth" (M III 262).
And in some instances by virtue, etc., according as it is said:
"He who is possessed of constant virtue,
Who has understanding, and is concentrated,
Who is strenuous and diligent as well,
Will cross the flood so difficult to cross" (S I 53).
And in some instances by the foundations of mindfulness, etc., according as it
is said: "Bhikkhus, this path is the only way for the purification of beings . . . for the
realization of Nibbana, that is to say, the four foundations of mindfulness" (D II
290); and similarly in the case of the right efforts, and so on. But in the answer to
this question it is taught by virtue and the other two.
7. Here is a brief commentary [on the stanza]. Established well in virtue : standing
on virtue. It is only one actually fulfilling virtue who is here said to "stand on
virtue." So the meaning here is this: being established well in virtue by fulfilling
virtue. A man : a living being. Wise: possessing the kind of understanding that is
born of kamma by means of a rebirth-linking with triple root-cause. Develops
consciousness and understanding: develops both concentration and insight. For it is
concentration that is described here under the heading of "consciousness," and
insight under that of "understanding." 4 Ardent ( atapin ): possessing energy For it is
energy that is called "ardour" ( atapa ) in the sense of burning up and consuming
( atapana-paritapana ) defilements. He has that, thus he is ardent. Sagacious: it is
4. "'Develops' applies to both 'consciousness' and 'understanding.' But are they
mundane or supramundane? They are supramundane, because the sublime goal is
described; for one developing them is said to disentangle the tangle of craving by cutting
it off at the path moment, and that is not mundane. But the mundane are included here
too because they immediately precede, since supramundane (see Ch. Ill n._5)
concentration and insight are impossible without mundane concentration and insight
to precede them; for without the access and absorption concentration in one whose
vehicle is serenity, or without the momentary concentration in one whose vehicle is
insight, and without the gateways to liberation (see XXI. 66f.), the supramundane can
never in either case be reached" (Vism-mht 13). "With triple root-cause" means with
non-greed, none-hate, and non-delusion.
7
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
understanding that is called “sagacity"; possessing that, is the meaning. This word
shows protective understanding. For understanding is mentioned three times in
the reply to the question. Herein, the first is naive understanding, the second is
understanding consisting in insight, while the third is the protective understanding
that guides all affairs. He sees fear (bhayam ikkhati) in the round of rebirths, thus he
is a bhikkhu. He succeeds in disentangling this tangle : [4] Just as a man standing on the
ground and taking up a well-sharpened knife might disentangle a great tangle of
bamboos, so too, he — this bhikkhu who possesses the six things, namely, this virtue,
and this concentration described under the heading of consciousness, and this
threefold understanding, and this ardour — standing on the ground of virtue and
taking up with the hand of protective-understanding exerted by the power of energy
the knife of insight-understanding well-sharpened on the stone of concentration,
might disentangle, cut away and demolish all the tangle of craving that had
overgrown his own life's continuity But it is at the moment of the path that he is
said to be disentangling that tangle; at the moment of fruition he has disentangled
the tangle and is worthy of the highest offerings in the world with its deities. That
is why the Blessed One said:
“When a wise man, established well in virtue,
Develops consciousness and understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this tangle."
8. Herein there is nothing for him to do about the [naive] understanding on
account of which he is called wise ; for that has been established in him simply by
the influence of previous kamma. But the words ardent and sagacious mean that by
persevering with energy of the kind here described and by acting in full awareness
with understanding he should, having become well established in virtue, develop
the serenity and insight that are described as concentration and understanding. This
is how the Blessed One shows the path of purification under the headings of virtue,
concentration, and understanding there.
9. What has been shown so far is the three trainings, the dispensation that is
good in three ways, the necessary condition for the threefold dear-vision, etc., the
avoidance of the two extremes and the cultivation of the middle way, the means to
surmounting the states of loss, etc., the abandoning of defilements in three aspects,
prevention of transgression etc., purification from the three kinds of defilements,
and the reason for the states of stream-entry and so on. How?
10. Here the training of higher virtue is shown by virtue; the training of higher
consciousness, by concentration; and the training of higher understanding, by
understanding.
The dispensation's goodness in the beginning is shown by virtue. Because of the
passage, “And what is the beginning of profitable things? Virtue that is quite
purified" (S V 143), and because of the passage beginning, “The not doing of any
evil" (Dhp 183), virtue is the beginning of the dispensation. And that is good because
it brings about the special qualities of non-remorse, 5 and so on. Its goodness in the
5. One who is virtuous has nothing to be remorseful about.
8
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
middle is shown by concentration. [5] Because of the passage beginning, "Entering
upon the profitable" (Dhp 183), concentration is the middle of the dispensation.
And that is good because it brings about the special qualities of supernormal power,
and so on. Its goodness in the end is shown by understanding. Because of the passage,
"The purifying of one's own mind — this is the Buddhas' dispensation" (Dhp 183),
and because understanding is its culmination, understanding is the end of the
dispensation. And that is good because it brings about equipoise with respect to
the desired and the undesired. For this is said:
"Just as a solid massive rock
Remains unshaken by the wind.
So too, in face of blame and praise
The wise remain immovable" (Dhp 81).
11 . Likewise the necessary condition for the triple clear-vision is shown by virtue.
For with the support of perfected virtue one arrives at the three kinds of clear-
vision, but nothing besides that. The necessary condition for the six kinds of direct-
knowledge is shown by concentration. For with the support of perfected
concentration one arrives at the six kinds of direct-knowledge, but nothing besides
that. The necessary condition for the categories of discrimination is shown by
understanding. For with the support of perfected understanding one arrives at the
four kinds of discrimination, but not for any other reason. 6
And the avoidance of the extreme called devotion to indulgence of sense desires
is shown by virtue. The avoidance of the extreme called devotion to mortification
of self is shown by concentration. The cultivation of the middle way is shown by
understanding.
12. Likewise the means for surmounting the states of loss is shown by virtue ; the means
for surmounting the element of sense desires, by concentration; and the means for
surmounting all becoming, by understanding.
And the abandoning of defilements by substitution of opposites is shoivn by virtue ;
that by suppression is shown by concentration; and that by cutting off is shown by
understanding.
13. Likewise prevention of defilements' transgression is shoivn by virtue; prevention of
obsession (by defilement) is shown by concentration; prevention of inherent
tendencies is shown by understanding.
And purification from the defilement of misconduct is shown by virtue; purification
from the defilement of craving, by concentration; and purification from the
defilement of (false) views, by understanding.
6. The three kinds of clear-vision are: recollection of past lives, knowledge of the
passing away and reappearance of beings (divine eye), and knowledge of destruction
of cankers (M I 22-23). The six kinds of direct-knowledge are: knowledge of
supernormal power, the divine ear element, penetration of minds, recollection of past
lives, knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings, and knowledge of
destruction of cankers (M 1 34-35). The four discriminations are those of meaning, law,
language, and intelligence (A II 160).
9
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
14. [6] Likewise the reason for the states of stream-entry and once-retum is shown
by virtue ; that for the state of non-return, by concentration ; that for Arahantship by
understanding. For the stream-enterer is called “perfected in the kinds of virtue";
and likewise the once-returner. But the non-returner is called “perfected in con-
centration." And the Arahant is called "perfected in understanding" (see A 1 233).
15. So thus far these nine and other like triads of special qualities have been shown,
that is, the three trainings, the dispensation that is good in three ways, the necessary
condition for the threefold clear-vision, the avoidance of the two extremes and the
cultivation of the middle way the means for surmounting the states of loss, etc.,
the abandoning of defilements in three aspects, prevention of transgression, etc.,
purification from the three kinds of defilements, and the reason for the states of
stream-entry, and so on.
[II. Virtue]
16. However, even when this path of purification is shown in this way under the
headings of virtue, concentration and understanding, each comprising various
special qualities, it is still only shown extremely briefly. And so since that is
insufficient to help all, there is, in order to show it in detail, the following set of
questions dealing in the first place with virtue:
(i) What is virtue?
(ii) In what sense is it virtue?
(iii) What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate
cause?
(iv) What are the benefits of virtue?
(v) How many kinds of virtue are there?
(vi) What is the defiling of it?
(viii) What is the cleansing of it?
17. Here are the answers:
(i) What is virtue? It is the states beginning with volition present in one who
abstains from killing living things, etc., or in one who fulfils the practice of the
duties. For this is said in the Patisambhida: “What is virtue? There is virtue as
volition, virtue as consciousness-concomitant, 7 virtue as restraint, [7] virtue as non-
transgression" (Patis I 44).
Herein, virtue as volition is the volition present in one who abstains from killing
living things, etc., or in one who fulfils the practice of the duties. Virtue as consciousness-
concomitant is the abstinence in one who abstains from killing living things, and so on.
Furthermore, virtue as volition is the seven volitions [that accompany the first seven] of
the [ten] courses of action (kamma) in one who abandons the killing of living things,
and so on. Virtue as consciousness-concomitant is the [three remaining] states consisting
of non-covetousness, non-ill will, and right view, stated in the way beginning,
“Abandoning covetousness, he dwells with a mind free from covetousness" (D 1 71).
7. "Consciousness-concomitants" (cetasika) is a collective term for feeling, perception,
and formation, variously subdivided; in other words, aspects of mentality that arise
together with consciousness.
10
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
18. Virtue as restraint should be understood here as restraint in five ways: restraint
by the rules of the community (patimokkha), restraint by mindfulness, restraint
by knowledge, restraint by patience, and restraint by energy. Herein, “restraint
by the Patimokkha" is this: "He is furnished, fully furnished, with this
Patimokkha restraint. (Vibh 246)" "Restraint by mindfulness" is this: "He guards
the eye faculty, enters upon restraint of the eye faculty" (D I 70). "Restraint by
knowledge" is this:
"The currents in the world that flow, Ajita,"
said the Blessed One,
"Are stemmed by means of mindfulness;
Restraint of currents I proclaim.
By understanding they are dammed" (Sn 1035);
and use of requisites is here combined with this. But what is called "restraint by
patience" is that given in the way beginning, "He is one who bears cold and heat"
(M 1 10). And what is called "restraint by energy" is that given in the way beginning,
"He does not endure a thought of sense desires when it arises" (M 111); purification
of livelihood is here combined with this. So this fivefold restraint, and the abstinence,
in clansmen who dread evil, from any chance of transgression met with, should
all be understood to be "virtue as restraint."
Virtue as non-transgression is the non-transgression, by body or speech, of precepts
of virtue that have been undertaken.
This, in the first place, is the answer to the question, "What is virtue?" [8] Now,
as to the rest —
19. (ii) In what sense is rr virtue? It is virtue (silo) in the sense of composing ( silana ). 8
What is this composing? It is either a coordinating ( samadhana ), meaning non-
inconsistency of bodily action, etc., due to virtuousness; or it is an upholding
( upadharana ), 8 meaning a state of basis ( adhara ) owing to its serving as foundation
for profitable states. For those who understand etymology admit only these two
meanings. Others, however, comment on the meaning here in the way beginning,
"The meaning of virtue (silo) is the meaning of head (s ira), the meaning of virtue is
the meaning of cool (sitala)."
20. (iii) Now, what are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate
cause? Here:
The characteristic of it is composing
Even when analyzed in various ways,
As visibility is of visible data
Even when analyzed in various ways.
Just as visibleness is the characteristic of the visible-data base even when analyzed
into the various categories of blue, yellow, etc., because even when analyzed into
these categories it does not exceed visible-ness, so also this same composing,
described above as the coordinating of bodily action, etc., and as the foundation of
8. Silana and upadharana in this meaning (cf. Ch. I, §141 and sandhamna, XIV61) are
not in PED.
11
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
profitable states, is the characteristic of virtue even when analyzed into the various
categories of volition, etc., because even when analyzed into these categories it
does not exceed the state of coordination and foundation.
21. While such is its characteristic:
Its function has a double sense:
Action to stop misconduct, then
Achievement as the quality
Of blamelessness in virtuous men.
So what is called virtue should be understood to have the function (nature) of
stopping misconduct as its function (nature) in the sense of action, and a blameless
function (nature) as its function (nature) in the sense of achievement. For under
[these headings of] characteristic, etc., it is action ( kicca ) or it is achievement (sampatti)
that is called "function" ( rasa — nature).
22. Now, virtue, so say those who know,
Itself as purity will show;
And for its proximate cause they tell
The pair, conscience and shame, as well. [9]
This virtue is manifested as the kinds of purity stated thus: "Bodily purity, verbal
purity mental purity" (A I 271); it is manifested, comes to be apprehended, as a
pure state. But conscience and shame are said by those who know to be its proximate
cause; its near reason, is the meaning. For when conscience and shame are in
existence, virtue arises and persists; and when they are not, it neither arises nor
persists.
This is how virtue's characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause,
should be understood.
23. (iv) What are the benefits of virtue? Its benefits are the acquisition of the
several special qualities beginning with non-remorse. For this is said: "Ananda,
profitable habits (virtues) have non-remorse as their aim and non-remorse as their
benefit" (A V 1). Also it is said further: "Householder, there are these five benefits
for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. What five? Here, householder, one who
is virtuous, possessed of virtue, obtains a large fortune as a consequence of diligence;
this is the first benefit for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, of one
who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, a fair name is spread abroad; this is the second
benefit for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, whenever one who is
virtuous, possessed of virtue, enters an assembly whether of khattiyas (warrior-
nobles) or brahmans or householders or ascetics, he does so without fear or
hesitation; this is the third benefit for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again,
one who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, dies unconfused; this is the fourth benefit
for the virtuous in the perfecting of virtue. Again, one who is virtuous, possessed
of virtue, on the breakup of the body, after death, reappears in a happy destiny, in
the heavenly world; this is the fifth benefit for the virtuous in the perfecting of
virtue" (D II 86). There are also the many benefits of virtue beginning with being
dear and loved and ending with destruction of cankers described in the passage
beginning, "If a bhikkhu should wish, 'May I be dear to my fellows in the life of
12
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
purity and loved by them, held in respect and honoured by them,' let him perfect
the virtues" (M 1 33). This is how virtue has as its benefits the several special qualities
beginning with non-remorse. [10]
24. Furthermore:
Dare anyone a limit place
On benefits that virtue brings.
Without which virtue clansmen find
No footing in the dispensation?
No Ganges, and no Yamuna
No Sarabhu, SarassathI,
Or flowing Aciravat!,
Or noble River of Mahl,
Is able to wash out the stain
In things that breathe here in the world;
For only virtue's water can
Wash out the stain in living things.
No breezes that come bringing rain,
No balm of yellow sandalwood.
No necklaces beside, or gems
Or soft effulgence of moonbeams.
Can here avail to calm and soothe
Men's fevers in this world; whereas
This noble, this supremely cool,
Well-guarded virtue quells the flame.
Where is there to be found the scent
That can with virtue's scent compare.
And that is borne against the wind
As easily as with it? Where
Can such another stair be found
That climbs, as virtue does, to heaven?
Or yet another door that gives
Onto the City of Nibbana?
Shine as they may, there are no kings
Adorned with jewellery and pearls
That shine as does a man restrained
Adorned with virtue's ornament.
Virtue entirely does away
With dread of self-blame and the like;
Their virtue to the virtuous
Gives gladness always by its fame.
From this brief sketch it may be known
How virtue brings reward, and how
This root of all good qualities
Robs of its power every fault.
13
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
25. (v) Now, here is the answer to the question, How many kinds of virtue are
THERE?
1. Firstly all this virtue is of one kind by reason of its own characteristic of
composing.
2. It is of two kinds as keeping and avoiding.
3. Likewise as that of good behaviour and that of the beginning of the life of
purity,
4. As abstinence and non- abstinence,
5. As dependent and independent,
6. As temporary and lifelong,
7. As limited and unlimited,
8. As mundane and sup ramundane. [11]
9. It is of three kinds as inferior, medium, and superior.
10. Likewise as giving precedence to self, giving precedence to the world, and
giving precedence to the Dhamma,
11. As adhered to, not adhered to, and tranquillized.
12. As purified, unpurified, and dubious.
13. As that of the trainer, that of the non- trainer, and that of the neither- trainer-
nor-non-trainer.
14. It is of four kinds as partaking of diminution, of stagnation, of distinction,
of penetration.
15. Likewise as that of bhikkhus, of bhikkhunls, of the not- fully-admitted, of
the laity,
16. As natural, customary, necessary due to previous causes,
17. As virtue of Patimokkha restraint, of restraint of sense faculties, of
purification of livelihood, and that concerning requisites.
18. It is of five kinds as virtue consisting in limited purification, etc.; for this is
said in the Patisambhida: "Five kinds of virtue: virtue consisting in limited
purification, virtue consisting in unlimited purification, virtue consisting in fulfilled
purification, virtue consisting in unadhered-to purification, virtue consisting in
tranquillized purification" (Patis 1 42).
19. Likewise as abandoning, refraining, volition, restraint, and non-
transgression.
26. 1. Herein, in the section dealing with that of one kind, the meaning should
be understood as already stated.
2. In the section dealing with that of two kinds: fulfilling a training precept
announced by the Blessed One thus: "This should be done" is keeping ; not doing what
is prohibited by him thus: "This should not be done" is avoiding. Herein, the word-
meaning is this: they keep ( caranti ) within that, they proceed as people who fulfil the
virtues, thus it is keeping ( caritta ); they preserve, they protect, they avoid, thus it is
14
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
avoiding. Herein, keeping is accomplished by faith and energy; avoiding, by faith and
mindfulness. This is how it is of two kinds as keeping and avoiding.
27. 3. In the second dyad good behaviour is the best kind of behaviour. Good
behaviour itself is that of good behaviour-, or what is announced for the sake of good
behaviour is that of good behaviour. This is a term for virtue other than that which
has livelihood as eighth. 9 It is the initial stage of the life of purity consisting in the
path, thus it is that of the beginning of the life of purity. This is a term for the virtue
that has livelihood as eighth. It is the initial stage of the path because it has actually
to be purified in the prior stage too. Hence it is said: "But his bodily action, his
verbal action, and his livelihood have already been purified earlier" (M III 289). Or
the training precepts called "lesser and minor" (D II 154) [12] are that of good
behaviour, the rest are that of the beginning of the life of purity. Or what is included in
the Double Code (the bhikkhus' and bhikkhunls' Patimokkha) is that of the beginning
of the life of purity; and that included in the duties set out in the Khandhakas [of
Vinaya] is that of good behaviour. Through its perfection that of the beginning of the life
of purity comes to be perfected. Hence it is said also "that this bhikkhu shall fulfil
the state consisting in the beginning of the life of purity without having fulfilled
the state consisting in good behaviour — that is not possible" (A III 14-15). So it is
of two kinds as that of good behaviour and that of the beginning of the life of
purity
28. 4. In the third dyad virtue as abstinence is simply abstention from killing living
things, etc.; the other kinds consisting in volition, etc., are virtue as non-abstinence.
So it is of two kinds as abstinence and non-abstinence.
29. 5. In the fourth dyad there are two kinds of dependence: dependence through
craving and dependence through [false] views. Herein, that produced by one who
wishes for a fortunate kind of becoming thus, "Through this virtuous conduct
[rite] I shall become a [great] deity or some [minor] deity" (M 1 102), is dependent
through craving. That produced through such [false] view about purification as
"Purification is through virtuous conduct" (Vibh 374) is dependent through [false]
view. But the supramundane, and the mundane that is the prerequisite for the
aforesaid supramundane, are independent. So it is of two kinds as dependent and
independent.
30. 6. In the fifth dyad temporary virtue is that undertaken after deciding on a
time limit. Lifelong virtue is that practiced in the same way but undertaking it for
as long as life lasts. So it is of two kinds as temporary and lifelong.
31 . 7. In the sixth dyad the limited is that seen to be limited by gain, fame, relatives,
limbs, or life. The opposite is unlimited. And this is said in the Patisambhida: "What
is the virtue that has a limit? There is virtue that has gain as its limit, there is virtue
that has fame as its limit, there is virtue that has relatives as its limit, there is virtue
that has limbs as its limit, there is virtue that has life as its limit. What is virtue that
9. The three kinds of profitable bodily kamma or action (not killing or stealing or
indulging in sexual misconduct), the four kinds of profitable verbal kamma or action
(refraining from lying, malicious speech, harsh speech, and gossip), and right livelihood
as the eighth.
15
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
has gain as its limit? Here someone with gain as cause, with gain as condition,
with gain as reason, transgresses a training precept as undertaken: that virtue has
gain as its limit" (Patis I 43), [13] and the rest should be elaborated in the same
way Also in the answer dealing with the unlimited it is said: "What is virtue that
does not have gain as its limit? Here someone does not, with gain as cause, with
gain as condition, with gain as reason, even arouse the thought of transgressing a
training precept as undertaken, how then shall he actually transgress it? That virtue
does not have gain as its limit" (Patis 1 44), and the rest should be elaborated in the
same way So it is of two kinds as limited and unlimited.
32. 8. In the seventh dyad all virtue subject to cankers is mundane ; that not subject
to cankers is supramundane. Herein, the mundane brings about improvement in future
becoming and is a prerequisite for the escape from becoming, according as it is
said: "Discipline is for the purpose of restraint, restraint is for the purpose of non-
remorse, non-remorse is for the purpose of gladdening, gladdening is for the
purpose of happiness, happiness is for the purpose of tranquillity, tranquillity is
for the purpose of bliss, bliss is for the purpose of concentration, concentration is
for the purpose of correct knowledge and vision, correct knowledge and vision is
for the purpose of dispassion, dispassion is for the purpose of fading away [of
greed], fading away is for the purpose of deliverance, deliverance is for the purpose
of knowledge and vision of deliverance, knowledge and vision of deliverance is
for the purpose of complete extinction [of craving, etc.] through not clinging. Talk
has that purpose, counsel has that purpose, support has that purpose, giving ear
has that purpose, that is to say, the liberation of the mind through not clinging"
(Vin V 164). The supramundane brings about the escape from becoming and is the
plane of reviewing knowledge. So it is of two kinds as mundane and supramundane.
33. 9. In the first of the triads the inferior is produced by inferior zeal, [purity of]
consciousness, energy, or inquiry; the medium is produced by medium zeal, etc.;
the superior, by superior (zeal, and so on). That undertaken out of desire for fame is
inferior; that undertaken out of desire for the fruits of merit is medium; that
undertaken for the sake of the noble state thus, "This has to be done" is superior. Or
again, that defiled by self-praise and disparagement of others, etc., thus, "I am
possessed of virtue, but these other bhikkhus are ill-conducted and evil-natured"
(M 1 193), is inferior; undefiled mundane virtue is medium; supramundane is superior.
Or again, that motivated by craving, the purpose of which is to enjoy continued
existence, is inferior; that practiced for the purpose of one's own deliverance is
medium; the virtue of the perfections practiced for the deliverance of all beings is
superior. So it is of three kinds as inferior, medium, and superior.
34. 10. In the second triad that practiced out of self-regard by one who regards self
and desires to abandon what is unbecoming to self [14] is virtue giving precedence to
self. That practiced out of regard for the world and out of desire to ward off the censure
of the world is virtue giving precedence to the world. That practiced out of regard for the
Dhamma and out of desire to honour tire majesty of tire Dhamma is virtue giving
precedence to the Dhamma. So it is of three kinds as giving precedence to self, and so on.
35. 11. In the third triad the virtue that in the dyads was called dependent (no. 5)
is adhered-tobecause it is adhered-to through craving and [false] view. That practiced
16
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
by the magnanimous ordinary man as the prerequisite of the path, and that
associated with the path in trainers, are not-adhered-to. That associated with trainers'
and non-trainers' fruition is tranquillized. So it is of three kinds as adhered-to, and
so on.
36. 12. In the fourth triad that fulfilled by one who has committed no offence or
has made amends after committing one is pure. So long as he has not made amends
after committing an offence it is impure. Virtue in one who is dubious about whether
a thing constitutes an offence or about what grade of offence has been committed
or about whether he has committed an offence is dubious. Herein, the meditator
should purify impure virtue. If dubious, he should avoid cases about which he is
doubtful and should get his doubts cleared up. In this way his mind will be kept at
rest. So it is of three kinds as pure, and so on.
37. 13. In the fifth triad the virtue associated with the four paths and with the
[first] three fruitions is that of the trainer. That associated with the fruition of
Arahantship is that of the non-trainer. The remaining kinds are that of the neither-
trainer-nor-non-trainer. So it is of three kinds as that of the trainer, and so on.
38. But in the world the nature of such and such beings is called their “habit" (slla) of
which they say: “This one is of happy habit ( sukha-slla ), this one is of unhappy habit,
this one is of quarrelsome habit, this one is of dandified habit." Because of that it is
said in the Patisambhida figuratively: “Three kinds of virtue (habit): profitable virtue,
unprofitable virtue, indeterminate virtue" (Patis 1 44). So it is also called of three kinds
as profitable, and so on. Of these, the unprofitable is not included here since it has
nothing whatever to do with the headings beginning with the characteristic, which
define virtue in the sense intended in this [chapter]. So the threefoldness should be
understood only in the way already stated.
39. 14. In the first of the tetrads:
The unvirtuous he cultivates,
He visits not the virtuous,
And in his ignorance he sees
No fault in a transgression here, [15]
With wrong thoughts often in his mind
His faculties he will not guard —
Virtue in such a constitution
Comes to partake of diminution.
But he whose mind is satisfied.
With virtue that has been achieved,
Who never thinks to stir himself
And take a meditation subject up.
Contented with mere virtuousness,
Nor striving for a higher state —
His virtue bears the appellation
Of that partaking of stagnation.
But who, possessed of virtue, strives
With concentration for his aim —
17
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
That bhikkhu's virtue in its function
Is called partaking of distinction.
Who finds mere virtue not enough
But has dispassion for his goal —
His virtue through such aspiration
Comes to partake of penetration.
So it is of four kinds as partaking of diminution, and so on.
40. 15. In the second tetrad there are training precepts announced for bhikkhus to
keep irrespective of what is announced for bhikkhunls. This is the virtue of bhikkhus.
There are training precepts announced for bhikkhunls to keep irrespective of what is
announced for bhikkhus. This is the virtue of bhikkhunls. The ten precepts of virtue for
male and female novices are the virtue of the not fully admitted. The five training
precepts — ten when possible — as a permanent undertaking and eight as the factors of
the Uposatha Day 10 for male and female lay followers are the virtue of the laity. So it is
of four kinds as the virtue of bhikkhus, and so on.
41 . 16. In the third tetrad the non- transgression on the part of Uttarakuru human
beings is natural virtue. Each clan's or locality's or sect's own rules of conduct are
customary virtue. The virtue of the Bodhisatta's mother described thus: "It is the
necessary rule, Ananda, that when the Bodhisatta has descended into his mother's
womb, no thought of men that is connected with the cords of sense desire comes to
her" (D II 13), is necessary virtue. But the virtue of such pure beings as Maha Kassapa,
etc., and of the Bodhisatta in his various births is virtue due to previous causes. So it
is of four kinds as natural virtue, and so on.
42. 17. In the fourth tetrad:
(a) The virtue described by the Blessed One thus: "Here a bhikkhu dwells
restrained with the Patimokkha restraint, possessed of the [proper] conduct and
resort, and seeing fear in the slightest fault, he trains himself by undertaking the
precepts of training, (Vibh 244)" is virtue of Patimokkha restraint.
(b) That described thus: "On seeing a visible object with the eye, [16] he
apprehends neither the signs nor the particulars through which, if he left the eye
faculty unguarded, evil and unprofitable states of covetousness and grief might
invade him; he enters upon the way of its restraint, he guards the eye faculty
undertakes the restraint of the eye faculty. On hearing a sound with the ear . . . On
smelling an odour with the nose . . . On tasting a flavour with the tongue . . . On
10. Uposatha (der. from upavasati, to observe or to prepare) is the name for the day of
"fasting" or "vigil" observed on the days of the new moon, waxing half moon, full
moon, and waning half moon. On these days it is customary for laymen to undertake
the Eight Precepts (slla) or Five Precepts. On the new-moon and full-moon days the
Patimokkha (see note 1 1 ) is recited by bhikkhus. The two quarter-moon days are called
the "eighth of the half moon." The Full-moon day is called the "fifteenth" (i.e. fifteen
days from the new moon) and is the last day of the lunar month. That of the new moon
is called the "fourteenth" when it is the second and fourth new moon of the four-
month season (i.e. fourteen days from the full moon), the other two are called the
"fifteenth." This compensates for the irregularities of the lunar period.
18
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
touching a tangible object with the body . . . On cognizing a mental object with the
mind, he apprehends neither the signs nor the particulars through which, if he left
the mind faculty unguarded, evil and unprofitable states of covetousness and grief
might invade him; he enters upon the way of its restraint, he guards the mind
faculty, undertakes the restraint of the mind faculty (M 1 180), is virtue of restraint of
the sense faculties.
(c) Abstinence from such wrong livelihood as entails transgression of the six training
precepts announced with respect to livelihood and entails the evil states beginning
with "Scheming, talking, hinting, belittling, pursuing gain with gain" (M II 75) is virtue
of livelihood purification.
(d) Use of the four requisites that is purified by the reflection stated in the way
beginning, "Reflecting wisely, he uses the robe only for protection from cold" (M I
10) is called virtue concerning requisites.
43. Here is an explanatory exposition together with a word commentary starting
from the beginning.
(a) Here: in this dispensation. A bhikkhu: a clansman who has gone forth out of
faith and is so styled because he sees fear in the round of rebirths ( samsare bhayarn
ikkhanata) or because he wears cloth garments that are torn and pieced together,
and so on.
Restrained with the Patimokkha restraint: here "Patimokkha" (Rule of the
Community) 11 is the virtue of the training precepts; for it frees ( mokkheti ) him who
protects (pati) it, guards it, it sets him free ( mocayati ) from the pains of the states of
loss, etc., that is why it is called Patimokkha. "Restraint" is restraining; this is a term
for bodily and verbal non-transgression. The Patimokkha itself as restraint is
"Patimokkha restraint." "Restrained with the Patimokkha restraint" is restrained
by means of the restraint consisting in that Patimokkha; he has it, possesses it, is
the meaning. Dwells: bears himself in one of the postures. [17]
44. The meaning of possessed of [the proper] conduct and resort, etc., should be
understood in the way in which it is given in the text. For this is said: "Possessed of
[the proper] conduct and resort: there is [proper] conduct and improper conduct.
Herein, what is improper conduct? Bodily transgression, verbal transgression,
bodily and verbal transgression — this is called improper conduct. Also all
unvirtuousness is improper conduct. Here someone makes a livelihood by gifts of
bamboos, or by gifts of leaves, or by gifts of flowers, fruits, bathing powder, and
tooth sticks, or by flattery, or by bean-soupery, or by fondling, or by going on errands
on foot, or by one or other of the sorts of wrong livelihood condemned by the
Buddhas — this is called improper conduct. Herein, what is [proper] conduct? Bodily
11. The Suttavibhariga, the first book of the Vinaya Pitaka, contains in its two parts
the 227 rules for bhikkhus and the rules for bhikkhunls, who have received the admission
(: upasampada ), together with accounts of the incidents that led to the announcement of
the rules, the modification of the rules and the explanations of them. The bare rules
themselves form the Patimokkha for bhikkhus and that for bhikkhunls. They are also
known as the "two codes" ( dve matika). The Patimokkha is recited by bhikkhus on the
Uposatha days of the full moon and new moon.
19
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
non-transgression, verbal non-transgression, bodily and verbal non-transgression —
this is called [proper] conduct. Also all restraint through virtue is [proper] conduct.
Here someone "does not make a livelihood by gifts of bamboos, or by gifts of
leaves, or by gifts of flowers, fruits, bathing powder, and tooth sticks, or by flattery
or by bean-soupery or by fondling, or by going on errands on foot, or by one or
other of the sorts of wrong livelihood condemned by the Buddhas — this is called
[proper] conduct."
45. "[Proper] resort: there is [proper] resort and improper resort. Herein, what is
improper resort? Here someone has prostitutes as resort, or he has widows, old
maids, eunuchs, bhikkhunls, or taverns as resort; or he dwells associated with kings,
kings' ministers, sectarians, sectarians' disciples, in unbecoming association with
laymen; or he cultivates, frequents, honours, such families as are faithless,
untrusting, abusive and rude, who wish harm, wish ill, wish woe, wish no surcease
of bondage, for bhikkhus and bhikkhunls, for male and female devotees [18] — this
is called improper resort. Herein, what is [proper] resort? Here someone does not
have prostitutes as resort ... or taverns as resort; he does not dwell associated with
kings . . . sectarians' disciples, in unbecoming association with laymen; he cultivates,
frequents, honours, such families as are faithful and trusting, who are a solace,
where the yellow cloth glows, where the breeze of sages blows, who wish good,
wish well, wish joy wish surcease of bondage, for bhikkhus and bhikkhunls, for
male and female devotees — this is called [proper] resort. Thus he is furnished with,
fully furnished with, provided with, fully provided with, supplied with, possessed
of, endowed with, this [proper] conduct and this [proper] resort. Hence it is said,
'Possessed of [the proper] conduct and resort'" (Vibh 246-47).
46. Furthermore, [proper] conduct and resort should also be understood here in
the following way; for improper conduct is twofold as bodily and verbal. Herein,
what is bodily improper conduct? "Here someone acts disrespectfully before the
Community and he stands jostling elder bhikkhus, sits jostling them, stands in
front of them, sits in front of them, sits on a high seat, sits with his head covered,
talks standing up, talks waving his arms . . . walks with sandals while elder bhikkhus
walk without sandals, walks on a high walk while they walk on a low walk, walks
on a walk while they walk on the ground . . . stands pushing elder bhikkhus, sits
pushing them, prevents new bhikkhus from getting a seat . . . and in the bath house
. . . without asking elder bhikkhus he puts wood on [the stove] . . . bolts the door . . .
and at the bathing place he enters the water jostling elder bhikkhus, enters it in
front of them, bathes jostling them, bathes in front of them, comes out jostling
them, comes out in front of them . . . and entering inside a house he goes jostling
elder bhikkhus, goes in front of them, pushing forward he goes in front of them . . .
and where families have inner private screened rooms in which the women of the
family ... the girls of the family sit, there he enters abruptly, and he strokes a
child's head" (Nidd I 228-29). This is called bodily improper conduct.
47. Herein, what is verbal improper conduct? "Here someone acts disrespectfully
before the Community Without asking elder bhikkhus he talks on the Dhamma,
answers questions, recites the Patimokkha, talks standing up, [19] talks waving his
arms . . . having entered inside a house, he speaks to a woman or a girl thus: 'You, so-
20
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
and-so of such-and-such a clan, what is there? Is there rice gruel? Is there cooked rice?
Is there any hard food to eat? What shall we drink? What hard food shall we eat? What
soft food shall we eat? Or what will you give me?' — he chatters like this" (Nidd 1 230).
This is called verbal improper conduct.
48. Proper conduct should be understood in the opposite sense to that.
Furthermore, a bhikkhu is respectful, deferential, possessed of conscience and
shame, wears his inner robe properly wears his upper robe properly, his maimer
inspires confidence whether in moving forwards or backwards, looking ahead or
aside, bending or stretching, his eyes are downcast, he has (a good) deportment,
he guards the doors of his sense faculties, knows the right measure in eating, is
devoted to wakefulness, possesses mindfulness and full awareness, wants little, is
contented, is strenuous, is a careful observer of good behaviour, and treats the
teachers with great respect. This is called (proper) conduct.
This firstly is how (proper) conduct should be understood.
49. (Proper) resort is of three kinds: (proper) resort as support, (proper) resort as
guarding, and (proper) resort as anchoring. Herein, what is (proper) resort as
support? A good friend who exhibits the instances of talk, 12 in whose presence one
hears what has not been heard, corrects what has been heard, gets rid of doubt,
rectifies one's view, and gains confidence; or by training under whom one grows
in faith, virtue, learning, generosity and understanding — this is called ( proper ) resort
as support.
50. What is (proper) resort as guarding? Here "A bhikkhu, having entered inside
a house, having gone into a street, goes with downcast eyes, seeing the length of a
plough yoke, restrained, not looking at an elephant, not looking at a horse, a carriage,
a pedestrian, a woman, a man, not looking up, not looking down, not staring this
way and that" (Nidd 1 474). This is called (proper) resort as guarding.
51 . What is (proper) resort as anchoring? It is the four foundations of mindfulness
on which the mind is anchored; for this is said by the Blessed One: "Bhikkhus,
what is a bhikkhu's resort, his own native place? It is these four foundations of
mindfulness" (S V 148). This is called ( proper ) resort as anchoring.
Being thus furnished with ... endowed with, this (proper) conduct and this
(proper) resort, he is also on that account called "one possessed of (proper) conduct
and resort." [20]
52. Seeing fear in the slightest fault (§42): one who has the habit (slid) of seeing fear
in faults of the minutest measure, of such kinds as unintentional contravening of a
minor training rule of the Patimokkha, or the arising of unprofitable thoughts. He
trains himself by undertaking (samadaya) the precepts of training: whatever there is
among the precepts of training to be trained in, in all that he trains by taking it up
12. The "ten instances of talk" (dasa kathavatthuni) refer to the kinds of talk given in
the Suttas thus: "Such talk as is concerned with effacement, as favours the heart's release,
as leads to complete dispassion, fading, cessation, peace, direct knowledge,
enlightenment, Nibbana, that is to say: talk on wanting little, contentment, seclusion,
aloofness from contact, strenuousness, virtue, concentration, understanding,
deliverance, knowledge and vision of deliverance" (M 1 145; III 113).
21
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
rightly ( samma adaya). And here, as far as the words, "one restrained by the
Patimokkha restraint," virtue of Patimokkha restraint is shown by discourse in
terms of persons. 13 But all that beginning with the words, "possessed of [proper]
conduct and resort" should be understood as said in order to show the way of
practice that perfects that virtue in him who so practices it.
53. (b) Now, as regards the virtue of restraint of faculties shown next to that in tire
way beginning, "on seeing a visible object with the eye," herein he is a bhikkhu
established in the virtue of Patimokkha restraint. On seeing a visible object with the eye :
on seeing a visible object with the eye-consciousness that is capable of seeing visible
objects and has borrowed the name "eye" from its instrument. But the Ancients (porana )
said: "The eye does not see a visible object because it has no mind. The mind does not
see because it has no eyes. But when there is the impingement of door and object he
sees by means of the consciousness that has eye-sensitivity as its physical basis. Now,
(an idiom) such as this is called an 'accessory locution' ( sasambhdrakathd ), like 'He shot
him with his bow/ and so on. So the meaning here is this: 'On seeing a visible object
with eye-consciousness.'" 14
54. Apprehends neither the signs: he does not apprehend the sign of woman or
man, or any sign that is a basis for defilement such as the sign of beauty, etc.; he
stops at what is merely seen. Nor the particulars: he does not apprehend any aspect
classed as hand, foot, smile, laughter, talk, looking ahead, looking aside, etc., which
has acquired the name "particular" ( anubyafijana ) because of its particularizing
(anu anu byanjanato) defilements, because of its making them manifest themselves.
13. See Ch. IV n. 27.
14. ‘“On seeing a visible object with the eye": if the eye were to see the visible object, then
(organs) belonging to other kinds of consciousness would see too; but that is not so.
Why? Because the eye has no thought ( acetanatta ). And then, were consciousness itself
to see a visible object, it would see it even behind a wall because of being independent
of sense resistance ( appatighabhavato ); but that is not so either because there is no seeing
in all kinds of consciousness. And herein, it is consciousness dependent on the eye that
sees, not just any kind. And that does not arise with respect to what is enclosed by
walls, etc., where light is excluded. But where there is no exclusion of light, as in the
case of a crystal or a mass of cloud, there it does arise even with respect to what is
enclosed by them. So it is as a basis of consciousness that the eye sees.
"'When there is the impingement of door and object': what is intended is: when a visible
datum as object has come into the eye's focus. 'One sees': one looks ( oloketi ); for when
the consciousness that has eye-sensitivity as its material support is disclosing ( obhasente )
by means of the special quality of its support a visible datum as object that is assisted
by light (aloka), then it is said that a person possessed of that sees the visible datum.
And here the illuminating is the revealing of the visible datum according to its individual
essence, in other words, the apprehending of it experientially (paccakkhato).
"Here it is the 'sign of woman' because it is the cause of perceiving as 'woman' all
such things as the shape that is grasped under the heading of the visible data
(materiality) invariably found in a female continuity, the un-clear-cut-ness ( avisadata )
of the flesh of the breasts, the beardlessness of the face, the use of cloth to bind the hair,
the un-clear-cut stance, walk, and so on. The 'sign of man' is in the opposite sense.
22
Chapter I Description of Virtue
He only apprehends what is really there. Like the Elder Maha Tissa who dwelt at
Cetiyapabbata.
55 . It seems that as the elder was on his way from Cetiyapabbata to Anuradhapura
for alms, a certain daughterinlaw of a clan, who had quarrelled with her husband
and had set out early from Anuradhapura all dressed up and tricked out like a
celestial nymph to go to her relatives' home, saw him on the road, and being low-
minded, [21] she laughed a loud laugh. [Wondering] “What is that?" the elder
looked up and finding in the bones of her teeth the perception of foulness (ugliness),
he reached Arahantship. 15 Hence it was said:
"He saw the bones that were her teeth,
And kept in mind his first perception;
And standing on that very spot
The elder became an Arahant."
But her husband, who was going after her, saw the elder and asked, “Venerable
sir, did you by any chance see a woman?" The elder told him:
"Whether it was a man or woman
That went by I noticed not.
'"The sign of beauty' here is the aspect of woman that is the cause for the arising of
lust. By the word 'etc.' the sign of resentment ( patigha ), etc., are included, which should
be understood as the undesired aspect that is the cause for the arising of hate. And
here admittedly only covetousness and grief are specified in the text but the sign of
equanimity needs to be included too; since there is non-restraint in the delusion that
arises due to overlooking, or since 'forgetfulness of unknowing' is said below (§57).
And here the 'sign of equanimity' should be understood as an object that is the basis
for the kind of equanimity associated with unknowing through overlooking it. So 'the
sign of beauty, etc.' given in brief thus is actually the cause of greed, hate, and delusion.
'"He stops at what is merely seen’: according to the Sutta method, 'The seen shall be
merely seen' (Ud 8). As soon as the colour basis has been apprehended by the
consciousnesses of the cognitive series with eye-consciousness he stops; he does not
fancy any aspect of beauty, etc., beyond that. ... In one who fancies as beautiful, etc., the
limbs of the opposite sex, defilements arisen with respect to them successively become
particularized, which is why they are called 'particulars.' But these are simply modes
of interpreting ( sannivesakara ) the kinds of materiality derived from the (four) primaries
that are interpreted (sannivittha) in such and such wise; for apart from that there is in
the ultimate sense no such thing as a hand and so on" (Vism-mht 40-41). See also Ch.
Ill, note 31.
15. "As the elder was going along (occupied) only in keeping his meditation subject
in mind, since noise is a thorn to those in the early stage, he looked up with the noise of
the laughter, (wondering) 'What is that?' 'Perception of foulness' is perception of bones;
for the elder was then making bones his meditation subject. The elder, it seems as soon
as he saw her teeth-bones while she was laughing, got the counterpart sign with access
jhana because he had developed the preliminary-work well. While he stood there he
reached the first jhana. Then he made that the basis for insight, which he augmented
until he attained the paths one after the other and reached destruction of cankers"
(Vism-mht 41-42).
23
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
But only that on this high road
There goes a group of bones."
56. As to the words through which, etc., the meaning is: by reason of which, because
of which non-restraint of the eye faculty if he, if that person, left the eye faculty
unguarded, remained with the eye door unclosed by the door-panel of mindfulness,
these states of covetousness, etc., might invade, might pursue, might threaten, him. He
enters upon the way of its restraint : he enters upon the way of closing that eye faculty
by the door-panel of mindfulness. It is the same one of whom it is said he guards the
eye faculty, undertakes the restraint of the eye faculty.
57. Herein, there is neither restraint nor non-restraint in the actual eye faculty,
since neither mindfulness nor forgetfulness arises in dependence on eye-sensitivity
On the contrary when a visible datum as object comes into the eye's focus, then,
after the life-continuum has arisen twice and ceased, the functional mind-element
accomplishing the function of adverting arises and ceases. After that, eye-
consciousness with the function of seeing; after that, resultant mind-element with
the function of receiving; after that, resultant root-causeless mind-consciousness-
element with the function of investigating; after that, functional root-causeless
mind-consciousness-element accomplishing the function of determining arises and
ceases. Next to that, impulsion impels. 16 Herein, there is neither restraint nor non-
restraint on the occasion of the life-continuum, or on any of the occasions beginning
with adverting. But there is non-restraint if unvirtuousness or forgetfulness or
unknowing or impatience or idleness arises at the moment of impulsion. When
this happens, it is called "non-restraint in the eye faculty" [22]
58. Why is that? Because when this happens, the door is not guarded, nor are the
life-continuum and the consciousnesses of the cognitive series. Like what? Just as, when
a city's four gates are not secured, although inside the city house doors, storehouses,
rooms, etc., are secured, yet all property inside the city is unguarded and unprotected
since robbers coming in by the city gates can do as they please, so too, when
unvirtuousness, etc., arise in impulsion in which there is no restraint, then the door too
is unguarded, and so also are the life-continuum and the consciousnesses of the
cognitive series beginning with adverting. But when virtue, etc., has arisen in it, then
the door too is guarded and so also are the life-continuum and the consciousnesses of
16. To expect to find in the Paramatthamanjusa an exposition of the "cognitive series"
(citta-vithi) , and some explanation of the individual members in addition to what is to
be found in the Visuddhimagga itself, is to be disappointed. There are only fragmentary
treatments. All that is said here is this:
"There is no unvirtuousness, in other words, bodily or verbal misconduct, in the
five doors; consequently restraint of unvirtuousness happens through the mind door,
and the remaining restraint happens through the six doors. For the arising of
forgetfulness and the other three would be in the five doors since they are unprofitable
states opposed to mindfulness, etc.; and there is no arising of unvirtuousness consisting
in bodily and verbal transgression there because five-door impulsions do not give rise
to intimation. And the five kinds of non-restraint beginning with unvirtuousness are
stated here as the opposite of the five kinds of restraint beginning with restraint as
virtue" (Vism-mht 42). See also Ch. I\j note 13.
24
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
the cognitive series beginning with adverting. Like what? Just as, when the city gates
are secured, although inside the city the houses, etc., are not secured, yet all property
inside the city is well guarded, well protected, since when the city gates are shut there
is no ingress for robbers, so too, when virtue, etc., have arisen in impulsion, the door
too is guarded and so also are the life-continuum and the consciousnesses of the
cognitive series beginning with adverting . Thus although it actually arises at the moment
of impulsion, it is nevertheless called “restraint in the eye faculty"
59. So also as regards the phrases on hearing a sound with the ear and so on. So it is
this virtue, which in brief has the characteristic of avoiding apprehension of signs
entailing defilement with respect to visible objects, etc., that should be understood
as virtue of restraint of faculties.
60. (c) Now, as regards the virtue of livelihood purification mentioned above next
to the virtue of restraint of the faculties (§42), the words of the six precepts announced
on account of livelihood mean, of the following six training precepts announced thus:
“With livelihood as cause, with livelihood as reason, one of evil wishes, a prey to
wishes, lays claim to a higher than human state that is non-existent, not a fact," the
contravention of which is defeat (expulsion from the Order); "with livelihood as
cause, with livelihood as reason, he acts as go-between," the contravention of which
is an offence entailing a meeting of the Order; "with livelihood as cause, with
livelihood as reason, he says, 'A bhikkhu who lives in your monastery is an
Arahant,'" the contravention of which is a serious offence in one who is aware of it;
"with livelihood as cause, with livelihood as reason, a bhikkhu who is not sick eats
superior food that he has ordered for his own use," the contravention of which is
an offence requiring expiation: "With livelihood as cause, with livelihood as reason,
a bhikkhuni who is not sick eats superior food that she has ordered for her own
use," the contravention of which is an offence requiring confession; "with livelihood
as cause, with livelihood as reason, one who is not sick eats curry or boiled rice
[23] that he has ordered for his own use," the contravention of which is an offence
of wrongdoing (Vin V 146). Of these six precepts. 17
61. As regards scheming, etc. (§42), this is the text: "Herein, what is scheming? It
is the grimacing, grimacery, scheming, schemery schemedness, 18 by what is called
rejection of requisites or by indirect talk, or it is the disposing, posing, composing,
of the deportment on the part of one bent on gain, honour and renown, of one of
evil wishes, a prey to wishes — this is called scheming.
62. "Herein, what is talking? Talking at others, talking, talking round, talking up,
continual talking up, persuading, continual persuading, suggesting, continual
suggesting, ingratiating chatter, flattery bean-soupery fondling, on the part of one
bent on gain, honour and renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey to wishes — this is
called talking.
17. This apparently incomplete sentence is also in the Pali text. It is not clear why.
(BPS Ed.)
18. The formula "kuhana kuhayana kuhitattavi," i.e. verbal noun in two forms and
abstract noun from pp., all from the same root, is common in Abhidhamma definitions.
It is sometimes hard to produce a corresponding effect in English, yet to render such
groups with words of different derivation obscures the meaning and confuses the effect.
25
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
63. "Herein, what is hinting? A sign to others, giving a sign, indication, giving
indication, indirect talk, roundabout talk, on the part of one bent on gain, honour
and renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey to wishes — this is called hinting.
64. "Herein, what is belittling? Abusing of others, disparaging, reproaching,
snubbing, continual snubbing, ridicule, continual ridicule, denigration, continual
denigration, tale-bearing, backbiting, on the part of one bent on gain, honour and
renown, of one of evil wishes, a prey to wishes — this is called belittling.
65 . "Herein, what is pursuing gain with gain? Seeking, seeking for, seeking out, going
in search of, searching for, searching out material goods by means of material goods,
such as carrying there goods that have been got from here, or carrying here goods that
have been got from there, by one bent on gain, honour and renown, by one of evil
wishes, a prey to wishes — this is called pursuing gain with gain." 19 (Vibh 352-53)
66. The meaning of this text should be understood as follows: Firstly, as regards
description of scheming : on the part of one bent on gain, honour and renown is on the
part of one who is bent on gain, on honour, and on reputation; on the part of one
who longs for them, is the meaning. [24] Of one of evil wishes: of one who wants to
show qualities that he has not got. A prey to wishes: 10 the meaning is, of one who is
attacked by them. And after this the passage beginning or by what is called rejection
of requisites is given in order to show the three instances of scheming given in the
Mahaniddesa as rejection of requisites, indirect talk, and that based on deportment.
67. Herein, [a bhikkhu] is invited to accept robes, etc., and, precisely because he
wants them, he refuses them out of evil wishes. And then, since he knows that
those householders believe in him implicitly when they think, "Oh, how few are
our lord's wishes! He will not accept a thing!" and they put fine robes, etc., before
him by various means, he then accepts, making a show that he wants to be
compassionate towards them — it is this hypocrisy of his, which becomes the cause
of their subsequently bringing them even by cartloads, that should be understood
as the instance of scheming called rejection of requisites.
68. For this is said in the Mahaniddesa: "What is the instance of scheming called
rejection of requisites? Here householders invite bhikkhus [to accept] robes, alms
food, resting place, and the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick. One who is of
evil wishes, a prey to wishes, wanting robes . . . alms food . . . resting place . . . the
requisite of medicine as cure for the sick, refuses robes . . . alms food . . . resting
place . . . the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick, because he wants more. He
says: 'What has an ascetic to do with expensive robes? It is proper for an ascetic to
gather rags from a charnel ground or from a rubbish heap or from a shop and
make them into a patchwork cloak to wear. What has an ascetic to do with expensive
19. The renderings "scheming" and so on in this context do not in all cases agree
with PED. They have been chosen after careful consideration. The rendering "rejection
of requisites" takes the preferable reading patisedhana though the more common reading
here is patisevana (cultivation).
20 The Pali is: “Icchapakatassa ti icchaya apakatassa; upaddutassa ti attho. " Icchaya apakatassa
simply resolves the compound icchapakatassa and is therefore untranslatable into
English. Such resolutions are therefore sometimes omitted in this translation.
26
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
alms food? It is proper for an ascetic to get his living by the dropping of lumps [of
food into his bowl] while he wanders for gleanings. What has an ascetic to do with
an expensive resting place? It is proper for an ascetic to be a tree-root-dweller or an
open-air-dweller. What has an ascetic to do with an expensive requisite of medicine
as cure for the sick? It is proper for an ascetic to cure himself with putrid urine 21
and broken galinuts.' Accordingly he wears a coarse robe, eats coarse alms food,
[25] uses a coarse resting place, uses a coarse requisite of medicine as cure for the
sick. Then householders think, 'This ascetic has few wishes, is content, is secluded,
keeps aloof from company is strenuous, is a preacher of asceticism,' and they invite
him more and more [to accept] robes, alms food, resting places, and the requisite
of medicine as cure for the sick. He says: 'With three things present a faithful
clansman produces much merit: with faith present a faithful clansman produces
much merit, with goods to be given present a faithful clansman produces much
merit, with those worthy to receive present a faithful clansman produces much
merit. You have faith; the goods to be given are here; and I am here to accept. If I
do not accept, then you will be deprived of the merit. That is no good to me. Rather
will I accept out of compassion for you." Accordingly he accepts many robes, he
accepts much alms food, he accepts many resting places, he accepts many requisites
of medicine as cure for the sick. Such grimacing, grimacery, scheming, schemery
schemedness, is known as the instance of scheming called rejection of requisites'
(Nidd I 224-25).
69. It is hypocrisy on the part of one of evil wishes, who gives it to be understood
verbally in some way or other that he has attained a higher than human state, that
should be understood as the instance of scheming called indirect talk, according
as it is said: "What is the instance of scheming called indirect talk? Here someone
of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, eager to be admired, [thinking] 'Thus people will
admire me' speaks words about the noble state. He says, 'He who wears such a
robe is a very important ascetic.' He says, 'He who carries such a bowl, metal cup,
water filler, water strainer, key wears such a waist band, sandals, is a very important
ascetic.' He says, 'He who has such a preceptor ... teacher ... who has the same
preceptor, who has the same teacher, who has such a friend, associate, intimate,
companion; he who lives in such a monastery, lean-to, mansion, villa, 22 cave, grotto,
hut, pavilion, watch tower, hall, bam, meeting hall, [26] room, at such a tree root, is
a very important ascetic.' Or alternatively, all-gushing, all-grimacing, all-scheming,
all-talkative, with an expression of admiration, he utters such deep, mysterious,
cunning, obscure, supramundane talk suggestive of voidness as 'This ascetic is an
obtainer of peaceful abidings and attainments such as these.' Such grimacing,
grimacery scheming, schemery schemedness, is known as the instance of scheming
called indirect talk" (Nidd 1 226-27).
70 . It is hypocrisy on the part of one of evil wishes, which takes the form of deportment
influenced by eagerness to be admired, that should be understood as the instance of
21 '"Putrid urine' is the name for all kinds of cow's urine whether old or not" (Vism-
mht 45). Fermented cow's urine with galinuts (myrobalan) is a common Indian medicine
today.
22 It is not always certain now what kind of buildings these names refer to.
27
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
scheming dependent on deportment, according as it is said: "What is the instance of
scheming called deportment? Here someone of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, eager to
be admired, [thinking] Thus people will admire me,' composes his way of walking,
composes his way of lying down; he walks studiedly, stands studiedly sits studiedly,
lies down studiedly; he walks as though concentrated, stands, sits, lies down as though
concentrated; and he is one who meditates in public. Such disposing, posing,
composing, of deportment, grimacing, grimacery scheming, schemery schemedness,
is known as the instance of scheming called deportment" (Nidd 1 225-26).
71. Herein, the words by what is called rejection of requisites (§61) mean: by what is
called thus "rejection of requisites"; or they mean: by means of the rejection of
requisites that is so called. By indirect talk means: by talking near to the subject. Of
deportment means: of the four modes of deportment (postures). Disposing is initial
posing, or careful posing. Posing is the manner of posing. Composing is prearranging;
assuming a trust-inspiring attitude, is what is meant. Grimacing is making grimaces
by showing great intenseness; facial contraction is what is meant. One who has the
habit of making grimaces is a grimacer. The grimacer's state is grimacery. Scheming
is hypocrisy. The way ( ayana ) of a schemer ( kuha ) is schemery ( kuhayana ). The state
of what is schemed is schemedness.
72. In the description of talking: talking at is talking thus on seeing people coming
to the monastery, "What have you come for, good people? What, to invite bhikkhus?
If it is that, then go along and I shall come later with [my bowl]," etc.; or alternatively
talking at is talking by advertising oneself thus, "I am Tissa, the king trusts me,
such and such king's ministers trust me." [27] Talking is the same kind of talking
on being asked a question. Talking round is roundly talking by one who is afraid of
householders' displeasure because he has given occasion for it. Talking up is talking
by extolling people thus, "He is a great land-owner, a great ship-owner, a great
lord of giving." Continual talking up is talking by extolling [people] in all ways.
73. Persuading is progressively involving 23 [people] thus, "Lay followers, formerly you
used to give first-fruit alms at such a time; why do you not do so now?" until they say
"We shall give, venerable sir, we have had no opportunity" etc.; entangling, is what is
meant. Or alternatively seeing someone with sugarcane in his hand, he asks, "Where
are you coming from, lay follower?" — "From the sugarcane field, venerable sir" — "Is
the sugarcane sweet there?" — "One can find out by eating, venerable sir" — "It is not
allowed, lay follower, for bhikkhus to say 'Give [me some] sugarcane. ' " Such entangling
talk from such an entangler is persuading. Persuading again and again in all ways is
continual persuading.
74. Suggesting is insinuating by specifying thus, "That family alone understands
me; if there is anything to be given there, they give it to me only"; pointing to, is
what is meant. And here the story of the oil-seller should be told. 24 Suggesting in
all ways again and again is continual suggesting.
23 Nahana — tying, from nayhati (to tie). The noun in not in PED.
24 The story of the oil-seller is given in the Sammohavinodam (Vibh-a 483), which
reproduces this part of Vism with some additions: "Two bhikkhus, it seems, went into
a village and sat down in the sitting hall. Seeing a girl, they called her. Then one asked
28
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
75. Ingratiating chatter is endearing chatter repeated again and again without
regard to whether it is in conformity with truth and Dhamma. Flattery is speaking
humbly always maintaining an attitude of inferiority Bean-soupery is resemblance
to bean soup; for just as when beans are being cooked only a few do not get cooked,
the rest get cooked, so too the person in whose speech only a little is true, the rest
being false, is called a “bean soup"; his state is bean-soupery.
76. Fondling is the state of the act of fondling. [28] For when a man fondles children
on his lap or on his shoulder like a nurse — he nurses, is the meaning — that handler's
act is the act of fondling. The state of the act of fondling is fondling.
77. In the description of hinting ( nemittikata ): a sign ( nimitta ) is any bodily or
verbal act that gets others to give requisites. Giving a sign is making a sign such as
“What have you got to eat?", etc., on seeing [people] going along with food.
Indication is talk that alludes to requisites. Giving indication: on seeing cowboys, he
asks, “Are these milk cows' calves or buttermilk cows' calves?" and when it is said,
“They are milk cows' calves, venerable sir," [he remarks] “They are not milk cows'
calves. If they were milk cows' calves the bhikkhus would be getting milk," etc.;
and his getting it to the knowledge of the boys' parents in this way, and so making
them give milk, is giving indication.
78. Indirect talk is talk that keeps near [to the subject]. And here there should be told
the story of the bhikkhu supported by a family A bhikkhu, it seems, who was supported
by a family went into the house wanting to eat and sat down. The mistress of the house
was unwilling to give. Qn seeing him she said, “There is no rice," and she went to a
neighbour's house as though to get rice. The bhikkhu went into the storeroom. Looking
round, he saw sugarcane in the comer behind the door, sugar in a bowl, a string of salt
fish in a basket, rice in a jar, and ghee in a pot. He came out and sat down. When tire
housewife came back, she said, "I did not get any rice. " The bhikkhu said, “Lay follower,
I saw a sign just now that alms will not be easy to get today" — “What, venerable sir?" —
"I saw a snake that was like sugarcane put in the comer behind the door; looking for
something to hit it with, I saw a stone like a lump of sugar in a bowl. When the snake
had been hit with the clod, it spread out a hood like a string of salt fish in a basket, and
its teeth as it tried to bite the clod were like rice grains in a jar. Then the saliva mixed
with poison that came out to its mouth in its fury was like ghee put in a pot." She thought,
“There is no hoodwinking the shaveling," so she gave him the sugarcane [29] and she
cooked the rice and gave it all to him with the ghee, the sugar and the fish.
79. Such talk that keeps near [to the subject] should be understood as indirect talk.
Roundabout talk is talking round and round [the subject] as much as is allowed.
80. In the description of belittling: abusing is abusing by means of the ten instances
of abuse. 25 Disparaging is contemptuous talk. Reproaching is enumeration of faults
such as "He is faithless, he is an unbeliever." Snubbing is taking up verbally thus,
the other, 'Whose girl is this, venerable sir?' — 'She is the daughter of our supporter the oil-
seller, friend. When we go to her mother's house and she gives us ghee, she gives it in the
pot. And this girl too gives it in the pot as her mother does.'" Quoted at Vism-mht 46.
25. The "ten instances of abuse" ( akkosa-vatthu ) are given in the Sammohavinodanl (Vibh-
a 340) as: "You are a thief, you are a fool, you are an idiot, you are a camel (ottha),
29
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
"Don't say that here." Snubbing in all ways, giving grounds and reasons, is continual
snubbing. Or alternatively, when someone does not give, taking him up thus, "Oh,
the prince of givers!" is snubbing; and the thorough snubbing thus, "A mighty prince
of givers!" is continual snubbing. Ridicule is making fun of someone thus, "What
sort of a life has this man who eats up his seed [grain]?" Continual ridicule is making
fun of him more thoroughly thus, "What, you say this man is not a giver who
always gives the words 'There is nothing' to everyone?"
81 . Denigration 26 is denigrating someone by saying that he is not a giver, or by censuring
him. All-round denigration is continual denigration. Tale-bearing is bearing tales from
house to house, from village to village, from district to district, [thinking] "So they
will give to me out of fear of my bearing tales." Backbiting is speaking censoriously
behind another's back after speaking kindly to his face; for this is like biting the
flesh of another's back, when he is not looking, on the part of one who is unable to
look him in the face; therefore it is called backbiting. This is called belittling
(nippesikata) because it scrapes off ( nippeseti ), wipes off, the virtuous qualities of
others as a bamboo scraper ( vehipesika ) does unguent, or because it is a pursuit of
gain by grinding ( nippimsitvd ) and pulverizing others' virtuous qualities, like the
pursuit of perfume by grinding perfumed substances; that is why it is called
belittling.
82. 'In the description of pursuing gain with gain: pursuing is hunting after. Got
from here is got from this house. There is into that house. Seeking is wanting. Seeking
for is hunting after. Seeking out is hunting after again and again. [30] The story of
the bhikkhu who went round giving away the alms he had got at first to children
of families here and there and in the end got milk and gruel should be told here.
Searching, etc., are synonyms for "seeking," etc., and so the construction here should
be understood thus: going in search of is seeking; searching for is seeking for; searching
out is seeking out.
This is the meaning of scheming, and so on.
83. Now, [as regards the words] The evil states beginning with (§42): here the words
beginning with should be understood to include the many evil states given in the
Brahmajala Sutta in the way beginning, "Or just as some worthy ascetics, while
eating the food given by the faithful, make a living by wrong livelihood, by such
low arts as these, that is to say, by palmistry, by fortune-telling, by divining omens,
by interpreting dreams, marks on the body, holes gnawed by mice; by fire sacrifice,
by spoon oblation ..." (D I 9).
you are an ox, you are a donkey, you belong to the states of loss, you belong to hell, you
are a beast, there is not even a happy or an unhappy destiny to be expected for you"
(see also Sn-a 364).
26. The following words of this paragraph are not in PED: Papana (denigration),
papanam (nt. denigrating), nippeseti (scrapes off — from pimsatP cf. nippesikata —
"belittling" §§42, 64), nippunchati (wipes off — only punchati in PED), pesika (scraper — not
in this sense in PED: from same root as nippeseti), nippimsitva (grinding, pounding),
abbhahga (unguent = abbhanjana, Vism-mht 47).
30
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
84. So this wrong livelihood entails the transgression of these six training precepts
announced on account of livelihood, and it entails the evil states beginning with
"Scheming, talking, hinting, belittling, pursuing gain with gain." And so it is the
abstinence from all sorts of wrong livelihood that is virtue of livelihood purification,
the word-meaning of which is this: on account of it they live, thus it is livelihood.
What is that? It is the effort consisting in the search for requisites. "Purification" is
purifiedness. "Livelihood purification" is purification of livelihood.
85. (d) As regards the next kind called virtue concerning requisites, [here is the
text: "Reflecting wisely, he uses the robe only for protection from cold, for protection
from heat, for protection from contact with gadflies, flies, wind, burning and
creeping things, and only for the purpose of concealing the private parts. Reflecting
wisely, he uses alms food neither for amusement nor for intoxication nor for
smartening nor for embellishment, but only for the endurance and continuance of
this body, for the ending of discomfort, and for assisting the life of purity: 'Thus I
shall put a stop to old feelings and shall not arouse new feelings, and I shall be
healthy and blameless and live in comfort.' Reflecting wisely, he uses the resting
place only for the purpose of protection from cold, for protection from heat, for
protection from contact with gadflies, flies, wind, burning and creeping things,
and only for the purpose of warding off the perils of climate and enjoying retreat.
Reflecting wisely, he uses the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick only for
protection from arisen hurtful feelings and for complete immunity from affliction"
(M I 10). Herein, reflecting wisely is reflecting as the means and as the way; 27 by
knowing, by reviewing, is the meaning. And here it is the reviewing stated in the
way beginning, "For protection from cold" that should be understood as "reflecting
wisely."
86. Herein, the robe is any one of those beginning with the inner cloth. He uses: he
employs; dresses in [as inner cloth], or puts on [as upper garment]. Only [31] is a
phrase signifying invariability in the definition of a limit 28 of a purpose; the purpose
in the meditator's making use of the robes is that much only namely, protection
from cold, etc., not more than that. From cold: from any kind of cold arisen either
through disturbance of elements internally or through change in temperature
externally. For protection: for the purpose of warding off; for the purpose of
eliminating it so that it may not arouse affliction in the body. For when the body is
afflicted by cold, the distracted mind cannot be wisely exerted. That is why the
Blessed One permitted the robe to be used for protection from cold. So in each
instance, except that from heat means from the heat of fire, the origin of which
should be understood as forest fires, and so on.
87. From contact with gadflies and flies, wind and burning and creeping things: here
gadflies are flies that bite; they are also called "blind flies." Flies are just flies. Wind
is distinguished as that with dust and that without dust. Burning is burning of the
sun. Creeping things are any long creatures such as snakes and so on that move by
crawling. Contact with them is of two kinds: contact by being bitten and contact
27. For attention ( manasi-kara ) as the means ( upaya ) and the way ( patha ) see M-a I 64.
28. Avadhi — "limit" = odhi: this form is not in PED (see M-a II 292).
31
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
by being touched. And that does not worry him who sits with a robe on. So he uses
it for the purpose of protection from such things.
88. Only, the word is repeated in order to define a subdivision of the invariable
purpose; for the concealment of the private parts is an invariable purpose; the
others are purposes periodically. Herein, private parts are any parts of the
pudendum. For when a member is disclosed, conscience ( hiri ) is disturbed
( kuppati ), offended. It is called "private parts" ( hirikoplna ) because of the
disturbance of conscience ( hiri-kopana ). For the purpose of concealing the private
parts: for the purpose of the concealment of those private parts. [As well as the
reading " hiriko-plna-paticchadanattham] there is a reading "hirikoplnam
paticchadanattham."
89. Alms food is any sort of food. For any sort of nutriment is called "alms food"
(pindapata — lit. "lump-dropping") because of its having been dropped ( patitatta )
into a bhikkhu's bowl during his alms round ( pindolya ). Or alms food ( pindapata ) is
the dropping ( pata ) of the lumps ( pinda ); it is the concurrence ( sannipata ), the
collection, of alms (bhikkha) obtained here and there, is what is meant.
Neither for amusement : neither for the purpose of amusement, as with village
boys, etc.; for the sake of sport, is what is meant. Nor for intoxication: not for the
purpose of intoxication, as with boxers, etc.; for the sake of intoxication with strength
and for the sake of intoxication with manhood, is what is meant. [32] Nor for
smartening: not for the purpose of smartening, as with royal concubines, courtesans,
etc.; for the sake of plumpness in all the limbs, is what is meant. Nor for embellishment:
not for the purpose of embellishment, as with actors, dancers, etc.; for the sake of a
clear skin and complexion, is what is meant.
90. And here the clause neither for amusement is stated for the purpose of
abandoning support for delusion; nor for intoxication is said for the purpose of
abandoning support for hate; nor for smartening nor for embellishment is said for the
purpose of abandoning support for greed. And neither for amusement nor for
intoxication is said for the purpose of preventing the arising of fetters for oneself.
Nor for smartening nor for embellishment is said for the purpose of preventing the
arising of fetters for another. And the abandoning of both unwise practice and
devotion to indulgence of sense pleasures should be understood as stated by these
four. Only has the meaning already stated.
91. Of this body: of this material body consisting of the four great primaries. For
the endurance: for the purpose of continued endurance. And continuance: for the
purpose of not interrupting [life's continued] occurrence, or for the purpose of
endurance for a long time. He makes use of the alms food for the purpose of the
endurance, for the purpose of the continuance, of the body, as the owner of an old
house uses props for his house, and as a carter uses axle grease, not for the purpose
of amusement, intoxication, smartening, and embellishment. Furthermore,
endurance is a term for the life faculty So what has been said as far as the words for
the endurance and continuance of this body can be understood to mean: for the purpose
of maintaining the occurrence of the life faculty in this body
92. For the ending of discomfort: hunger is called "discomfort" in the sense of
afflicting. He makes use of alms food for the purpose of ending that, like anointing
32
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
a wound, like counteracting heat with cold, and so on. For assisting the life of purity:
for the purpose of assisting the life of purity consisting in the whole dispensation
and the life of purity consisting in the path. For while this [bhikkhu] is engaged in
crossing the desert of existence by means of devotion to the three trainings
depending on bodily strength whose necessary condition is the use of alms food,
he makes use of it to assist the life of purity just as those seeking to cross the desert
used their child's flesh, 29 just as those seeking to cross a river use a raft, and just as
those seeking to cross the ocean use a ship.
93. Thus I shall put a stop to old feelings and shall not amuse new feelings: [33] thus as
a sick man uses medicine, he uses [alms food, thinking]: "By use of this alms food
I shall put a stop to the old feeling of hunger, and I shall not arouse a new feeling
by immoderate eating, like one of the [proverbial] brahmans, that is, one who eats
till he has to be helped up by hand, or till his clothes will not meet, or till he rolls
there [on the ground], or till crows can peck from his mouth, or until he vomits
what he has eaten. Or alternatively, there is that which is called 'old feelings' because,
being conditioned by former kamma, it arises now in dependence on unsuitable
immoderate eating — I shall put a stop to that old feeling, forestalling its condition
by suitable moderate eating. And there is that which is called 'new feeling' because
it will arise in the future in dependence on the accumulation of kamma consisting
in making improper use [of the requisite of alms food] now — I shall also not arouse
that new feeling, avoiding by means of proper use the production of its root." This
is how the meaning should be understood here. What has been shown so far can
be understood to include proper use [of requisites], abandoning of devotion to
self-mortification, and not giving up lawful bliss (pleasure).
94. And I shall be healthy: "In this body, which exists in dependence on requisites,
I shall, by moderate eating, have health called 'long endurance' since there will be
no danger of severing the life faculty or interrupting the [continuity of the]
postures." [Reflecting] in this way, he makes use [of the alms food] as a sufferer
from a chronic disease does of his medicine. And blameless and live in comfort (lit.
"and have blamelessness and a comfortable abiding"): he makes use of them
thinking: "I shall have blamelessness by avoiding improper search, acceptance and
eating, and I shall have a comfortable abiding by moderate eating." Or he does so
thinking: "I shall have blamelessness due to absence of such faults as boredom,
sloth, sleepiness, blame by the wise, etc., that have unseemly immoderate eating as
their condition; and I shall have a comfortable abiding by producing bodily strength
that has seemly moderate eating as its condition." Or he does so thinking: "I shall
have blamelessness by abandoning the pleasure of lying down, lolling and torpor,
through refraining from eating as much as possible to stuff the belly; and I shall
have a comfortable abiding by controlling the four postures through eating four or
five mouthfuls less than the maximum." For this is said:
29. "Child's flesh" ( putta-mamsa ) is an allusion to the story (S II 98) of the couple who
set out to cross a desert with an insufficient food supply but got to the other side by
eating the flesh of their child who died on the way. The derivation given in PED, "A
metaphor probably distorted from putamamsa,” has no justification. The reference to
rafts might be to D II 89.
33
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
With four or five lumps still to eat
Let him then end by drinking water;
For energetic bhikkhus' needs
This should suffice to live in comfort (Th 983). [34]
Now, what has been shown at this point can be understood as discernment of
purpose and practice of the middle way
95. Resting place ( senasana ): this is the bed (sena) and seat (a Sana). For wherever
one sleeps (seti), whether in a monastery or in a lean-to, etc., that is the bed (sena);
wherever one seats oneself ( asati ), sits (nisidati), that is the seat (asana). Both together
are called “resting-place" (or "abode" — senasana).
For the purpose of warding off the perils of climate and enjoying retreat: the climate
itself in the sense of imperilling ( parisahana ) is "perils of climate" ( utu-parissaya ).
Unsuitable climatic conditions that cause mental distraction due to bodily affliction
can be warded off by making use of the resting place; it is for the purpose of warding
off these and for the purpose of the pleasure of solitude, is what is meant. Of
course, the warding off of the perils of climate is stated by [the phrase] "protection
from cold," etc., too; but, just as in the case of making use of the robes the
concealment of the private parts is stated as an invariable purpose while the others
are periodical [purposes], so here also this [last] should be understood as mentioned
with reference to the invariable warding off of the perils of climate. Or alternatively
this "climate" of the kind stated is just climate; but "perils" are of two kinds: evident
perils and concealed perils (see Nidd 1 12). Herein, evident perils are lions, tigers,
etc., while concealed perils are greed, hate, and so on. When a bhikkhu knows and
reflects thus in making use of the kind of resting place where these [perils] do not,
owing to unguarded doors and sight of unsuitable visible objects, etc., cause
affliction, he can be understood as one who "reflecting wisely makes use of the
resting place for the purpose of warding off the perils of climate."
96. The requisite of medicine as cure for the sick: here "cure" (paccaya = going against)
is in the sense of going against ( pati-ayana ) illness; in the sense of countering, is the
meaning. This is a term for any suitable remedy. It is the medical man's work
(bhisakkassa kammam) because it is permitted by him, thus it is medicine (bhesajja).
Or the cure for the sick itself as medicine is "medicine as cure for the sick." Any
work of a medical man such as oil, honey, ghee, etc., that is suitable for one who is
sick, is what is meant. A "requisite" ( parikkhara ), however, in such passages as "It is
well supplied with the requisites of a city" (A IV 106) is equipment; in such passages
as "The chariot has the requisite of virtue, the axle of jhana, the wheel of energy"
(S V 6) [35] it is an ornament; in such passages as "The requisites for the life of one
who has gone into homelessness that should be available" (M I 104), it is an
accessory But here both equipment and accessory are applicable. For that medicine
as a cure for the sick is equipment for maintaining life because it protects by
preventing the arising of affliction destructive to life; and it is an accessory too
because it is an instrument for prolonging life. That is why it is called "requisite."
So it is medicine as cure for the sick and that is a requisite, thus it is a "requisite of
medicine as cure for the sick." [He makes use of] that requisite of medicine as cure
34
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
for the sick; any requisite for life consisting of oil, honey, molasses, ghee, etc., that
is allowed by a medical man as suitable for the sick, is what is meant.
97. From arisen: from bom, become, produced. Hurtful: here "hurt (affliction)" is
a disturbance of elements, and it is the leprosy tumours, boils, etc., originated by
that disturbance. Hurtful ( veyyabadhika ) because arisen in the form of hurt ( byabadha ).
Feelings: painful feelings, feelings resulting from unprofitable kamma — from those
hurtful feelings. For complete immunity from affliction: for complete freedom from
pain; so that all that is painful is abandoned, is the meaning.
This is how this virtue concerning requisites should be understood. In brief its
characteristic is the use of requisites after wise reflection. The word-meaning here
is this: because breathing things go ( ayanti ), move, proceed, using [what they use]
in dependence on these robes, etc., these robes, etc., are therefore called requisites
( paccaya = ger. of pati + ayati ); "concerning requisites" is concerning those requisites.
98. (a) So, in this fourfold virtue, Patimokkha restraint has to be undertaken by
means of faith. For that is accomplished by faith, since the announcing of training
precepts is outside the disciples' province; and the evidence here is the refusal of
the request to [allow disciples to] announce training precepts (see Vin III 9-10).
Having therefore undertaken through faith the training precepts without exception
as announced, one should completely perfect them without regard for life. For
this is said: [36]
"As a hen guards her eggs,
Or as a yak her tail.
Or like a darling child.
Or like an only eye —
So you who are engaged
Your virtue to protect.
Be prudent at all times
And ever scrupulous." ( Source untraced)
Also it is said further: "So too, sire, when a training precept for disciples is
announced by me, my disciples do not transgress it even for the sake of life" (A IV
201 ).
99. And the story of the elders bound by robbers in the forest should be understood
in this sense.
It seems that robbers in the MahavattanI Forest bound an elder with black
creepers and made him lie down. While he lay there for seven days he augmented
his insight, and after reaching the fruition of non-return, he died there and was
reborn in the Brahma-world. Also they bound another elder in Tambapanni Island
(Sri Lanka) with string creepers and made him lie down. When a forest fire came
and the creepers were not cut, he established insight and attained Nibbana
simultaneously with his death. When the Elder Abhaya, a preacher of the Dlgha
Nikaya, passed by with five hundred bhikkhus, he saw [what had happened] and he
had the elder's body cremated and a shrine built. Therefore let other clansmen also:
Maintain the rules of conduct pure,
Renouncing life if there be need,
35
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
Rather than break virtue's restraint
By the World's Saviour decreed.
100. (b) And as Patimokkha restraint is undertaken out of faith, so restraint of the
sense faculties should be undertaken with mindfulness. For that is accomplished by
mindfulness, because when the sense faculties' functions are founded on
mindfulness, there is no liability to invasion by covetousness and the rest. So,
recollecting the Fire Discourse, which begins thus, "Better, bhikkhus, the extirpation
of the eye faculty by a red-hot burning blazing glowing iron spike than the
apprehension of signs in the particulars of visible objects cognizable by the eye" (S
IV 168), this [restraint] should be properly undertaken by preventing with
unremitting mindfulness any apprehension, in the objective fields consisting of
visible data, etc., of any signs, etc., likely to encourage covetousness, etc., to invade
consciousness occurring in connection with the eye door, and so on.
101. [37] When not undertaken thus, virtue of Patimokkha restraint is
unenduring: it does not last, like a crop not fenced in with branches. And it is
raided by the robber defilements as a village with open gates is by thieves. And
lust leaks into his mind as rain does into a badly-roofed house. For this is said:
"Among the visible objects, sounds, and smells,
And tastes, and tangibles, guard the faculties;
For when these doors are open and unguarded,
Then thieves will come and raid as 'twere a village (?).
And just as with an ill-roofed house
The rain comes leaking in, so too
Will lust come leaking in for sure
Upon an undeveloped mind" (Dhp 13).
102. When it is undertaken thus, virtue of Patimokkha restraint is enduring: it
lasts, like a crop well fenced in with branches. And it is not raided by the robber
defilements, as a village with well-guarded gates is not by thieves. And lust does
not leak into his mind, as rain does not into a well-roofed house. For this is said:
"Among the visible objects, sounds and smells,
And tastes and tangibles, guard the faculties;
For when these doors are closed and truly guarded,
Thieves will not come and raid as 'twere a village (?).
"And just as with a well-roofed house
No rain comes leaking in, so too
No lust comes leaking in for sure
Upon a well-developed mind" (Dhp 14).
103. This, however, is the teaching at its very highest.
This mind is called "quickly transformed" (A 1 10), so restraint of the faculties
should be undertaken by removing arisen lust with the contemplation of foulness,
as was done by the Elder Vangisa soon after he had gone forth. [38]
As the elder was wandering for alms, it seems, soon after going forth, lust arose
in him on seeing a woman. Thereupon he said to the venerable Ananda:
36
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
"I am afire with sensual lust.
And burning flames consume my mind;
In pity tell me, Gotama,
How to extinguish it for good" (S 1 188).
The elder said:
"You do perceive mistakenly,
That burning flames consume your mind.
Look for no sign of beauty there,
For that it is which leads to lust.
See foulness there and keep your mind
Harmoniously concentrated;
Formations see as alien,
As ill, not self, so this great lust
May be extinguished, and no more
Take fire thus ever and again" (S 1 188).
The elder expelled his lust and then went on with his alms round.
104. Moreover, a bhikkhu who is fulfilling restraint of the faculties should be like
the Elder Cittagutta resident in the Great Cave at Kurandaka, and like the Elder
Maha Mitta resident at the Great Monastery of Coraka.
105. In the Great Cave of Kurandaka, it seems, there was a lovely painting of the
Renunciation of the Seven Buddhas. A number of bhikkhus wandering about among
the dwellings saw the painting and said, "What a lovely painting, venerable sir!"
The elder said: "For more than sixty years, friends, I have lived in the cave, and I
did not know whether there was any painting there or not. Now, today, I know it
through those who have eyes." The elder, it seems, though he had lived there for so
long, had never raised his eyes and looked up at the cave. And at the door of his
cave there was a great ironwood tree. And the elder had never looked up at that
either. He knew it was in flower when he saw its petals on the ground each year.
106. The king heard of the elder's great virtues, and he sent for him three times,
desiring to pay homage to him. When the elder did not go, he had the breasts of all
the women with infants in the town bound and sealed off, [saying] "As long as the
elder does not come let the children go without milk," [39] Out of compassion for
the children the elder went to Mahagama. When the king heard [that he had come,
he said] "Go and bring the elder in. I shall take the precepts." Having had him
brought up into the inner palace, he paid homage to him and provided him with a
meal. Then, saying, "Today, venerable sir, there is no opportunity I shall take the
precepts tomorrow," he took the elder's bowl. After following him for a little, he
paid homage with the queen and turned back. As seven days went by thus, whether
it was the king who paid homage or whether it was the queen, the elder said,
"May the king be happy."
107. Bhikkhus asked: "Why is it, venerable sir, that whether it is the king who
pays the homage or the queen you say 'May the king be happy'?" The elder replied:
"Friends, I do not notice whether it is the king or the queen." At the end of seven
days [when it was found that] the elder was not happy living there, he was dismissed
37
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
by the king. He went back to the Great Cave at Kurandaka. When it was night he
went out onto his walk. A deity who dwelt in the ironwood tree stood by with a
torch of sticks. Then his meditation subject became quite clear and plain. The elder,
[thinking] "How clear my meditation subject is today!" was glad, and immediately
after the middle watch he reached Arahantship, making the whole rock resound. 30
108. So when another clansman seeks his own good:
Let him not be hungry-eyed.
Like a monkey in the groves,
Like a wild deer in the woods,
Like a nervous little child.
Let him go with eyes downcast
Seeing a plough yoke's length before.
That he fall not in the power
Of the forest-monkey mind.
109. The Elder Maha Mitta's mother was sick with a poisoned tumour. She told
her daughter, who as a bhikkhunl had also gone forth, "Lady, go to your brother.
Tell him my trouble and bring back some medicine." She went and told him. The
elder said: "I do not know how to gather root medicines and such things and concoct
a medicine from them. But rather I will tell you a medicine: since I went forth I
have not broken [my virtue of restraint of] the sense faculties by looking at the
bodily form of the opposite sex with a lustful mind. By this [40] declaration of
truth may my mother get well. Go and tell the lay devotee and rub her body." She
went and told her what had happened and then did as she had been instructed. At
that very moment the lay devotee's tumour vanished, shrinking away like a lump
of froth. She got up and uttered a cry of joy: "If the Fully Enlightened One were
still alive, why should he not stroke with his netadorned hand the head of a bhikkhu
like my son?" So:
110. Let another noble clansman
Gone forth in the Dispensation
Keep, as did the Elder Mitta,
Perfect faculty restraint.
111. (c) As restraint of the faculties is to be undertaken by means of mindfulness, so
livelihood purification is to be undertaken by means of energy. For that is accomplished
by energy because the abandoning of wrong livelihood is effected in one who has
rightly applied energy Abandoning, therefore, unbefitting wrong search, this should
be undertaken with energy by means of the right kind of search consisting in going on
alms round, etc., avoiding what is of impure origin as though it were a poisonous
snake, and using only requisites of pure origin.
112. Herein, for one who has not taken up the ascetic practices, any requisites obtained
from the Community from a group of bhikkhus, or from laymen who have confidence
in his special qualities of teaching the Dhamma, etc., are called "of pure origin." But
30. ‘"Making the whole rock resound 'making the whole rock reverberate as one doing
so by means of an earth tremor. But some say that is was owing to the cheering of the
deities who lived there'" (Vism-mht 58).
38
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
those obtained on alms round, etc., are of extremely pure origin. For one who has
taken up the ascetic practices, those obtained on alms round, etc., and — as long as this
is in accordance with the rules of the ascetic practices — from people who have
confidence in his special qualities of asceticism, are called “of pure origin." And if he
has got putrid urine with mixed gall nuts and “four-sweets" 31 for the purpose of curing
a certain affliction, and he eats only the broken gall nuts, thinking, “Other companions
in the life of purity will eat the 'four-sweets'," his undertaking of the ascetic practices
is befitting, for he is then called a bhikkhu who is supreme in the Noble Ones' heritages
(A II 28).
113. As to the robe and the other requisites, no hint, indication, roundabout talk,
or intimation about robes and alms food is allowable for a bhikkhu who is purifying
his livelihood. But a hint, indication, or roundabout talk about a resting place is
allowable for one who has not taken up the ascetic practices. [41]
114. Herein, a “hint" is when one who is getting the preparing of the ground,
etc., done for the purpose of [making] a resting place is asked, “What is being
done, venerable sir? Who is having it done?" and he replies, "No one"; or any
other such giving of hints. An “indication" is saying, "Lay follower, where do you
live?" — "In a mansion, venerable sir" — "But, lay follower, a mansion is not allowed
for bhikkhus." Or any other such giving of indication. “Roundabout talk" is saying,
“The resting place for the Community of Bhikkhus is crowded"; or any other such
oblique talk.
115. All, however, is allowed in the case of medicine. But when the disease is
cured, is it or is it not allowed to use the medicine obtained in this way? Herein,
the Vinaya specialists say that the opening has been given by the Blessed One,
therefore it is allowable. But the Suttanta specialists say that though there is no
offence, nevertheless the livelihood is sullied, therefore it is not allowable.
116. But one who does not use hints, indications, roundabout talk, or intimation,
though these are permitted by the Blessed One, and who depends only on the
special qualities of fewness of wishes, etc., and makes use only of requisites obtained
otherwise than by indication, etc., even when he thus risks his life, is called supreme
in living in effacement, like the venerable Sariputta.
117. It seems that the venerable one was cultivating seclusion at one time, living
in a certain forest with the Elder Maha Moggallana. One day an affliction of colic
arose in him, causing him great pain. In the evening the Elder Maha Moggallana
went to attend upon him. Seeing him lying down, he asked what the reason was.
And then he asked, “What used to make you better formerly, friend?" The elder
said, “When I was a layman, friend, my mother used to mix ghee, honey sugar
and so on, and give me rice gruel with pure milk. That used to make me better."
Then the other said, “So be it, friend. If either you or I have merit, perhaps tomorrow
we shall get some."
118. Now, a deity who dwelt in a tree at the end of the walk overheard their
conversation. [Thinking] "I will find rice gruel for the lord tomorrow," he went
31. "Four-sweets" — catumadhura : a medicinal sweet made of four ingredients: honey,
palm-sugar, ghee and sesame oil.
39
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
meanwhile to the family who was supporting the elder [42] and entered into the
body of the eldest son, causing him discomfort. Then he told the assembled relatives
the price of the cure: "If you prepare rice gruel of such a kind tomorrow for the
elder, I will set this one free." They said: "Even without being told by you we
regularly supply the elder's needs," and on the following day they prepared rice
gruel of the kind needed.
119. The Elder Maha Moggallana came in the morning and said, "Stay here, friend,
till I come back from the alms round." Then he went into the village. Those people
met him. They took his bowl, filled it with the stipulated kind of rice gruel, and
gave it back to him. The elder made as though to go, but they said, "Eat, venerable
sir, we shall give you more." When the elder had eaten, they gave him another
bowlful. The elder left. Bringing the alms food to the venerable Sariputta, he said,
"Here, friend Sariputta, eat." When the elder saw it, he thought, "The gruel is very
nice. How was it got?" and seeing how it had been obtained, he said, "Friend, the
alms food cannot be used."
120. Instead of thinking, "He does not eat alms food brought by the likes of me,"
the other at once took the bowl by the rim and turned it over on one side. As the
rice gruel fell on the ground the elder's affliction vanished. From then on it did not
appear again during forty-five years.
121 . Then he said to the venerable Maha Moggallana, "Friend, even if one's bowels
come out and trail on the ground, it is not fitting to eat gruel got by verbal
intimation," and he uttered this exclamation:
My livelihood might well be blamed
If I were to consent to eat
The honey and the gruel obtained
By influence of verbal hints.
And even if my bowels obtrude
And trail outside, and even though
My life is to be jeopardized,
I will not blot my livelihood (Mil 370).
For I will satisfy my heart
By shunning all wrong kinds of search;
And never will I undertake
The search the Buddhas have condemned. [43]
122 And here too should be told the story of the Elder Maha Tissa the Mango-
eater who lived at Clragumba 32 (see §132 below). So in all respects:
32. "The Elder Maha Tissa, it seems, was going on a journey during a famine, and
being tired in body and weak through lack of food and travel weariness, he lay down at
the root of a mango tree covered with fruit. There were many fallen mangoes here and
there" (Vism-mht 60). "Through ownerless mangoes were lying fallen on the ground
near him, he would not eat them in the absence of someone to accept them from" (Vism-
mht 65). "Then a lay devotee, who was older than he, went to the elder, and learning of
his exhaustion, gave him mango juice to drink. Then he mounted him on his back and
40
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
A man who has gone forth in faith
Should purify his livelihood
And, seeing clearly, give no thought
To any search that is not good.
123. (d) And as livelihood purification is to be undertaken by means of energy
so virtue dependent on requisites is to be undertaken by means of understanding. For
that is accomplished by understanding, because one who possesses understanding
is able to see the advantages and the dangers in requisites. So one should abandon
greed for requisites and undertake that virtue by using requisites obtained lawfully
and properly after reviewing them with understanding in the way aforesaid.
124. Herein, reviewing is of two kinds: at the time of receiving requisites and at
the time of using them. For use ( paribhoga ) is blameless in one who at the time of
receiving robes, etc., reviews them either as [mere] elements or as repulsive, 33 and
puts them aside for later use, and in one who reviews them thus at the time of
using them.
125. Here is an explanation to settle the matter. There are four kinds of use: use
as theft, 34 use as a debt?, use as an inheritance, use as a master. Herein, use by one
who is unvirtuous and makes use [of requisites], even sitting in the midst of the
Community, is called “use as theft." Use without reviewing by one who is virtuous
is “use as a debt"; therefore the robe should be reviewed every time it is used, and
the alms food lump by lump. One who cannot do this [should review it] before the
meal, after the meal, in the first watch, in the middle watch, and in the last watch.
If dawn breaks on him without his having reviewed it, he finds himself in the
position of one who has used it as a debt. Also the resting place should be reviewed
each time it is used. Recourse to mindfulness both in the accepting and the use of
medicine is proper; but while this is so, though there is an offence for one who uses
it without mindfulness after mindful acceptance, there is no offence for one who is
mindful in using after accepting without mindfulness.
126. Purification is of four kinds: purification by the Teaching, purification by
restraint, purification by search, and purification by reviewing. Herein, virtue of
took him to his home. Meanwhile the elder admonished himself as follows: 'Nor your
mother nor your father,' etc. (see §133). And beginning the comprehension [of
formations], and augmenting insight, he realized Arahantship after the other paths in
due succession while he was still mounted on his back" (Vism-mht 60).
33. ‘“As elements' in this way: 'This robe, etc., consists merely of [the four] elements
and occurs when its conditions are present; and the person who uses it [likewise].' 'As
repulsive' in this way: Firstly perception of repulsiveness in nutriment in the case of
alms food; then as bringing repulsiveness to mind thus: 'But all these robes, etc., which
are not in themselves disgusting, become utterly disgusting on reaching this filthy
body'" (Vism-mht 61).
34. '“Use as theft’: use by one who is unworthy. And the requisites are allowed by the
Blessed One to one in his own dispensation who is virtuous, not unvirtuous; and the
generosity of the givers is towards one who is virtuous, not towards one who is not,
since they expect great fruit from their actions" (Vism-mht 61; cf. MN 142 and
commentary).
41
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
the Patimokkha restraint is called “purification by the Teaching"; [44] for that is so
called because it purifies by means of teaching. Virtue of restraint of faculties is called
"purification by restraint"; for that is so called because it purifies by means of the
restraint in the mental resolution, “I shall not do so again." Virtue of livelihood
purification is called "purification by search"; for that is so called because search is
purified in one who abandons wrong search and gets requisites lawfully and
properly Virtue dependent on requisites is called "purification by reviewing"; for
that is so called because it purifies by the reviewing of the kind already described.
Hence it was said above (§125): "There is no offence for one who is mindful in
using after accepting without mindfulness."
127. Use of the requisites by the seven kinds of trainers is called "use as an
inheritance"; for they are the Buddha's sons, therefore they make use of the
requisites as the heirs of requisites belonging to their father. But how then, is it the
Blessed One's requisites or the laity's requisites that are used? Although given by
the laity they actually belong to the Blessed One, because it is by the Blessed One
that they are permitted. That is why it should be understood that the Blessed One's
requisites are used. The confirmation here is in the Dhammadayada Sutta (MN 3).
Use by those whose cankers are destroyed is called "use as a master"; for they
make use of them as masters because they have escaped the slavery of craving.
128. As regards these kinds of use, use as a master and use as an inheritance are
allowable for all. Use as a debt is not allowable, to say nothing of use as theft. But
this use of what is reviewed by one who is virtuous is use freed from debt because
it is the opposite of use as a debt or is included in use as an inheritance too. For one
possessed of virtue is called a trainer too because of possessing this training.
129. As regards these three kinds of use, since use as a master is best, when a
bhikkhu undertakes virtue dependent on requisites, he should aspire to that and use
them after reviewing them in the way described. And this is said: [45]
"The truly wise disciple
Who listens to the Dhamma
As taught by the Sublime One
Makes use, after reviewing,
Of alms food, and of dwelling,
And of a resting place,
And also of the water
For washing dirt from robes" (Sn 391).
"So like a drop of water
Lying on leaves of lotus,
A bhikkhu is unsullied
By any of these matters,
By alms food, [and by dwelling,]
And by a resting place,
And also by the water
For washing dirt from robes" (Sn 392).
42
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
"Since aid it is and timely
Procured from another
The right amount he reckons,
Mindful without remitting
In chewing and in eating,
In tasting food besides:
He treats it as an ointment
Applied upon a wound." (Source untraced)
"So like the child's flesh in the desert
Like the greasing for the axle,
He should eat without delusion
Nutriment to keep alive." (Source untraced)
130. And in connection with the fulfilling of this virtue dependent on requisites
there should be told the story of the novice Sangharakkhita the Nephew. For he
made use of requisites after reviewing, according as it is said:
"Seeing me eat a dish of rice
Quite cold, my preceptor observed:
'Novice, if you are not restrained,
Be careful not to burn your tongue.'
On hearing my Preceptor's words,
I then and there felt urged to act
And, sitting in a single session,
I reached the goal of Arahantship.
Since I am now waxed full in thought
Like the full moon of the fifteenth (M III 277),
And all my cankers are destroyed,
There is no more becoming now." [46]
And so should any other man
Aspiring to end suffering
Make use of all the requisites
Wisely after reviewing them.
So virtue is of four kinds as "virtue of Patimokkha restraint," and so on.
131. 18. In the first pentad in the fivefold section the meaning should be
understood in accordance with the virtue of those not fully admitted to the Order,
and so on. For this is said in the Patisambhida: "(a) What is virtue consisting in
limited purification? That of the training precepts for those not fully admitted to
the Order: such is virtue consisting in limited purification, (b) What is virtue
consisting in unlimited purification? That of the training precepts for those fully
admitted to the Order: such is virtue consisting in unlimited purification, (c) What
is virtue consisting in fulfilled purification? That of magnanimous ordinary men
devoted to profitable things, who are perfecting [the course] that ends in trainership,
regardless of the physical body and life, having given up [attachment to] life: such is
virtue of fulfilled purification, (d) What is virtue consisting in purification not adhered
to? That of the seven kinds of trainer: such is virtue consisting in purification not adhered
to. (e) What is virtue consisting in tranquillized purification? That of the Perfect One's
43
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
disciples with cankers destroyed, of the Paccekabuddhas, of the Perfect Ones,
accomplished and fully enlightened: such is virtue consisting in tranquillized
purification" (Patis 1 42-43).
132. (a) Herein, the virtue of those not fully admitted to the Order should be
understood as virtue consisting in limited purification, because it is limited by the
number [of training precepts, that is, five or eight or ten] .
(b) That of those fully admitted to the Order is [describable] thus:
Nine thousand millions, and a hundred
And eighty millions then as well,
And fifty plus a hundred thousand.
And thirty-six again to swell.
The total restraint disciplines:
These rules the Enlightened One explains
Told under heads for filling out.
Which the Discipline restraint contains. 35
So although limited in number, [47] it should yet be understood as virtue
consisting in unlimited purification, since it is undertaken without reserve and has
no obvious limit such as gain, fame, relatives, limbs or life. Like the virtue of the
Elder Maha Tissa the Mango-eater who lived at Clragumba (see §122 above).
133. For that venerable one never abandoned the following good man's
recollection:
"Wealth for a sound limb's sake should be renounced,
And one who guards his life gives up his limbs;
And wealth and limbs and life, each one of these,
A man gives up who practices the Dhamma."
And he never transgressed a training precept even when his life was in the
balance, and in this way he reached Arahantship with that same virtue of unlimited
purification as his support while he was being carried on a lay devotee's back.
According to as it is said:
"Nor your mother nor your father
Nor your relatives and kin
Have done as much as this for you
Because you are possessed of virtue."
So, stirred with urgency, and wisely
Comprehending 36 with insight,
35. The figures depend on whether koti is taken as 1,000,000 or 100,000 or 10,000.
36. "Comprehending" (s ammasana) is a technical term that will become clear in
Chapter XX. In short, it is inference that generalizes the "three characteristics" from
one's own directly-known experience to all possible formed experience at all times
(see S II 107). Commenting on "He comprehended that same illness" (§138), Vism-mht
says: "He exercised insight by discerning the feeling in the illness under the heading
of the feeling [aggregate] and the remaining material dhammas as materiality"
(Vism-mht 65).
44
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
While carried on his helper's back
He reached the goal of Arahantship.
134. (c) The magnanimous ordinary man's virtue, which from the time of
admission to the Order is devoid even of the stain of a [wrong] thought because of
its extreme purity like a gem of purest water, like well-refined gold, becomes the
proximate cause for Arahantship itself, which is why it is called consisting of fulfilled
purification; like that of the lders Sangharakkhita the Great and Saiigharakkhita
the Nephew
135. The Elder Sangharakkhita the Great ( Maha Sangharakkhita), aged over sixty,
was lying, it seems, on his deathbed. The Order of Bhikkhus questioned him about
attainment of the supramundane state. The elder said: "I have no supramundane
state." Then the young bhikkhu who was attending on him said: "Venerable sir,
people have come as much as twelve leagues, thinking that you have reached
Nibbana. It will be a disappointment for many if you die as an ordinary man." —
"Friend, thinking to see the Blessed One Metteyya, I did not try for insight. [48] So
help me to sit up and give me the chance." He helped the elder to sit up and went
out. As he went out the elder reached Arahantship and he gave a sign by snapping
his fingers. The Order assembled and said to him: "Venerable sir, you have done a
difficult thing in achieving the supramundane state in the hour of death." — "That was
not difficult, friends. But rather I will tell you what is difficult. Friends, I see no action
done [by me] without mindfulness and unknowingly since the time I went forth." His
nephew also reached Arahantship in the same way at the age of fifty years.
136. "Now, if a man has little learning
And he is careless of his virtue,
They censure him on both accounts
For lack of virtue and of learning.
"But if he is of little learning
Yet he is careful of his virtue,
They praise him for his virtue, so
It is as though he too had learning.
"And if he is of ample learning
Yet he is careless of his virtue,
They blame him for his virtue, so
It is as though he had no learning.
"But if he is of ample learning
And he is careful of his virtue.
They give him praise on both accounts
For virtue and as well for learning.
"The Buddha's pupil of much learning
Who keeps the Faw with understanding —
A jewel of Jambu River gold 37
Who is here fit to censure him?
37. A story of the Jambu River and its gold is given at M-a IV 147.
45
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
Deities praise him [constantly],
By Brahma also is he praised (A II 7).
137. (d) What should be understood as virtue consisting in purification not adhered
to is trainers' virtue, because it is not adhered to by [false] view, and ordinary
men's virtue when not adhered to by greed. Like the virtue of the Elder Tissa the
Landowner's Son ( Kutumbiyaputta-Tissa-thera ). Wanting to become established in
Arahantship in dependence on such virtue, this venerable one told his enemies:
I broke the bones of both my legs
To give the pledge you asked from me.
I am revolted and ashamed
At death accompanied by greed. [49]
"And after I had thought on this,
And wisely then applied insight.
When the sun rose and shone on me,
I had become an Arahant" (M-a I 233).
138. Also there was a certain senior elder who was very ill and unable to eat with
his own hand. He was writhing smeared with his own urine and excrement. Seeing
him, a certain young bhikkhu said, "Oh, what a painful process life is!" The senior
elder told him: "If I were to die now, friend, I should obtain the bliss of heaven; I
have no doubt of that. But the bliss obtained by breaking this virtue would be like
the lay state obtained by disavowing the training," and he added: "I shall die
together with my virtue." As he lay there, he comprehended that same illness
[with insight], and he reached Arahantship. Having done so, he pronounced these
verses to the Order of Bhikkhus:
"I am victim of a sickening disease
That racks me with its burden of cruel pain;
As flowers in the dust burnt by the sun.
So this my corpse will soon have withered up.
"Unbeautiful called beautiful.
Unclean while reckoned as if clean,
Though full of ordure seeming fair
To him that cannot see it clear.
"So out upon this ailing rotting body,
Fetid and filthy punished with affliction.
Doting on which this silly generation
Has lost the way to be reborn in heaven!" (J-a II 437)
139. (e) It is the virtue of the Arahants, etc., that should be understood as
tranquillized purification, because of tranquillization of all disturbance and because
of purifiedness.
So it is of five kinds as "consisting in limited purification," and so on.
140. 19. In the second pentad the meaning should be understood as the
abandoning, etc., of killing living things, etc.; for this is said in the Patisambhida:
"Five kinds of virtue: (1) In the case of killing living things, (a) abandoning is
46
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
virtue, (b) abstention is virtue, (c) volition is virtue, (d) restraint is virtue, (e) non-
transgression is virtue. (2) In the case of taking what is not given ... (3) In the case
of sexual misconduct ... (4) In the case of false speech ... (5) In the case of malicious
speech ... (6) In the case of harsh speech ... (7) In the case of gossip . . . [50] (8) In
the case of covetousness ... (9) In the case of ill will ... (10) In the case of wrong
view ...
(11) "Through renunciation in the case of lust, (a) abandoning is virtue . . . (12)
Through non-ill-will in the case of ill-will . . . (13) Through perception of light in
the case of stiffness-and-torpor . . . (14) Through non-distraction . . . agitation . . .
(15) Through definition of states ( dhamma ) ... uncertainty ... (16) Through
knowledge . . . ignorance ... (17) Through gladdening in the case of boredom . . .
(18) "Through the first jhana in the case of the hindrances, (a) abandoning is virtue
. . . (19) Through the second jhana . . . applied and sustained thought . . . (20) Through
the third jhana . . . happiness . . . (21) Through the fourth jhana in the case of pleasure
and pain, (a) abandoning is virtue . . . (22) Through the attainment of the base consisting
of boundless space in the case of perceptions of matter, perceptions of resistance, and
perceptions of variety (a) abandoning is virtue . . . (23) Through the attainment of the
base consisting of boundless consciousness in the case of the perception of the base
consisting of boundless space . . . (24) Through the attainment of the base consisting of
nothingness in the case of the perception of the base consisting of boundless
consciousness . . . (25) Through the attainment of the base consisting of neither
perception nor non-perception in the case of the perception of the base consisting of
nothingness . . .
(26) "Through the contemplation of impermanence in the case of the perception
of permanence, (a) abandoning is virtue ... (27) Through the contemplation of
pain in the case of the perception of pleasure . . . (28) Through the contemplation of
not-self in the case of the perception of self . . . (29) Through the contemplation of
dispassion in the case of the perception of delighting ... (30) Through the
contemplation of fading away in the case of greed ... (31) Through the
contemplation of cessation in the case of originating ... (32) Through the
contemplation of relinquishment in the case of grasping . . .
(33) "Through the contemplation of destruction in the case of the perception of
compactness, (a) abandoning is virtue . . . (34) Through the contemplation of fall
[of formations] in the case of accumulating [kamma] ... (35) Through the
contemplation of change in the case of the perception of lastingness . . . (36) Through
the contemplation of the signless in the case of a sign ... (37) Through the
contemplation of the desireless in the case of desire ... (38) Through the
contemplation of voidness in the case of misinterpreting (insistence) . . . (39) Through
insight into states that is higher understanding in the case of misinterpreting
(insistence) due to grasping . . . (40) Through correct knowledge and vision in the
case of misinterpreting (insistence) due to confusion ... (41) Through the
contemplation of danger in the case of misinterpreting (insistence) due to reliance
[on formations] . . . (42) Through reflection in the case of non-reflection . . . (43)
Through the contemplation of turning away in the case of misinterpreting
(insistence) due to bondage . . .
47
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
(44) "Through the path of stream-entry in the case of defilements coefficient
with [false] view, (a) abandoning is virtue . . . (45) Through the path of once-retum
in the case of gross defilements . . . (46) Through the path of non-return in the case
of residual defilements . . . (47) Through the path of Arahantship in the case of all
defilements, (a) abandoning is virtue, (b) abstention is virtue, (c) volition is virtue,
(d) restraint is virtue, (e) non-transgression is virtue.
"Such virtues lead to non-remorse in the mind, to gladdening, to happiness, to
tranquillity to joy to repetition, to development, to cultivation, to embellishment, to
the requisite [for concentration], to the equipment [of concentration], to fulfilment, to
complete dispassion, to fading away to cessation, to peace, to direct-knowledge, to
enlightenment, to Nibbana." 38 (Patis 1 46-47)
141 . And here there is no state called abandoning other than the mere non-arising
of the killing of living things, etc., as stated. But the abandoning of a given
[unprofitable state] upholds [51] a given profitable state in the sense of providing a
foundation for it, and concentrates it by preventing wavering, so it is called "virtue"
(sila) in the sense of composing (silana), reckoned as upholding and concentrating
as stated earlier (§19).
The other four things mentioned refer to the presence 39 of occurrence of will as
abstention from such and such, as restraint of such and such, as the volition
associated with both of these, and as non-transgression in one who does not
transgress such and such. But their meaning of virtue has been explained already.
So it is of five kinds as "virtue consisting in abandoning" and so on.
142. At this point the answers to the questions, "What is virtue? In what sense is
it virtue? What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause?
What are the benefits of virtue? How many kinds of virtue are there?" are complete.
143. However, it was also asked (vi) What is the defiling of it? and What is the
CLEANSING OF IT?
We answer that virtue's tornness, etc., is its defiling, and that its untornness,
etc., is its cleansing. Now, that tornness, etc., are comprised under the breach that
has gain, fame, etc., as its cause, and under the seven bonds of sexuality When a
man has broken the training course at the beginning or at the end in any instance
of the seven classes of offences, 40 his virtue is called torn, like a cloth that is cut at
the edge. But when he has broken it in the middle, it is called rent, like a cloth that
38. This list describes, in terms of abandoning, etc., the stages in the normal progress
from ignorance to Arahantship, and it falls into the following groups: I. Virtue : the
abandoning of the ten unprofitable courses of action (1-10). II. Concentration: A.
abandoning the seven hindrances to concentration by means of their opposites (11-
17); B. The eight attainments of concentration, and what is abandoned by each (18-25).
III. Understanding: A. Insight: the eighteen principal insights beginning with the seven
contemplations (26^43). B. Paths: The four paths and what is abandoned by each (44-47).
39. Sabbhava — "presence" ( = sat + bhava): not in PED. Not to be confused with sablwva —
"individual essence" ( = sa (Skr. sva) + bhava, or saha + bhava).
40. The seven consisting of parajika, sahghadisesa , pacittiya, patidesaniya, dukkata,
thullaccaya, dubbhasita (mentioned at M-a II 33).
48
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
is rent in the middle. When he has broken it twice or thrice in succession, it is
called blotched, like a cow whose body is some such colour as black or red with a
discrepant colour appearing on the back or the belly. When he has broken it [all
over] at intervals, it is called mottled, like a cow speckled [all over] with discrepant-
coloured spots at intervals. This in the first place, is how there comes to be tornness
with the breach that has gain, etc., as its cause.
144. And likewise with the seven bonds of sexuality; for this is said by the Blessed
One: “Here, brahman, some ascetic or brahman claims to lead the life of purity
rightly; for he does not [52] enter into actual sexual intercourse with women. Yet
he agrees to massage, manipulation, bathing and rubbing down by women. He
enjoys it, desires it and takes satisfaction in it. This is what is torn, rent, blotched
and mottled in one who leads the life of purity This man is said to lead a life of
purity that is unclean. As one who is bound by the bond of sexuality he will not be
released from birth, ageing and death ... he will not be released from suffering, I
say
145. "Furthermore, brahman, . . . while he does not agree to [these things], yet he
jokes, plays and amuses himself with women . . .
146. "Furthermore, brahman, . . . while he does not agree to [these things], yet he
gazes and stares at women eye to eye . . .
147. "Furthermore, brahman, . . . while he does not agree to [these things], yet he
listens to the sound of women through a wall or through a fence as they laugh or
talk or sing or weep . . .
148. "Furthermore, brahman, . . . while he does not agree to [these things], yet he
recalls laughs and talks and games that he formerly had with women . . .
149. "Furthermore, brahman, ... while he does not agree to [these things], [53]
yet he sees a householder or a householder's son possessed of, endowed with, and
indulging in, the five cords of sense desire . . .
150. "Furthermore, brahman, while he does not agree to [these things], yet he
leads the life of purity aspiring to some order of deities, [thinking] 'Through this
rite (virtue) or this ritual (vow) or this asceticism I shall become a [great] deity or
some [lesser] deity' He enjoys it, desires it, and takes satisfaction in it. This,
brahman, is what is torn, rent, blotched and mottled in one who leads the life of
purity This man . . . will not be released from suffering, I say" (A IV 54-56).
This is how tornness, etc., should be understood as included under the breach
that has gain, etc., as its cause and under the seven bonds of sexuality
151 Untornness, however, is accomplished by the complete non-breaking of
the training precepts, by making amends for those broken for which amends should
be made, by the absence of the seven bonds of sexuality, and, as well, by the non-
arising of such evil things as anger, enmity contempt, domineering, envy, avarice,
deceit, fraud, obduracy presumption, pride (conceit), haughtiness, conceit (vanity),
and negligence (MN 7), and by the arising of such qualities as fewness of wishes,
contentment, and effacement (MN 24).
49
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
152. Virtues not broken for the purpose of gain, etc., and rectified by making
amends after being broken by the faults of negligence, etc., and not damaged by
the bonds of sexuality and by such evil things as anger and enmity are called
entirely untorn, unrent, unblotched, and unmottled. And those same virtues are
liberating since they bring about the state of a freeman, and praised by the wise
since it is by the wise that they are praised, and unadhered-to since they are not
adhered to by means of craving and views, and conducive to concentration since
they conduce to access concentration or to absorption concentration. That is why
their untornness, etc., should be understood as “cleansing" (see also VILlOlf.).
153. This cleansing comes about in two ways: through seeing the danger of failure
in virtue, and through seeing the benefit of perfected virtue. [54] Herein, the danger
of failure in virtue can be seen in accordance with such suttas as that beginning,
“Bhikkhus, there are these five dangers for the unvirtuous in the failure of virtue"
(A III 252).
154. Furthermore, on account of his unvirtuousness an unvirtuous person is
displeasing to deities and human beings, is uninstructable by his fellows in the life
of purity suffers when unvirtuousness is censured, and is remorseful when the
virtuous are praised. Owing to that unvirtuousness he is as ugly as hemp cloth.
Contact with him is painful because those who fall in with his views are brought
to long-lasting suffering in the states of loss. He is worthless because he causes no
great fruit [to accrue] to those who give him gifts. He is as hard to purify as a
cesspit many years old. He is like a log from a pyre (see It 99); for he is outside
both [recluseship and the lay state]. Though claiming the bhikkhu state he is no
bhikkhu, so he is like a donkey following a herd of cattle. He is always nervous,
like a man who is everyone's enemy. He is as unfit to live with as a dead carcase.
Though he may have the qualities of learning, etc., he is as unfit for the homage of
his fellows in the life of purity as a charnel-ground fire is for that of brahmans. He
is as incapable of reaching the distinction of attainment as a blind man is of seeing
a visible object. He is as careless of the Good Law as a guttersnipe is of a kingdom.
Though he fancies he is happy, yet he suffers because he reaps suffering as told in
the Discourse on the Mass of Fire (A IV 128-34).
155. Now, the Blessed One has shown that when the unvirtuous have their minds
captured by pleasure and satisfaction in the indulgence of the five cords of sense
desires, in [receiving] salutation, in being honoured, etc., the result of that kamma,
directly visible in all ways, is very violent pain, with that [kamma] as its condition,
capable of producing a gush of hot blood by causing agony of heart with the mere
recollection of it. Here is the text:
"Bhikkhus, do you see that great mass of fire burning, blazing and glowing? —
Yes, venerable sir. — What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one [gone
forth] should sit down or lie down embracing that mass of fire burning, blazing
and glowing, or that he should sit down or lie down embracing a warrior-noble
maiden or a brahman maiden or a maiden of householder family with soft, delicate
hands and feet? — It would be better, venerable sir, that he should sit down or lie
down embracing a warrior-noble maiden . . . [55] It would be painful, venerable sir,
50
Chapter I Description of Virtue
if he sat down or lay down embracing that great mass of fire burning, blazing and
glowing.
156. "I say to you, bhikkhus, I declare to you, bhikkhus, that it would be better
for one [gone forth] who is unvirtuous, who is evil-natured, of unclean and suspect
habits, secretive of his acts, who is not an ascetic and claims to be one, who does
not lead the life of purity and claims to do so, who is rotten within, lecherous, and
full of corruption, to sit down or lie down embracing that great mass of fire burning,
blazing and glowing. Why is that? By his doing so, bhikkhus, he might come to
death or deadly suffering, yet he would not on that account, on the breakup of the
body, after death, reappear in states of loss, in an unhappy destiny, in perdition, in
hell. But if one who is unvirtuous, evil-natured . . . and full of corruption, should
sit down or lie down embracing a warrior-noble maiden . . . that would be long for
his harm and suffering: on the break-up of the body, after death, he would reappear
in states of loss, in an unhappy destiny, in perdition, in hell" (A IV 128-29).
157. Having thus shown by means of the analogy of the mass of fire the suffering
that is bound up with women and has as its condition the indulgence of the five
cords of sense desires [by the unvirtuous], to the same intent he showed, by the
following similes of the horse-hair rope, the sharp spear, the iron sheet, the iron
ball, the iron bed, the iron chair, and the iron cauldron, the pain that has as its
condition [acceptance of] homage and reverential salutation, and the use of robes,
alms food, bed and chair, and dwelling [by unvirtuous bhikkhus]:
"What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one should have a strong horse-
hair rope twisted round both legs by a strong man and tightened so that it cut through
the outer skin, and having cut through the outer skin it cut through the inner skin, and
having cut through the inner skin it cut through the flesh, and having cut through the
flesh it cut through the sinews, and having cut through the sinews it cut through the
bones, and having cut through the bones it remained crushing the bone marrow — or
that he should consent to the homage of great warrior-nobles, great brahmans, great
householders?" (A IV 129). [56]
And: "What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one should have a
strong man wound one's breast with a sharp spear tempered in oil — or that he
should consent to the reverential salutation of great warrior-nobles, great brahmans,
great householders?" (A IV 130).
And: "What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one's body should be
wrapped by a strong man in a red-hot iron sheet burning, blazing and glowing —
or that he should use robes given out of faith by great warrior-nobles, great
brahmans, great householders?" (A IV 130-31).
And: "What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one's mouth should
be prised open by a strong man with red-hot iron tongs burning, blazing and
glowing, and that into his mouth should be put a red-hot iron ball burning, blazing
and glowing, which burns his lips and bums his mouth and tongue and throat and
belly and passes out below carrying with it his bowels and entrails — or that he should
use alms food given out of faith by great warrior-nobles . . .?" (A IV 131-32).
51
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one should have a strong
man seize him by the head or seize him by the shoulders and seat him or lay him on a
red-hot iron bed or iron chair, burning, blazing and glowing — or that he should use a
bed or chair given out of faith by great warrior-nobles ... ?" (A IV 132-33).
And: “What do you think, bhikkhus, which is better, that one should have a
strong man take him feet up and head down and plunge him into a red-hot metal
cauldron burning, blazing and glowing, to be boiled there in a swirl of froth, and as
he boils in the swirl of froth to be swept now up, now down, and now across — or that
he should use a dwelling given out of faith by great warrior-nobles . . . ?" ( A IV 133-34) .
158. What pleasure has a man of broken virtue
Forsaking not sense pleasures, which bear fruit
Of pain more violent even than the pain
In the embracing of a mass of fire?
What pleasure has he in accepting homage
Who, having failed in virtue, must partake
Of pain that will excel in agony
The crushing of his legs with horse-hair ropes? [57]
What pleasure has a man devoid of virtue
Accepting salutations of the faithful,
Which is the cause of pain acuter still
Than pain produced by stabbing with a spear?
What is the pleasure in the use of garments
For one without restraint, whereby in hell
He will for long be forced to undergo
The contact of the blazing iron sheet?
Although to him his alms food may seem tasty
Who has no virtue, it is direst poison.
Because of which he surely will be made
For long to swallow burning iron balls.
And when the virtueless make use of couches
And chairs, though reckoned pleasing, it is pain
Because they will be tortured long indeed
On red-hot blazing iron beds and chairs.
Then what delight is there for one unvirtuous
Inhabiting a dwelling given in faith,
Since for that reason he will have to dwell
Shut up inside a blazing iron pan?
The Teacher of the world, in him condemning,
Described him in these terms: “Of suspect habits,
Full of corruption, lecherous as well,
By nature evil, rotten too within."
So out upon the life of him abiding
Without restraint, of him that wears the guise
52
Chapter I
Description of Virtue
Of the ascetic that he will not be,
And damages and undermines himself!
What is the life he leads, since any person,
No matter who, with virtue to his credit
Avoids it here, as those that would look well
Keep far away from dung or from a corpse?
He is not free from any sort of terror,
Though free enough from pleasure of attainment;
While heaven's door is bolted fast against him.
He is well set upon the road to hell.
Who else if not one destitute of virtue
More fit to be the object of compassion?
Many indeed and grave are the defects
That brand a man neglectful of his virtue.
Seeing danger in the failure of virtue should be understood as reviewing in
such ways as these. And seeing benefits in perfected vir-tue should be understood
in the opposite sense.
159. Furthermore: [58]
His virtue is immaculate,
His wearing of the bowl and robes
Gives pleasure and inspires trust,
His going forth will bear its fruit.
A bhikkhu in his virtue pure
Has never fear that self-reproach
Will enter in his heart: indeed
There is no darkness in the sun.
A bhikkhu in his virtue bright
Shines forth in the Ascetics' Wood 41
As by the brightness of his beams
The moon lights up the firmament.
Now, if the bodily perfume
Of virtuous bhikkhus can succeed
In pleasing even deities,
What of the perfume of his virtue?
It is more perfect far than all
The other perfumes in the world,
Because the perfume virtue gives
Is borne unchecked in all directions.
The deeds done for a virtuous man,
Though they be few, will bear much fruit.
41. An allusion to the Gosinga Suttas (MN 31, 32).
53
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
And so the virtuous man becomes
A vessel of honour and renown.
There are no cankers here and now
To plague the virtuous man at all;
The virtuous man digs out the root
Of suffering in lives to come.
Perfection among human kind
And even among deities.
If wished for, is not hard to gain
For him whose virtue is perfected;
But once his virtue is perfected,
His mind then seeks no other kind
han the perfection of Nibbana,
The state where utter peace prevails.
Such is the blessed fruit of virtue,
Showing full many a varied form.
So let a wise man know it well
This root of all perfection's branches.
160. The mind of one who understands thus, shudders at failure in virtue and
reaches out towards the perfecting of virtue. So virtue should be cleansed with all
care, seeing this danger of failure in virtue and this benefit of the perfection of
virtue in the way stated.
161. And at this point in the Path of Purification, which is shown under the headings
of virtue, concentration and understanding by the stanza, "When a wise man,
established well in virtue" (§1), virtue, firstly has been fully illustrated.
The first chapter called "The Description of Virtue" in the
Path of Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening
good people.
54
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
(. Dhutanga-niddesa )
1. [59] Now, while a meditator is engaged in the pursuit of virtue, he should set
about undertaking the ascetic practices in order to perfect those special qualities
of fewness of wishes, contentment, etc., by which the virtue of the kind already
described, is cleansed. For when his virtue is thus washed clean of stains by the
waters of such special qualities as fewness of wishes, contentment, effacement,
seclusion, dispersal, energy, and modest needs, it will become quite purified; and
his vows will succeed as well. And- so, when his whole behaviour has been purified
by the special quality of blameless virtue and vows and he has become established
in the [first] three of the ancient Noble Ones' heritages, he may become worthy to
attain to the fourth called "delight in development" (A II 27). We shall therefore
begin the explanation of the ascetic practices.
[The 13 kinds of Ascetic Practices]
2. Thirteen kinds of ascetic practices have been allowed by the Blessed One to
clansmen who have given up the things of the flesh and, regardless of body and
life, are desirous of undertaking a practice in conformity [with their aim]. They
are:
i. the refuse-rag-wearer's practice,
ii. the triple-robe-wearer's practice,
iii. the alms-food-eater's practice,
iv. the house-to-house-seeker's practice,
v. the one-sessioner's practice,
vi. the bowl-food-eater's practice,
vii. the later-food-refuser's practice,
viii. the forest-dweller's practice,
ix. the tree-root-dweller's practice,
x. the open-air-dweller's practice,
xi. the charnel-ground-dweller's practice,
xii. the any-bed-user's practice,
xiii. the sitter's practice.
3. Herein:
(1) As to meaning, (2) characteristic, et cetera,
(3) The undertaking and directions,
55
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
And then the grade, and breach as well,
And benefits of each besides,
(4) As to the profitable triad,
(5) “Ascetic" and so on distinguished,
(6) And as to groups, and also (7) singly
The exposition should be known. [60]
4. 1. Herein, as to meaning, in the first place.
i. It is “refuse" ( pamsukula ) since, owing to its being found on refuse in any
such place as a street, a charnel ground, or a midden, it belongs, as it were, to the
refuse in the sense of being dumped in anyone of these places. Or alternatively:
like refuse it gets to a vile state ( PAMSU vii/a KUcchitabhavam ULAti), thus it is
“refuse" ( pamsukula ); it goes to a vile state, is what is meant. The wearing of a
refuse-[rag], which has acquired its derivative name 1 in this way, is "refuse-[rag-
wearing]" ( pamsukula ). That is his habit, thus he is a "refuse-[rag-wear-]er"
( pamsukulika ). The practice ( anga ) of the refuse-[rag-wear-]er is the “refuse-[rag-
wear-]er's practice" ( pamsukulikanga ). It is the action that is called the “practice."
Therefore it should be understood as a term for that by undertaking which one
becomes a refuse- [rag-wear-] er.
ii. In the same way, he has the habit of [wearing] the triple robe ( ti-clvara ) — in
other words, the cloak of patches, the upper garment, and the inner clothing —
thus he is a “triple-robe-[wear-]er" ( teclvarika ). His practice is called the "triple-
robe- wearer's practice."
5. iii. The dropping (pata) of the lumps ( pinda ) of material sustenance ( amisa )
called alms ( bhikkha ) is "alms food" ( pindapata ); the falling ( nipatana ) into the bowl
of lumps (pinda) given by others, is what is meant. He gleans that alms food (that
falling of lumps), he seeks it by approaching such and such a family thus he is
called an “alms-food [eat-]er" ( pindapatika ). Or his vow is to gather ( patitum ) 2 the
lump (pinda), thus he is a "lump-gatherer" (pindapatin) . To “gather" is to wander
for. A “lump-gatherer" (pindapatin) is the same as an "alms-food-eater" (pindapatika).
The practice of the alms-food-eater is the “alms-food-eater's practice."
6. iv. It is a hiatus (avakhandana) that is called a “gap" (dana). 3 It is removed (apeta)
from a gap, thus it is called “gapless" (apadana); the meaning is, it is without hiatus.
It is together with (saha) what is gapless (apadana), thus it is "with the gapless"
(s apadana); devoid of hiatus — from house to house — is what is meant. His habit is
to wander on what-is-with-the-gapless, thus he is a “gapless wanderer" (sapadana-
carin). A gapless wanderer is the same as a “house-to-house-seeker" (sapaddna-
carika). His practice is the “house-to-house-seeker's practice."
7. v. Eating in one session is "one-session." He has that habit, thus he is a “one-
sessioner." His practice is the "one-sessioner's practice."
1. Nibbacana — "derivative name (or verbal derivative)"; gram, term not in PED; M-a I
61,105; VismXVI.16.
2. Patati — "to gather (or to wander)": not in PED.
3. Avakhandana — "hiatus" and dana — "gap": not in PED.
56
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
vi. Alms ( pinda ) in one bowl ( patta ) only because of refusing a second vessel, is
“bowl-alms" ( patta-pinda ). Now, making "bowl alms" ( patta-pinda ) the name for
the taking of alms food in the bowl: bowl-alms-food is his habit, thus he is a "bowl-
food-eater" (pattapindika). His practice is the "bowl-food-eater's practice."
8. vii. "No" ( khalu ) is a particle in the sense of refusing. [61] Food ( bhatta ) obtained
later by one who has shown that he is satisfied is called "later- food" ( paccha-bhatta ).
The eating of that later food is "later-food-eating." Making "later-food" ( paccha-
bhatta ) the name for that later-food-eating: later-food is his habit, thus he is a "later-
food-[eat-]er" ( pacchabhattika ). Not a later-food-eater is a "no-later-food- [eat-] er"
(khalu-pacchabhattika), [that is, a "later-food-refuser"]. This is the name for one who
as an undertaking refuses extra food. But it is said in the commentary 4 "Khalu is a
certain kind of bird. When it has taken a fruit into its beak and that drops, it does
not eat any more. This [bhikkhu] is like that." Thus he is "a later-food-refuser"
(khalu-paccha-bhattika). His practice is the "later-food-refuser's practice."
9. viii. His habit is dwelling in the forest, thus he is a "forest-dweller." His practice
is the "forest-dweller's practice."
ix. Dwelling at the root of a tree is "tree-root-dwelling." He has that habit, thus
he is a "tree-root-dweller." The practice of the tree-root-dweller is the "tree-root-
dweller's practice."
x. , xi. Likewise with the open-air-dweller and the charnel-ground-dweller.
10. xii. Only what has been distributed ( yad eva santhata) is "as distributed"
(yathasanthata). This is a term for the resting place first allotted thus "This one falls
to you." He has the habit of dwelling in that as distributed, thus he is an "as-
distributed-user" ( yathasanthatika ), [that is, an "any-bed-user"]. His practice is the
"any-bed-user's practice."
xiii. He has the habit of keeping to the sitting [posture when resting], refusing
to lie down, thus he is a "sitter." His practice is the "sitter's practice."
11. All these, however, are the practices ( ahga ) of a bhikkhu who is ascetic ( dhuta )
because he has shaken off (dhuta) defilement by undertaking one or other of them.
Or the knowledge that has got the name "ascetic" (dhuta) because it shakes off
(i Humana) defilement is a practice (ahga) belonging to these, thus they are "ascetic
practices" (dhutanga). Or alternatively they are ascetic (dhuta) because they shake
off (niddhunana) opposition, and they are practices (ahga) because they are a way
(patipatti).
This, firstly, is how the exposition should be known here as to meaning.
12. 2. All of them have as their characteristic the volition of undertaking. For this
is said [in the commentary]: "He who does the undertaking is a person. That
whereby he does the undertaking is states of consciousness and consciousness-
concomitants. The volition of the act of undertaking is the ascetic practice. What it
rejects is the instance." All have the function of eliminating cupidity and they
4. Such references to "the Commentary" are to the old Sinhalese commentary, no
longer extant, from which Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa drew his material.
57
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
manifest themselves with the production of non-cupidity; For their proximate cause
they have the noble states consisting of fewness of wishes, and so on. [62] This is
how the exposition should be known as to characteristic, etc., here.
13. 3. As regards the five beginning with the undertaking and directions: during
the Blessed One's lifetime all ascetic practices should be undertaken in the Blessed
One's presence. After his attainment of Nibbana this should be done in the presence
of a principal disciple. When he is not available it should be done in the presence
of one whose cankers are destroyed, of a non-returner, of a once-returner, of a
stream-enterer, of one who knows the three Pitakas, of one who knows two of the
Pitakas, of one who knows one of the Pitakas, of one who knows one Collection, 5
of a teacher of the Commentaries. When he is not available it should be done in the
presence of an observer of an ascetic practice. When he is not available, then after
one has swept out the shrine terrace they can be undertaken seated in a reverential
posture as though pronouncing them in the Fully Enlightened One's presence.
Also it is permitted to undertake them by oneself.
And here should be told the story of the senior of the two brothers who were
elders at Cetiyapabbata and their fewness of wishes with respect to the ascetic
practices 6 (M-a II 140).
This, firstly is what applies to all [the practices].
14. Now, we shall proceed to comment on the undertaking, directions, grade,
breach and benefits, of each one [separately].
i. First, the refuse-rag-wearer's practice is undertaken with one of these two
statements: "I refuse robes given by householders" or "I undertake the refuse-rag-
wearer's practice." This, firstly is the undertaking.
15. One who has done this should get a robe of one of the following kinds: one
from a charnel ground, one from a shop, a cloth from a street, a cloth from a midden,
one from a childbed, an ablution cloth, a cloth from a washing place, one worn
going to and returning from [the charnel ground], one scorched by fire, one gnawed
by cattle, one gnawed by ants, one gnawed by rats, one cut at the end, one cut at the
edge, one carried as a flag, a robe from a shrine, an ascetic's robe, one from a
consecration, one produced by supernormal power, one from a highway, one borne
by the wind, one presented by deities, one from the sea. Taking one of these robe
cloths, he should tear off and throw away the weak parts, and then wash the sound
parts and make up a robe. He can use it after getting rid of his old robe given by
householders.
16. Herein, “one from a charnel ground" is one dropped on a charnel ground.
5. '"Ekasangitika : one who knows one of the five collections (nikaya) beginning with
the Collection of Long Discourses (Dlgha Nikaya). (Vism-mht 76)"
6. "That elder, it seems, was a sitter, but no one knew it. Then one night the other saw
him by the light of a flash of lightning sitting up on his bed. He asked, 'Are you a sitter,
venerable sir?' Out of fewness of wishes that his ascetic practice should get known, the
elder lay down. Afterwards he undertook the practice anew. So the story has come
down. (Vism-mht 77)"
58
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
“One from a shop" is one dropped at the door of a shop.
“A cloth from a street" is a cloth thrown into a street from inside a window by
those who seek merit.
“A cloth from a midden " [63] is a cloth thrown onto a place for rubbish.
“One from a childbed" is a cloth thrown away after wiping up the stains of
childbirth with it. The mother of Tissa the Minister, it seems, had the stains of
childbirth wiped up with a cloth worth a hundred [pieces], and thinking, “The
refuse- rag wearers will take it," she had it thrown onto the Talaveli Road. 7 Bhikkhus
took it for the purpose of mending worn places.
17. “An ablution cloth" is one that people who are made by devil doctors to bathe
themselves, including their heads, are accustomed to throw away as a “cloth of ill
luck."
“A cloth from washing place" is rags thrown away at a washing place where bathing
is done.
“One worn going to and coming from" is one that people throw away after they
have gone to a charnel ground and returned and bathed.
“One scorched by fire" is one partly scorched by fire; for people throw that away
“One gnawed by cattle," etc., are obvious; for people throw away such as these
too.
“One carried as a flag": Those who board a ship do so after hoisting a flag. It is
allowable to take this when they have gone out of sight. Also it is allowable, when
the two armies have gone away, to take a flag that has been hoisted on a battlefield.
18. “A robe from a shrine" is an offering made by draping a termite-mound [in
cloth],
“An ascetic's robe" is one belonging to a bhikkhu.
“One from a consecration" is one thrown away at the king's consecration place.
“One produced by supernormal power" is a “come-bhikkhu" robe. 8 “One from a
highway" is one dropped in the middle of a road. But one dropped by the owner's
negligence should be taken only after waiting a while.
" One borne by the wind" is one that falls a long way off, having been carried by
the wind. It is allowable to take it if the owners are not in sight.
"One presented by deities" is one given by deities like that given to the Elder
Anuruddha (Dhp-a II 173-74).
“One from the sea" is one washed up on dry land by the sea waves.
19. One given thus “We give it to the Order" or got by those who go out for alms-
cloth is not a refuse-rag. And in the case of one presented by a bhikkhu, one given
7. “The name of a street in Mahagama (S.E. Sri Lanka). Also in Anuradhapura, they
say" (Vism-mht 77).
8. On certain occasions, when the going forth was given by the Buddha with only the
words, "Ehi bhikkhu (Come, bhikkhu)," owing to the disciple's past merit robes appeared
miraculously upon him (see e.g. Vin Mahavagga, Kh. 1).
59
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sria)
after it has been got [at a presentation of robes by householders] at the end of the
Rains, or a “resting-place robe" [that is, one automatically supplied by a householder
to the occupant of a certain resting place] is not a refuse-rag. It is a refuse-rag only
when given after not having been so obtained. And herein, that placed by the donors
at a bhikkhu's feet but given by that bhikkhu to the refuse-rag wearer by placing it
in his hand is called pure in one way. That given to a bhikkhu by placing it in his
hand but placed by him at the [refuse-rag wearer's] feet is also pure in one way.
That which is both placed at a bhikkhu's feet and then given by him in the same
way is pure in both ways. [64] One obtained by being placed in the hand and
[given by being] placed in the hand too is not a strict man's robe. So a refuse-rag
wearer should use the robe after getting to know about the kinds of refuse-rags.
These are the directions for it in this instance.
20. The grades are these. There are three kinds of refuse-rag wearers: the strict, the
medium, and the mild. Herein, one who takes it only from a charnel ground is strict.
One who takes one left [by someone, thinking] “One gone forth will take it" is medium.
One who takes one given by being placed at his feet [by a bhikkhu] is mild.
The moment anyone of these of his own choice or inclination agrees to [accept]
a robe given by a householder, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in
this instance.
21 . The benefits are these. He actually practices in conformity with the dependence,
because of the words “The going forth by depending on the refuse-rag robe" (Vin
1 58, 96); he is established in the first of the Noble Ones' heritages (A II 27); there is
no suffering due to protecting; he exists independent of others; there is no fear of
robbers; there is no craving connected with use [of robes]; it is a requisite suitable
for an ascetic; it is a requisite recommended by the Blessed One thus "valueless,
easy to get, and blameless" (A II 26); it inspires confidence; it produces the fruits
of fewness of wishes, etc.; the right way is cultivated; a good example is set 9 to later
generations.
22. While striving for Death's army's rout
The ascetic clad in rag-robe clout
Got from a rubbish heap, shines bright
As mail-clad warrior in the fight.
This robe the world's great teacher wore,
Leaving rare Kasi cloth and more;
Of rags from off a rubbish heap
Who would not have a robe to keep?
Minding the words he did profess
When he went into homelessness,
Let him to wear such rags delight
As one in seemly garb bedight.
This, firstly is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach,
and benefits, in the case of the refuse-rag-wearer's practice.
9. Apadana — "institution (or production)," not in PED.
60
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
23. ii. Next there is the triple-robe-wearer's practice. This is undertaken with one
of the following statements: "I refuse a fourth robe" or "I undertake the triple-
robe-wearer's practice." [65]
When a triple-robe wearer has got cloth for a robe, he can put it by for as long
as, owing to ill-health, he is unable to make it up, or for as long as he does not find
a helper, or lacks a needle, etc., and there is no fault in his putting it by. But it is not
allowed to put it by once it has been dyed. That is called cheating the ascetic practice.
These are the directions for it.
24. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict should, at the time of dyeing,
first dye either the inner cloth or the upper garment, and having dyed it, he should
wear that round the waist and dye the other. Then he can put that on over the
shoulder and dye the cloak of patches. But he is not allowed to wear the cloak of
patches round the waist. This is the duty when in an abode inside a village. But it
is allowable for him in the forest to wash and dye two together. However, he should
sit in a place near [to the robes] so that, if he sees anyone, he can pull a yellow cloth
over himself. But for the medium one there is a yellow cloth in the dyeing room for
use while dyeing, and it is allowable for him to wear that [as an inner cloth] or to
put it on [as an upper garment] in order to do the work of dyeing. For the mild one
it is allowable to wear, or put on, the robes of bhikkhus who are in communion (i.e.
not suspended, etc.) in order to do the work of dyeing. A bedspread that remains
where it is 10 is also allowable for him, but he must not take it about him. And it is
allowed for him to use from time to time the robes of bhikkhus who are in
communion. It is allowed to one who wears the triple robe as an ascetic practice to
have a yellow shoulder-cloth too as a fourth; but it must be only a span wide and
three hands long.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to [accept] a fourth robe, his ascetic
practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
25. The benefits are these. The bhikkhu who is a triple-robe wearer is content
with the robe as a protection for the body. Hence he goes taking it with him as a
bird does its wings (M 1 180); and such special qualities as having few undertakings,
avoidance of storage of cloth, a frugal existence, the abandoning of greed for many
robes, living in effacement by observing moderation even in what is permitted,
production of the fruits of fewness of wishes, etc., are perfected. [66]
26. No risk of hoarding haunts the man of wit
Who wants no extra cloth for requisite;
Using the triple robe where'er he goes
The pleasant relish of content he knows.
10. Tatratthaka-paccattharana — "a bedspread that remains there"; "A name for what
has been determined upon as a bedspread in one's own resting place or in someone
else's. They say accordingly (it is said in a commentary) that there is no breach of the
ascetic practice even when these two, that is, the bedspread and the undyed cloth, are
kept as extra robes" (Vism-mht 78-79). For tatratthaka (fixture) see also §61.
61
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
So, would the adept wander undeterred
With naught else but his robes, as flies the bird
With its own wings, then let him too rejoice
That frugalness in garments be his choice.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the triple-robe-wearer's practice.
27. iii. The alms- food-eater's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: “I refuse a supplementary [food] supply" or "I undertake the alms-
food-eater's practice."
Now, this alms-food eater should not accept the following fourteen kinds of
meal: a meal offered to the Order, a meal offered to specified bhikkhus, an invitation,
a meal given by a ticket, one each half-moon day, one each Uposatha day, one each
first of the half-moon, a meal given for visitors, a meal for travellers, a meal for the
sick, a meal for sick-nurses, a meal supplied to a [particular] residence, a meal
given in a principal house, 11 a meal given in turn.
If, instead of saying "Take a meal given to the Order", [meals] are given saying
"The Order is taking alms in our house; you may take alms too", it is allowable to
consent. Tickets from the Order that are not for actual food, 12 and also a meal
cooked in a monastery are allowable as well.
These are the directions for it.
28. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict takes alms brought both
from before and from behind, and he gives the bowl to those who take it while he
stands outside a door. He also takes alms brought to the refectory and given there.
But he does not take alms by sitting [and waiting for it to be brought later] that day
The medium one takes it as well by sitting [and waiting for it to be brought later]
that day; but he does not consent to [its being brought] the next day. The mild one
consents to alms [being brought] on the next day and on the day after. Both these
last miss the joy of an independent life. There is, perhaps, a preaching on the Noble
Ones' heritages (A II 28) in some village. The strict one says to the others "Let us
go, friends, and listen to the Dhamma." One of them says, "I have been made to sit
[and wait] by a man, venerable sir," and the other, "I have consented to [receive]
alms tomorrow, venerable sir." So they are both losers. The other wanders for alms
in the morning and then he goes and savours the taste of the Dhamma. [67]
The moment anyone of these three agrees to the extra gain consisting of a meal
given to the Order, etc., his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this
instance.
29. The benefits are these. He actually practices in conformity with the dependence
because of the words "The going forth by depending on the eating of lumps of
11. "A meal to be given by setting it out in a principal house only." (Vism-mht 79)
This meaning of dhura-bhatta not in PED.
12. "Tickets that are not for actual food, but deal with medicine, etc." (Vism-mht 79)
Patikkamana — "refectory" (28) = bojun hal (eating hall) in Sinhalese translation.
62
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
alms food" (Vin II 58, 96); he is established in the second of the Noble Ones'
heritages; his existence is independent of others; it is a requisite recommended by
the Blessed One thus "Valueless, easy to get, blameless" (A II 26); idleness is
eliminated; livelihood is purified; the practice of the minor training rule [of the
Patimokkha] is fulfilled; he is not maintained by another; he helps others; pride is
abandoned; craving for tastes is checked; the training precepts about eating as a
group, substituting one meal [invitation for another] (see Vinaya, Pacittiya 33 and
Corny), and good behaviour, are not contravened; his life conforms to [the principles
of] fewness of wishes; he cultivates the right way; he has compassion for later
generations.
30. The monk content with alms for food
Has independent livelihood.
And greed in him no footing finds;
He is as free as the four winds.
He never need be indolent.
His livelihood is innocent,
So let a wise man not disdain
Alms-gathering for his domain.
Since it is said:
"If a bhikkhu can support himself on alms
And live without another's maintenance.
And pay no heed as well to gain and fame.
The very gods indeed might envy him" (Ud 31).
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach and
benefits, in the case of the alms-food-eater's practice.
31. iv. The house-to-house seeker's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements "I refuse a greedy alms round" or "I undertake the house-to-house
seeker's practice."
Now, the house-to-house seeker should stop at the village gate and make sure
that there is no danger. If there is danger in any street or village, it is allowable to
leave it out and wander for alms elsewhere. When there is a house door or a street
or a village where he [regularly] gets nothing at all, he can go [past it] not counting
it as a village. But wherever he gets anything at all it is not allowed [subsequently]
to go [past] there and leave it out. This bhikkhu should enter the village early so
that he will be able to leave out any inconvenient place and go elsewhere. [68] But
if people who are giving a gift [of a meal] in a monastery or who are coming along
the road take his bowl and give alms food, it is allowable. And as this [bhikkhu] is
going along the road, he should, when it is the time, wander for alms in any village
he comes to and not pass it by. If he gets nothing there or only a little, he should
wander for alms in the next village in order. These are the directions for it.
32. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict does not take alms brought
from before or brought from behind or brought to the refectory and given there.
He hands over his bowl at a door, however; for in this ascetic practice there is none
equal to the Elder Maha Kassapa, yet an instance in which even he handed over his
63
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
bowl is mentioned (see Ud 29). The medium one takes what is brought from before
and from behind and what is brought to the refectory, and he hands over his bowl
at a door. But he does not sit waiting for alms. Thus he conforms to the rule of the
strict alms-food eater. The mild one sits waiting [for alms to be brought] that day
The ascetic practice of these three is broken as soon as the greedy alms round
starts [by going only to the houses where good alms food is given]. This is the
breach in this instance.
33. The benefits are these. He is always a stranger among families and is like the
moon (S II 197); he abandons avarice about families; he is compassionate impartially;
he avoids the dangers in being supported by a family; he does not delight in
invitations; he does not hope for [meals] to be brought; his life conforms to [the
principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
34. The monk who at each house his begging plies
Is moonlike, ever new to families,
Nor does he grudge to help all equally,
Free from the risks of house-dependency
Who would the self-indulgent round forsake
And roam the world at will, the while to make
His downcast eyes range a yoke-length before,
Then let him wisely seek from door to door.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the house-to-house-seeker's practice. [69]
35. v. The one-sessioner' s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements:
"I refuse eating in several sessions" or "I undertake the one-sessioner's practice."
When the one-sessioner sits down in the sitting hall, instead of sitting on an
elder's seat, he should notice which seat is likely to fall to him and sit down on
that. If his teacher or preceptor arrives while the meal is still unfinished, it is
allowable for him to get up and do the duties. But the Elder Tipitaka Cula-Abhaya
said: "He should either keep his seat [and finish his meal] or [if he gets up he
should leave the rest of] his meal [in order not to break the ascetic practice]. And
this is one whose meal is still unfinished; therefore let him do the duties, but in
that case let him not eat the [rest of the] meal." These are the directions.
36. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict may not take anything
more than the food that he has laid his hand on whether it is little or much. And if
people bring him ghee, etc., thinking "The elder has eaten nothing," while these
are allowable for the purpose of medicine, they are not so for the purpose of food.
The medium one may take more as long as the meal in the bowl is not exhausted;
for he is called "one who stops when the food is finished." The mild one may eat
as long as he does not get up from his seat. He is either "one who stops with the
water" because he eats until he takes [water for] washing the bowl, or "one who
stops with the session" because he eats until he gets up.
The ascetic practice of these three is broken at the moment when food has been
eaten at more than one session. This is the breach in this instance.
64
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
37. The benefits are these. He has little affliction and little sickness; he has lightness,
strength, and a happy life; there is no contravening [rules] about food that is not
what is left over from a meal; craving for tastes is eliminated; his life conforms to
the [principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
38. No illness due to eating shall he feel
Who gladly in one session takes his meal;
No longing to indulge his sense of taste
Tempts him to leave his work to go to waste.
His own true happiness a monk may find
In eating in one session, pure in mind.
Purity and effacement wait on this;
For it gives reason to abide in bliss.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the one-sessioner's practice. [70]
39. vi. The bowl-food-eater's practice is undertaken with one of the following statements:
"I refuse a second vessel" or "I undertake the bowl-food-eater's practice."
When at the time of drinking rice gruel, the bowl-food eater gets curry that is
put in a dish; he can first either eat the curry or drink the rice gruel. If he puts it in
the rice gruel, the rice gruel becomes repulsive when a curry made with cured
fish, etc., is put into it. So it is allowable [to do this] only in order to use it without
making it repulsive. Consequently this is said with reference to such curry as that.
But what is unrepulsive, such as honey, sugar, 13 etc., should be put into it. And in
taking it he should take the right amount. It is allowable to take green vegetables
with the hand and eat them. But unless he does that they should be put into the
bowl. Because a second vessel has been refused it is not allowable [to use] anything
else, not even the leaf of a tree. These are its directions.
40. This too has three grades. Herein, for one who is strict, except at the time of
eating sugarcane, it is not allowed [while eating] to throw rubbish away, and it is
not allowed while eating to break up rice-lumps, fish, meat and cakes. [The rubbish
should be thrown away and the rice-lumps, etc., broken up before starting to eat.]
The medium one is allowed to break them up with one hand while eating; and he
is called a "hand ascetic." The mild one is called a "bowl ascetic"; anything that
can be put into his bowl he is allowed, while eating, to break up, [that is, rice lumps,
etc.,] with his hand or [such things as palm sugar, ginger, etc.,] with his teeth.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to a second vessel his ascetic practice
is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
41 . The benefits are these. Craving for variety of tastes is eliminated; excessiveness
of wishes is abandoned; he sees the purpose and the [right] amount in nutriment;
he is not bothered with carrying saucers, etc., about; his life conforms to [the
principles of] fewness of wishes and so on.
42. He baffles doubts that might arise
With extra dishes; downcast eyes
13. Sakkam — "sugar": spelt sakkhara in PED.
65
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
The true devotedness imply 14
Of one uprooting gluttony
Wearing content as if 'twere part
Of his own nature, glad at heart;
None but a bowl-food eater may
Consume his food in such a way
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the bowl- food-eater's practice. [71]
43. vii. The later-food-refuser's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse additional food" or "I undertake the later-food-refuser's
practice."
Now, when that later-food refuser has shown that he is satisfied, he should not
again have the food made allowable [by having it put into his hands according to
the rule for bhikkhus] and eat it. These are the directions for it.
44. This too has three grades. Herein, there is no showing that he has had enough
with respect to the first lump, but there is when he refuses more while that is being
swallowed. So when one who is strict has thus shown that he has had enough
[with respect to the second lump], he does not eat the second lump after swallowing
the first. The medium one eats also that food with respect to which he has shown
that he has had enough. But the mild one goes on eating until he gets up from his
seat.
The moment any one of these three has eaten what has been made allowable
[again] after he has shown that he has had enough, his ascetic practice is broken.
This is the breach in this instance.
45. The benefits are these. One is far from committing an offence concerned with
extra food; there is no overloading of the stomach; there is no keeping food back;
there is no renewed search [for food]; he lives in conformity with [the principles
of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
46. When a wise man refuses later food
He needs no extra search in weary mood.
Nor stores up food till later in the day,
Nor overloads his stomach in this way
So, would the adept from such faults abstain,
Let him assume this practice for his gain.
Praised by the Blessed One, which will augment
The special qualities such as content.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the later-food-refuser's practice.
47. viii. The forest-dweller's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse an abode in a village" or "I undertake the forest-dweller's
practice."
14. Subbata — "truly devoted": fm. su + vat a (having good vows). See also §59.
66
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
48. Now, that forest dweller must leave an abode in a village in order to meet the
dawn in the forest. Herein, a village abode is the village itself with its precincts. A
“village" may consist of one cottage or several cottages, it may be enclosed by a
wall or not, have human inhabitants or not, and it can also be a caravan that is
inhabited for more than four months. [72] The “village precincts" cover the range
of a stone thrown by a man of medium stature standing between the gate-posts of
a walled village, if there are two gate-posts, as at Anuradhapura (cf. Vin III 46). The
Vinaya experts say that this [stone's throw] is characterized as up to the place
where a thrown stone falls, as, for instance, when young men exercise their arms
and throw stones in order to show off their strength. But the Suttanta experts say
that it is up to where one thrown to scare crows normally falls. In the case of an
unwalled village, the house precinct is where the water falls when a woman standing
in the door of the outermost house of all throws water from a basin. Within a
stone's throw of the kind already described from that point is the village. Within a
second stone's throw is the village precinct.
49. "Forest," according to the Vinaya method firstly, is described thus: "Except
the village and its precincts, all is forest" (Vin III 46). According to the Abhidhamma
method it is described thus: "Having gone out beyond the boundary post, all that
is forest" (Vibh 251; Patis I 176). But according to the Suttanta method its
characteristic is this: "A forest abode is five hundred bow-lengths distant" (Vin IV
183). That should be defined by measuring it with a strung instructor's bow from
the gate-post of a walled village, or from the range of the first stone's throw from
an unwalled one, up to the monastery wall.
50. But if the monastery is not walled, it is said in the Vinaya commentaries, it
should be measured by making the first dwelling of all the limit, or else the refectory
or regular meeting place or Bodhi Tree or shrine, even if that is far from a dwelling
[belonging to the monastery]. But in the Majjhima commentary it is said that,
omitting the precincts of the monastery and the village, the distance to be measured
is that between where the two stones fall. This is the measure here.
51. Even if the village is close by and the sounds of men are audible to people in
the monastery still if it is not possible to go straight to it because of rocks, rivers,
etc., in between, the five hundred bow-lengths can be reckoned by that road even if
one has to go by boat. But anyone who blocks the path to the village here and there
for the purpose of [lengthening it so as to be able to say that he is] taking up the
practice is cheating the ascetic practice.
52. If a forest-dwelling bhikkhu's preceptor or teacher is ill and does not get
what he needs in the forest, [73] he should take him to a village abode and attend
him there. But he should leave in time to meet the dawn in a place proper for the
practice. If the affliction increases towards the time of dawn, he must attend him
and not bother about the purity of his ascetic practice. These are the directions.
53. This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict must always meet the dawn
in the forest. The medium one is allowed to live in a village for the four months of
the Rains. And the mild one, for the winter months too.
67
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sila)
If in the period defined any one of these three goes from the forest and hears
the Dhamma in a village abode, his ascetic practice is not broken if he meets the
dawn there, nor is it broken if he meets it as he is on his way back after hearing [the
Dhamma] . But if, when the preacher has got up, he thinks “We shall go after lying
down awhile" and he meets the dawn while asleep or if of his own choice he meets
the dawn while in a village abode, then his ascetic practice is broken. This is the
breach in this instance.
54. The benefits are these. A forest-dwelling bhikkhu who has given attention to
the perception of forest (see MN 121) can obtain hitherto unobtained concentration,
or preserve that already obtained. And the Master is pleased with him, according
as it is said: “So, Nagita, I am pleased with that bhikkhu's dwelling in the forest"
(A III 343). And when he lives in a remote abode his mind is not distracted by
unsuitable visible objects, and so on. He is free from anxiety; he abandons
attachment to life; he enjoys the taste of the bliss of seclusion, and the state of the
refuse-rag wearer, etc., becomes him.
55. He lives secluded and apart.
Remote abodes delight his heart;
The Saviour of the world, besides,
He gladdens that in groves abides.
The hermit that in woods can dwell
Alone, may gain the bliss as well
Whose savour is beyond the price
Of royal bliss in paradise.
Wearing the robe of rags he may
Go forth into the forest fray;
Such is his mail, for weapons too
The other practices will do.
One so equipped can be assured
Of routing Mara and his horde.
So let the forest glades delight
A wise man for his dwelling's site.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the forest-dweller's practice. [74]
56. ix. The tree-root-diveller's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse a roof" or "I undertake the tree-root-dweller's practice."
The tree-root dweller should avoid such trees as a tree near a frontier, a shrine
tree, a gum tree, a fruit tree, a bats' tree, a hollow tree, or a tree standing in the
middle of a monastery He can choose a tree standing on the outskirts of a monastery
These are the directions.
57. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to have a tree
that he has chosen tidied up. He can move the fallen leaves with his foot while
dwelling there. The medium one is allowed to get it tidied up by those who happen
to come along. The mild one can take up residence there after summoning
68
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
monastery attendants and novices and getting them to clear it up, level it, strew
sand and make a fence round with a gate fixed in it. On a special day, a tree-root
dweller should sit in some concealed place elsewhere rather than there.
The moment any one of these three makes his abode under a roof, his ascetic
practice is broken. The reciters of the Anguttara say that it is broken as soon as he
knowingly meets the dawn under a roof. This is the breach in this instance.
58. The benefits are these. He practices in conformity with the dependence, because
of the words “The going forth by depending on the root of a tree as an abode" (Vin
1 58, 96); it is a requisite recommended by the Blessed One thus "Valueless, easy to
get, and blameless" (A II 26); perception of impermanence is aroused through
seeing the continual alteration of young leaves; avarice about abodes and love of
[building] work are absent; he dwells in the company of deities; he lives in
conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
59. The Blessed One praised roots of trees
As one of the dependencies (Vin I 58);
Can he that loves secludedness
Find such another dwelling place?
Secluded at the roots of trees
And guarded well by deities
He lives in true devotedness
Nor covets any dwelling place. [75]
And when the tender leaves are seen
Bright red at first, then turning green,
And then to yellow as they fall,
He sheds belief once and for all
In permanence. Tree roots have been
Bequeathed by him; secluded scene
No wise man will disdain at all
For contemplating [rise and fall].
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the tree-root-dweller's practice.
60. x. The open-air-dweller's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse a roof and a tree root" or "I undertake the open-air-dweller's
practice."
An open-air dweller is allowed to enter the Uposatha-house for the purpose of
hearing the Dhamma or for the purpose of the Uposatha. If it rains while he is
inside, he can go out when the rain is over instead of going out while it is still
raining. He is allowed to enter the eating hall or the fire room in order to do the
duties, or to go under a roof in order to ask elder bhikkhus in the eating hall about
a meal, or when teaching and taking lessons, or to take beds, chairs, etc., inside
that have been wrongly left outside. If he is going along a road with a requisite
belonging to a senior and it rains, he is allowed to go into a wayside rest house. If
he has nothing with him, he is not allowed to hurry in order to get to a rest house;
69
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sria)
but he can go at his normal pace and enter it and stay there as long as it rains. These are
the directions for it. And the same rule applies to the tree-root dweller too.
61. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to live near
a tree or a rock or a house. He should make a robe-tent right out in the open and
live in that. The medium one is allowed to live near a tree or a rock or a house so
long as he is not covered by them. The mild one is allowed these: a [rock] overhang
without a drip-ledge cut in it, 15 a hut of branches, cloth stiffened with paste, and a
tent treated as a fixture, that has been left by field watchers, and so on.
The moment any one of these three goes under a roof or to a tree root to dwell there,
[76] his ascetic practice is broken. The reciters of the Anguttara say that it is broken as
soon as he knowingly meets the dawn there. This is the breach in this case.
62. The benefits are these: the impediment of dwellings is severed; stiffness and
torpor are expelled; his conduct deserves the praise “Like deer the bhikkhus live
unattached and homeless" (S 1 199); he is detached; he is [free to go in] any direction;
he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
63. The open air provides a life
That aids the homeless bhikkhu's strife,
Easy to get, and leaves his mind
Alert as a deer, so he shall find
Stiffness and torpor brought to halt.
Under the star-bejewelled vault
The moon and sun furnish his light.
And concentration his delight.
The joy seclusion's savour gives
He shall discover soon who lives
In open air; and that is why
The wise prefer the open sky
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the open-air-dweller's practice.
64. xi. The charnel-ground-dweller's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse what is not a charnel ground" or “l undertake the charnel-
ground-dweller's practice."
15. Reading acchinna-mariyadam with Vism-mht, which says: '"Without a drip-ledge
cut (acchinna-mariyadam)' means without a drip-ledge (mariyada) made above, which
might come under the heading of a drip-ledge (mariyada-sahkhepena) made to prevent
rain water from coming in. But if the rain water comes under the overhang (pabbhara)
and is allowed to go in under it, then this comes under the heading of the open air
(abbhokasika-sahkhepa)'' (Vism-mht 84). This seems to refer to the widespread habit in
ancient Sri Lanka of cutting a drip-ledge on overhanging rocks used for bhikkhus'
dwellings so that the rain that falls on top of the rock drips down in front of the space
under the overhang instead of trickling down under the rock and wetting the back and
floor. Pabbhara in this context is "over hang" rather than "slope."
70
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
Now, the charnel-ground dweller should not live in some place just because the
people who built the village have called it "the charnel ground" for it is not a
charnel ground unless a dead body has been burnt on it. But as soon as one has
been burnt on it, it becomes a charnel ground. And even if it has been neglected
for a dozen years, it is so still.
65. One who dwells there should not be the sort of person who gets walks,
pavilions, etc., built, has beds and chairs set out and drinking and washing water
kept ready, and preaches Dhamma; for this ascetic practice is a momentous thing.
Whoever goes to live there should be diligent. And he should first inform the senior
elder of the Order or the king's local representative in order to prevent trouble.
When he walks up and down, he should do so looking at the pyre with half an eye.
[77] On his way to the charnel ground he should avoid the main roads and take a
by-path. He should define all the objects [there] while it is day, so that they will not
assume frightening shapes for him at night. Even if non-human beings wander
about screeching, he must not hit them with anything. It is not allowed to miss
going to the charnel ground even for a single day The reciters of the Anguttara say
that after spending the middle watch in the charnel ground he is allowed to leave
in the last watch. He should not take such foods as sesame flour, pease pudding,
fish, meat, milk, oil, sugar, etc., which are liked by non-human beings. He should
not enter the homes of families. 16 These are the directions for it.
66. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict should live where there are
always burnings and corpses and mourning. The medium one is allowed to live
where there is one of these three. The mild one is allowed to live in a place that
possesses the bare characteristics of a charnel ground already stated.
When any one of these three makes his abode in some place not a charnel ground,
his ascetic practice is broken. It is on the day on which he does not go to the charnel
ground, the Anguttara reciters say. This is the breach in this case.
67. The benefits are these. He acquires mindfulness of death; he lives diligently;
the sign of foulness is available (see Ch. VI); greed for sense desires is removed; he
constantly sees the body's true nature; he has a great sense of urgency; he abandons
vanity of health, etc.; he vanquishes fear and dread (MN 4); non-human beings
respect and honour him; he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of
wishes, and so on.
68. Even in sleep the dweller in a charnel ground shows naught
Of negligence, for death is ever present to his thought;
He may be sure there is no lust after sense pleasure preys
Upon his mind, with many corpses present to his gaze.
Rightly he strives because he gains a sense of urgency
While in his search for final peace he curbs all vanity.
Let him that feels a leaning to Nibbana in his heart
Embrace this practice for it has rare virtues to impart.
16. "He should not go into families' houses because he smells of the dead and is
followed by pisaca goblins" (Vism-mht 84).
71
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sria)
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the charnel-ground dweller's practice. [78]
69. xii. The any-bed-user's practice is undertaken with one of the following
statements: "I refuse greed for resting places" or "I undertake the any-bed-user's
practice."
The any-bed user should be content with whatever resting place he gets thus:
"This falls to your lot." He must not make anyone else shift [from his bed]. These
are the directions.
70. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to ask about
the resting place that has fallen to his lot: "Is it far?" or "Is it too near?" or "Is it
infested by non-human beings, snakes, and so on?" or "Is it hot?" or "Is it cold?".
The medium one is allowed to ask, but not to go and inspect it. The mild one is
allowed to inspect it and, if he does not like it, to choose another.
As soon as greed for resting places arises in any one of these three, his ascetic
practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
71. The benefits are these. The advice "He should be content with what he gets"
(J-a 1 476; Vin IV 259) is carried out; he regards the welfare of his fellows in the life
of purity; he gives up caring about inferiority and superiority; approval and
disapproval are abandoned; the door is closed against excessive wishes; he lives in
conformity with [the principles] of fewness of wishes, and so on.
72. One vowed to any bed will be
Content with what he gets, and he
Can sleep in bliss without dismay
On nothing but a spread of hay.
He is not eager for the best.
No lowly couch does he detest,
He aids his young companions too
That to the monk's good life are new.
So for a wise man to delight
In any kind of bed is right;
A Noble One this custom loves
As one the sages' Lord approves.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the any-bed-user's practice.
73. xiii. The sitter's practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: "I
refuse lying down" or "I undertake the sitter's practice."
The sitter can get up in any one of three watches of the night and walk up and
down: for lying down is the only posture not allowed. These are the directions. [79]
74. This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed a back-rest
or cloth band or binding-strap [to prevent falling while asleep]. 17 The medium one
17. Ayogapatta — "a binding-strap": this is probably the meaning. But cf. Vin II 135
and Vin-a 891.
72
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
is allowed any one of these three. The mild one is allowed a back-rest, a cloth band,
a binding-strap, a cushion, a “five-limb" and a "seven-limb." A “five-limb" is [a
chair] made with [four legs and] a support for the back. A “seven-limb" is one
made with [four legs,] a support for the back and an [arm] support on each side.
They made that, it seems, for the Elder Plthabhaya (Abhaya of the Chair). The
elder became a non-returner, and then attained Nibbana.
As soon as any one of these three lies down, his ascetic practice is broken. This
is the breach in this instance.
75. The benefits are these. The mental shackle described thus, "He dwells indulging
in the pleasure of lying prone, the pleasure of lolling, the pleasure of torpor" (M I
102), is severed; his state is suitable for devotion to any meditation subject; his
deportment inspires confidence; his state favours the application of energy; he
develops the right practice.
76. The adept that can place crosswise
His feet to rest upon his thighs
And sit with back erect shall make
Foul Mara's evil heart to quake.
No more in supine joys to plump
And wallow in lethargic dump;
Who sits for rest and finds it good
Shines forth in the Ascetics' Wood.
The happiness and bliss it brings
Has naught to do with worldly things;
So must the sitter's vow befit
The maimers of a man of wit.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and
benefits, in the case of the sitter's practice.
77. Now, there is the commentary according to the stanza:
(4) As to the profitable triad,
(5) “Ascetic" and so on distinguished,
(6) As to groups, and also (7) singly,
The exposition should be known (see §3).
78. 4. Herein, as to the profitable triad : (Dhs, pi) all the ascetic practices, that is to
say, those of trainers, ordinary men, and men whose cankers have been destroyed,
may be either profitable or [in the Arahant's case] indeterminate. [80] No ascetic
practice is unprofitable.
But if someone should say: There is also an unprofitable ascetic practice because
of the words “One of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, becomes a forest dweller" (A III
219), etc., he should be told: We have not said that he does not live in the forest
with unprofitable consciousness. Whoever has his dwelling in the forest is a forest
dweller; and he may be one of evil wishes or of few wishes. But, as it was said
above (§11), they “are the practices ( ahga ) of a bhikkhu who is ascetic ( dhuta ) because
he has shaken off (dhuta) defilement by undertaking one or other of them. Or the
73
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
knowledge that has got the name “ascetic" ( dhuta ) because it shakes off ( dhunana )
defilement is a practice (ahga) belonging to these, thus they are “ascetic practices"
(i dhutanga ). Or alternatively, they are ascetic (dhuta) because they shake off
(niddhunana) opposition, and they are practices (ahga) because they are a way
(j patipatti )." Now, no one called “ascetic" on account of what is unprofitable could
have these as his practices; nor does what is unprofitable shake off anything so
that those things to which it belonged as a practice could be called "ascetic
practices." And what is unprofitable does not both shake off cupidity for robes,
etc., and become the practice of the way Consequently it was rightly said that no
ascetic practice is unprofitable.
79. And those who hold that an ascetic practice is outside the profitable triad 18
have no ascetic practice as regards meaning. Owing to the shaking off of what is
non-existent could it be called an ascetic practice? Also there are the words
"Proceeded to undertake the ascetic qualities" (Vin III 15), and it follows 19 that
those words are contradicted. So that should not be accepted.
This, in the first place, is the commentary on the profitable triad.
80. 5. As to “ ascetic and so on distinguished," the following things should be
understood, that is to say ascetic, a preacher of asceticism, ascetic states, ascetic
practices, and for whom the cultivation of ascetic practices is suitable.
81. Herein, ascetic means either a person whose defilements are shaken off, or a
state that entails shaking off defilements.
A preacher of asceticism: one is ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism, another is
not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism, another is neither ascetic nor a preacher of
asceticism, and another is both ascetic and a preacher of asceticism.
82. Herein, one who has shaken off his defilements with an ascetic practice but
does not advise and instruct another in an ascetic practice, like the Elder Bakkula,
is “ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism," according as it is said: "Now, the
venerable Bakkula was ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism."
One who [81] has not shaken off his own defilements but only advises and
instructs another in an ascetic practice, like the Elder Upananda, is “not ascetic but
a preacher of asceticism," according as it is said: "Now, the venerable Upananda
son of the Sakyans was not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism."
One who has failed in both, like Laludayin, is "neither ascetic nor a preacher of
asceticism," according as it is said: "Now, the venerable Laludayin was neither
ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism."
18. For the triads of the Abhidhamma Matika (Abhidhamma Schedule) see Ch. XIII,
n.20. "‘Those who hold': a reference to the inhabitants of the Abhayagiri Monastery at
Anuradhapura. For they say that ascetic practice is a concept consisting in a name
(nama-pahhatti). That being so, they could have no meaning of shaking off defilements,
or possibility of being undertaken, because in the ultimate sense they would be non-
existent [concepts having no existence]" (Vism-mht 87). Cf. IV29.
19. Apajjati (and its norm apatti) is the normal word used for undesirable consequences
that follow on some unsound logical proposition. See XVI.68f. This meaning is not in PED.
74
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
One who has succeeded in both, like the General of the Dhamma, is "both ascetic
and a preacher of asceticism," according as it is said: "Now, the venerable Sariputta
was ascetic and a preacher of asceticism."
83. Ascetic states: the five states that go with the volition of an ascetic practice, that
is to say, fewness of wishes, contentment, effacement, seclusion, and that specific
quality 20 are called "ascetic states' because of the words "Depending on fewness of
wishes" (A III 219), and so on.
84. Herein, fewness of wishes and contentment are non-greed. Effacement and
seclusion belong to the two states, non-greed and non-delusion. That specific quality
is knowledge. Herein, by means of non-greed a man shakes off greed for things
that are forbidden. By means of non-delusion he shakes off the delusion that hides
the dangers in those same things. And by means of non-greed he shakes off
indulgence in pleasure due to sense desires that occurs under the heading of using
what is allowed. And by means of non-delusion he shakes off indulgence in self-
mortification that occurs under the heading of excessive effacement in the ascetic
practices. That is why these states should be understood as "ascetic states."
85. Ascetic practices: these should be understood as the thirteen, that is to say, the
refuse-rag-wearer's practice . . . the sitter's practice, which have already been
described as to meaning and as to characteristic, and so forth.
86. For whom the cultivation of ascetic practices is suitable: [they are suitable] for one
of greedy temperament and for one of deluded temperament. Why? Because the
cultivation of ascetic practices is both a difficult progress 21 and an abiding in
effacement; and greed subsides with the difficult progress, while delusion is got
rid of in those diligent by effacement. Or the cultivation of the forest-dweller's
practice and the tree-root-dweller's practice here are suitable for one of hating
temperament; for hate too subsides in one who dwells there without coming into
conflict.
This is the commentary "as to 'ascetic' and so on distinguished." [82]
87. 6. and 7. As to groups and also singly. Now, 6. as to groups: these ascetic practices
are in fact only eight, that is to say, three principal and five individual practices.
Herein, the three, namely the house-to-house-seeker's practice, the one-sessioner's
practice, and the open-air-dweller's practice, are principal practices. For one who
keeps the house-to-house-seeker's practice will keep the alms-food-eater's practice;
and the bowl-food-eater's practice and the later-food-refuser's practice will be well
kept by one who keeps the one-sessioner's practice. And what need has one who
keeps the open-air-dweller's practice to keep the tree-root-dweller's practice or
the any-bed-user's practice? So there are these three principal practices that,
20. Idamatthita — "that specific quality": "Owing to these profitable states it exists, (thus
it is 'specific by those'; imehi kusaladhammehi atthi = idam-atthi). The knowledge by means
of which one who has gone forth should be established in the refuse-rag-wearer's
practice, etc., and by means of which, on being so instructed one undertakes and persists
in the ascetic qualities — that knowledge is idamatthita" (Vism-mht 88).
21. See XXL 117.
75
Path of Purification
Part 1: Virtue (Sda)
together with the five individual practices, that is to say, the forest-dweller's practice,
the refuse-rag-wearer's practice, the triple-robe-wearer's practice, the sitter's
practice, and the charnel-ground-dweller's practice, come to eight only
88 . Again they come to four, that is to say two connected with robes, five connected
with alms food, five connected with the resting place, and one connected with
energy Herein, it is the sitter's practice that is connected with energy; the rest are
obvious.
Again they all amount to two only, since twelve are dependent on requisites
and one on energy Also they are two according to what is and what is not to be
cultivated. For when one cultivating an ascetic practice finds that his meditation
subject improves, he should cultivate it; but when he is cultivating one and finds
that his meditation subject deteriorates, he should not cultivate it. But when he
finds that, whether he cultivates one or not, his meditation subject only improves
and does not deteriorate, he should cultivate them out of compassion for later
generations. And when he finds that, whether he cultivates them or not, his
meditation subject does not improve, he should still cultivate them for the sake of
acquiring the habit for the future. So they are of two kinds as what is and what is
not to be cultivated.
89. And all are of one kind as volition. For there is only one ascetic practice,
namely, that consisting in the volition of undertaking. Also it is said in the
Commentary: "It is the volition that is the ascetic practice, they say"
90. 7. Singh/: with thirteen for bhikkhus, eight for bhikkhunis, twelve for novices,
seven for female probationers and female novices, and two for male and female lay
followers, there are thus forty-two.
91 . If there is a charnel ground in the open that complies with the forest-dweller's
practice, one bhikkhu is able to put all the ascetic practices into effect simultaneously
But the two, namely, the forest-dweller's practice and the later-food-refuser's
practice, are forbidden to bhikkhunis by training precept. [83] And it is hard for
them to observe the three, namely, the open-air-dweller's practice, the tree-root-
dweller's practice, and the charnel-ground-dweller's practice, because a bhikkhuni
is not allowed to live without a companion, and it is hard to find a female companion
with like desire for such a place, and even if available, she would not escape having
to live in company This being so, the purpose of cultivating the ascetic practice
would scarcely be served. It is because they are reduced by five owing to this
inability to make use of certain of them that they are to be understood as eight
only for bhikkhunis.
92. Except for the triple-robe-wearer's practice all the other twelve as stated should
be understood to be for novices, and all the other seven for female probationers
and female novices.
The two, namely the one-sessioner's practice and the bowl-food-eater's practice,
are proper for male and female lay followers to employ In this way there are two
ascetic practices.
This is the commentary "as to groups and also singly"
76
Chapter II
The Ascetic Practices
93. And this is the end of the treatise on the ascetic practices to be undertaken for
the purpose of perfecting those special qualities of fewness of wishes, contentment,
etc., by means of which there comes about the cleansing of virtue as described in
the Path of Purification, which is shown under the three headings of virtue,
concentration, and understanding, contained in the stanza, "When a wise man,
established well in virtue" (1.1).
The second chapter called "The Description of the Ascetic
Practices" in the Path of Purification composed for the
purpose of gladdening good people.
77
Part II
Concentration ( Samadhi )
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
(. Kammatthana-gahana-niddesa )
1. [84] Now, concentration is described under the heading of "consciousness" in
the phrase "develops consciousness and understanding" (1.1). It should be
developed by one who has taken his stand on virtue that has been purified by
means of the special qualities of fewness of wishes, etc., and perfected by observance
of the ascetic practices. But that concentration has been shown only very briefly
and so it is not even easy to understand, much less to develop. There is therefore
the following set of questions, the purpose of which is to show the method of its
development in detail:
(i) What is concentration?
(ii) In what sense is it concentration?
(iii) What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate
cause?
(iv) How many kinds of concentration are there?
(v) What is its defilement?
(vi) What is its cleansing?
(vii) How should it be developed?
(viii) What are the benefits of the development of concentration? 1
2. Here are the answers:
(i) What is concentration? Concentration is of many sorts and has various
aspects. An answer that attempted to cover it all would accomplish neither its
intention nor its purpose and would, besides, lead to distraction; so we shall confine
ourselves to the kind intended here, calling concentration profitable unification of
mind. 2
1. The answer to question (vii) stretches from III. 27 to XI. 119. That to question (viii)
from XI. 120 up to the end of Ch. XIII.
2. "Cittass' ekaggata" is rendered here as "unification of mind" in the sense of
agreement or harmony (cf. samagga) of consciousness and its concomitants in focusing
on a single object (see A I 70). It is sometimes rendered "one-pointedness" in that
sense, or in the sense of the focusing of a searchlight. It may be concluded that this
term is simply a synonym for samadhi and nothing more, firstly from its use in the
suttas, and secondly from the fact that it is given no separate definition in the description
of the formations aggregate in Ch. XIV Cf. gloss at M-a 1 124.
81
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
3. (ii) In what sense is it concentration? It is concentration ( samadhi ) in the sense
of concentrating ( samadhana ). What is this concentrating? It is the centring ( adhana )
of consciousness and consciousness-concomitants evenly ( samam ) and rightly
(s ammo) on a single object; placing, is what is meant. [85] So it is the state in virtue
of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single
object, undistracted and unscattered, that should be understood as concentrating.
4. (iii) What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause?
Concentration has non-distraction as its characteristic. 3 Its function is to eliminate
distraction. It is manifested as non-wavering. Because of the words, "Being blissful,
his mind becomes concentrated" (D I 73), its proximate cause is bliss.
5. (iv) How MANY KINDS OF CONCENTRATION ARE THERE?
(1) First of all it is of one kind with the characteristic of non-distraction. (2)
Then it is of two kinds as access and absorption; 4 (3) likewise as mundane and
supramundane, 5 (4) as with happiness and without happiness, and (5) as
accompanied by bliss and accompanied by equanimity 6 It is of three kinds (6) as
inferior, medium and superior; likewise (7) as with applied thought and sustained
thought, etc., (8) as accompanied by happiness, etc., and (9) as limited, exalted,
and measureless. It is of four kinds (10) as of difficult progress and sluggish
3. "The characteristic of non-distraction is the individual essence peculiar to
concentration. Hence no analysis of it is possible, which is why he said: 'It is of one kind
with the characteristic of non-distraction"' (Vism-mht 91).
4. "Applied thought that occurs as though absorbing (appento) associated states in
the object is absorption (appana). Accordingly it is described as 'absorption, absorbing
(appana vyappana)' (M III 73). Now since that is the most important, the usage of the
Commentaries is to call all exalted and unsurpassed jhana states 'absorption' [as well
as the applied thought itself], and likewise to apply the term of common usage 'access'
to the limited [i.e. sense-sphere] jhana that heralds the arising of the former, just as the
term 'village access,' etc. is applied to the neighbourhood of a village" (Vism-mht 91).
5. "The round (vatta, see XVII. 298) [including fine-material and immaterial heavens]
is called the world (loka) because of its crumbling (lujjana) and disintegrating (palujjana).
'Mundane' (lokiya) means connected with the world because of being included in it or
found there. 'Supramundane' (lokuttara) means beyond the world, excepted from it,
because of not being included in it [through being associated with Nibbana]" (Vism-
mht 91). See also "nine supramundane states. (VII. 68, 74f.)"
6. In loose usage plti (happiness) and sukha (pleasure or bliss) are almost synonyms.
They become differentiated in the jhana formulas (see IV100), and then technically plti,
as the active thrill of rapture, is classed under the formations aggregate and sukha under
the feeling aggregate. The valuable word "happiness" was chosen for plti rather than
the possible alternatives of "joy" (needed for somanassa), "interest" (which is too flat),
"rapture" (which is overcharged), or "zest." For sukha, while "pleasure" seemed to fit
admirably where ordinary pleasant feeling is intended, another, less crass, word seemed
necessary for the refined pleasant feeling of jhana and the "bliss" of Nibbana (which is
not feeling aggregate — see M 1 400). "Ease" is sometimes used.
"Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is intended here by 'equanimity' ( upekkha, lit,
onlooking); for it 'looks on' (upekkhati) at the occurrence of [bodily] pleasure and pain
by maintaining the neutral (central) mode" (Vism-mht 92).
82
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
direct-knowledge, etc.; likewise (11) as limited with limited object, etc., (12)
according to the factors of the four jhanas, (13) as partaking of diminution, etc.,
(14) as of the sense sphere, etc., and (15) as predominance, and so on. (16) It is of
five kinds according to the factors of the five jhanas reckoned by the fivefold method.
6. 1. Herein, the section dealing with that of one kind is evident in meaning.
2. In the section dealing with that of two kinds, access concentration is the
unification of mind obtained by the following, that is to say, the six recollections,
mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the perception of repulsiveness in
nutriment, and the defining of the four elements, and it is the unification that
precedes absorption concentration. Absorption concentration is the unification that
follows immediately upon the preliminary-work (IV74) because of the words, “The
first-jhana preliminary-work is a condition, as proximity condition, for the first
jhana" (Patth II 350 (Se). So it is of two kinds as access and absorption.
7. 3. In the second dyad mundane concentration is profitable unification of mind
in the three planes. Supramundane concentration is the unification associated with
the noble paths. So it is of two kinds as mundane and supramundane.
8. 4. In the third dyad concentration with happiness is the unification of mind in
two jhanas in the fourfold reckoning and in three jhanas in the fivefold reckoning.
[86] Concentration without happiness is the unification in the remaining two jhanas.
But access concentration may be with happiness or without happiness. So it is of
two kinds as with happiness and without happiness.
9. 5. In the fourth dyad concentration accompanied by bliss is the unification in
three jhanas in the fourfold and four in the fivefold reckoning. That accompanied by
equanimity is that in the remaining jhana. Access concentration may be accompanied
by bliss or accompanied by equanimity So it is of two kinds as accompanied by
bliss and accompanied by equanimity
10. 6. In the first of the triads what has only just been acquired is inferior. What is
not very well developed is medium. What is well developed and has reached mastery
is superior. So it is of three kinds as inferior, medium, and superior.
11. 7. In the second triad that with applied thought and sustained thought is the
concentration of the first jhana together with access concentration. That without
applied thought, with sustained thought only, is the concentration of the second jhana
in the fivefold reckoning. For when a man sees danger only in applied thought
and not in sustained thought, he aspires only to abandon applied thought when
he passes beyond the first jhana, and so he obtains concentration without applied
thought and with sustained thought only. This is said with reference to him.
Concentration without applied thought and sustained thought is the unification in the
three jhanas beginning with the second in the fourfold reckoning and with the
third in the fivefold reckoning (see D III 219). So it is of three kinds as with applied
thought and sustained thought, and so on.
12. 8. In the third triad concentration accompanied by happiness is the unification
in the two first jhanas in the fourfold reckoning and in the three first jhanas in the
fivefold reckoning. Concentration accompanied by bliss is the unification in those
same jhanas and in the third and the fourth respectively in the two reckonings.
83
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
That accompanied by equanimity is that in the remaining jhana. Access concentration
may be accompanied by bliss and happiness or accompanied by equanimity So it
is of three kinds as accompanied by happiness, and so on.
13. 9. In the fourth triad limited concentration is unification on the plane of access.
Exalted concentration is unification in profitable [consciousness, etc.,] of the fine-
material sphere and immaterial sphere. Measureless concentration is unification
associated with the noble paths. So it is of three kinds as limited, exalted, and
measureless.
14. 10. In the first of the tetrads there is concentration of difficult progress and
sluggish direct-knowledge. There is that of difficult progress and swift direct-
knowledge. There is that of easy progress and sluggish direct-knowledge. And
there is that of easy progress and swift direct-knowledge.
15. Herein, the development of concentration that occurs from the time of the
first conscious reaction up to the arising of the access of a given jhana is called
progress. And the understanding that occurs from the time of access until absorption
is called direct-knowledge. That progress is difficult for some, being troublesome
owing to the tenacious resistance of the inimical states beginning with the
hindrances. The meaning is that it is cultivated without ease. [87] It is easy for
others because of the absence of those difficulties. Also the direct-knowledge is
sluggish in some and occurs slowly, not quickly. In others it is swift and occurs
rapidly, not slowly
16. Herein, we shall comment below upon the suitable and unsuitable (IV35f.), the
preparatory tasks consisting in the severing of impediments (IV20), etc., and skill in
absorption (IV42). When a man cultivates what is unsuitable, his progress is difficult
and his direct-knowledge sluggish. When he cultivates what is suitable, his progress is
easy and his direct-knowledge swift. But if he cultivates the unsuitable in the earlier
stage and the suitable in the later stage, or if he cultivates the suitable in the earlier
stage and the unsuitable in the later stage, then it should be understood as mixed in
his case. Likewise if he devotes himself to development without carrying out the
preparatory tasks of severing impediments, etc., his progress is difficult. It is easy in
tire opposite case. And if he is not accomplished in skill in absorption, his direct-
knowledge is sluggish. It is swift if he is so accomplished.
17. Besides, they should be understood as classed according to craving and
ignorance, and according to whether one has had practice in serenity and insight. 7
For if a man is overwhelmed by craving, his progress is difficult. If not, it is easy.
And if he is overwhelmed by ignorance, his direct-knowledge is sluggish. If not, it
is swift. And if he has had no practice in serenity his progress is difficult. If he has,
it is easy. And if he has had no practice in insight, his direct-knowledge is sluggish.
If he has, it is swift.
18. Also they should be understood as classed according to defilements and
faculties. For if a man's defilements are sharp and his faculties dull, then his progress
7. Samatha — "serenity" is a synonym for absorption concentration, and "insight"
( vipassana) a synonym for understanding. Samatha is sometimes rendered by
"tranquillity" (reserved here for passaddhi) or "calm" or "quiet."
84
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
is difficult and his direct-knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are keen, his
direct-knowledge is swift. And if his defilements are blunt and his faculties dull,
then his progress is easy and his direct-knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are
keen, his direct-knowledge is swift.
19. So as regards this progress and this direct-knowledge, when a person reaches
concentration with difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, his
concentration is called concentration of difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge ;
similarly in the cases of the remaining three.
So it is of four kinds as of difficult progress and sluggish direct-knowledge, and
so on.
20. 11. In the second tetrad there is limited concentration with a limited object,
there is limited concentration with a measureless object, there is measureless
concentration with a limited object, and there is measureless concentration with a
measureless object. Herein, concentration that is unfamiliar and incapable of being
a condition for a higher jhana [88] is limited. When it occurs with an unextended
object (IV126), it is with a limited object. When it is familiar, well developed, and
capable of being a condition for a higher jhana, it is measureless. And when it occurs
with an extended object, it is with a measureless object. The mixed method can be
understood as the mixture of the characteristics already stated. So it is of four
kinds as limited with limited object, and so on.
21. 12. In the third tetrad the first jhana has five factors, that is to say applied
thought, sustained thought, happiness, bliss, and concentration, following
suppression of the hindrances. The second has the three factors remaining after
the elimination of applied and sustained thought. The third has two factors with
the fading away of happiness. The fourth, where bliss is abandoned, has two factors
with concentration and the equanimous feeling that accompanies it. Thus there
are four kinds of concentration according to the factors of these four jhanas. So it is
of four kinds according to the factors of the four jhanas.
22. 13. In the fourth tetrad there is concentration partaking of diminution, there
is concentration partaking of stagnation, there is concentration partaking of
distinction, and there is concentration partaking of penetration. Herein, it should
be understood that the state of partaking of diminution is accessibility to opposition,
the state of partaking of stagnation ( thiti ) is stationariness (santhana) of the
mindfulness that is in conformity with that [concentration], the state of partaking of
distinction is the attaining of higher distinction, and the state of partaking of
penetration is accessibility to perception and attention accompanied by dispassion,
according as it is said: "When a man has attained the first jhana and he is accessible
to perception and attention accompanied by sense desire, then his understanding
partakes of diminution. When his mindfulness that is in conformity with that
stagnates, then his understanding partakes of stagnation. When he is accessible to
perception and attention unaccompanied by applied thought, then his
understanding partakes of distinction. When he is accessible to perception and
attention accompanied by dispassion and directed to fading away, then his
understanding partakes of penetration" (Vibh 330). The kinds of concentration
85
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
associated with that [fourfold] understanding are also four in number. So it is of
four kinds as partaking of diminution, and so on.
23. 14. In the fifth tetrad there are the following four kinds of concentration, that
is to say sense-sphere concentration, fine-material-sphere concentration, immaterial-
sphere concentration, and unincluded [that is, path] concentration. Herein, sense-
sphere concentration is all kinds of access unification. Likewise the other three are
respectively profitable unification of mind associated with fine-material,
[immaterial, and path, jhana]. So it is of four kinds as of the sense-sphere, and so
on.
24. 15. In the sixth tetrad: "If a bhikkhu obtains concentration, obtains unification
of mind, by making zeal (desire) predominant, [89] this is called concentration
due to zeal. If ... by making energy predominant ... If ... by making [natural purity
of] consciousness predominant... If ... by making inquiry predominant, this is
called concentration due to inquiry" (Vibh 216-19). So it is of four kinds as
predominance.
25. 16. In the pentad there are five jhanas by dividing in two what is called the
second jhana in the fourfold reckoning (see §21), taking the second jhana to be due
to the surmounting of only applied thought and the third jhana to be due to the
surmounting of both applied and sustained thought. There are five kinds of
concentration according to the factors of these five jhanas. So its fivefoldness should
be understood according to the five sets of jhana factors.
26. (v) What is its defilement? (vi) What is its cleansing? Here the answer is given
in the Vibhanga: "Defilement is the state partaking of diminution, cleansing is the
state partaking of distinction" (Vibh 343). Herein, the state partaking of diminution
should be understood in this way: "When a man has attained the first jhana and he
is accessible to perception and attention accompanied by sense desire, then his
understanding partakes of diminution" (Vibh 330). And the state partaking of
distinction should be understood in this way: "When he is accessible to perception
and attention unaccompanied by applied thought, then his understanding partakes
of distinction" (Vibh 330).
27. (vii) How should it be developed?
[A. Development in Brief]
The method of developing the kind of concentration associated with the noble
paths mentioned (§7) under that "of two kinds as mundane and supramundane,"
etc., is included in the method of developing understanding; (Ch. XXII) for in
developing [path] understanding that is developed too. So we shall say nothing
separately [here] about how that is to be developed.
28. But mundane concentration should be developed by one who has taken his
stand on virtue that is quite purified in the way already stated. He should sever
any of the ten impediments that he may have. He should then approach the good
friend, the giver of a meditation subject, and he should apprehend from among
the forty meditation subjects one that suits his own temperament. After that he
should avoid a monastery unfavourable to the development of concentration and
86
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
go to live in one that is favourable. Then he should sever the lesser impediments
and not overlook any of the directions for development. This is in brief.
[B. Development in Detail]
29. The detail is this:
[The Ten Impediments]
Firstly it was said above, he should sever any of the ten impediments that he may
have. [90] Now, the “ten impediments" are:
A dwelling, family, and gain,
A class, and building too as fifth,
And travel, kin, affliction, books,
And supernormal powers: ten.
Herein, the dwelling itself is the "impediment due to the dwelling." So too with
the family and so on.
30. 1. Herein, a single inner room or a single hut or a whole monastery for the
Community is called a dwelling. This is not an impediment for everyone. It is an
impediment only for anyone whose mind is exercised about the building, etc., that
goes on there, or who has many belongings stored there, or whose mind is caught
up by some business connected with it. For any other it is not an impediment.
31. Here is a relevant story Two clansmen left Anuradhapura, it seems, and
eventually went forth at the Thuparama. 8 One of them made himself familiar with
the Two Codes, 9 and when he had acquired five years' seniority, he took part in the
Pavarana 10 and then left for the place called Paclnakhandaraji. 11 The other stayed
on where he was. Now, when the one who had gone to Paclnakhandaraji had lived
there a long time and had become an elder, 12 he thought, “This place is good for
retreat; suppose I told my friend about it?" So he set out, and in due course he
entered the Thuparama. As he entered, the elder of the same seniority saw him,
went to meet him, took his bowl and robe and did the duties.
8. One of the principal monasteries in Anuradhapura.
9. Dve matika — the "two codes": see Ch. I, n. 11. But Vism-mht says here: '"Observers
of the codes' are observers of the codes (summaries) of the Dhamma and
Vinaya" (Vism-mht 117).
10. Pavarana: ceremony held at the end of the rains, during three months of which
season bhikkhus have to undertake to live in one place in order to avoid travel while
crops are growing. It consists in a meeting of the bhikkhus who have spent the rains
together, at which each member present invites (pavareti) the Community to point out
his faults (breaches of Vinaya rules) committed during the preceding three months
(Vin 1 155).
11. "Pacinakhandaraja ti puratthimadisaya pabbatakhandanam antare vanarajitthanam"
(Vism-mht 97).
12. For the first five years after the admission (upasampada) a bhikkhu is called a “new
(nava) bhikkhu"; from five to ten years he is called a "middle (majjhima) bhikkhu";
with ten or more years' seniority he is called an "elder (thera) bhikkhu."
87
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
32. The visiting elder went into his lodging. He thought, "Now my friend will be
sending me ghee or molasses or a drink; for he has lived long in this city" He got
nothing that night, and in the morning he thought, "Now he will be sending me
rice gruel and solid food sent by his supporters." When he saw none, he thought,
"There is no one to bring it. No doubt they will give it when we go into the town."
Early in the morning they went into the town together. When they had wandered
through one street and had got only a ladleful of gruel, they sat down in a sitting
hall to drink it. 13
33. Then the visitor thought, "Perhaps there is no individual giving of gruel. But
as soon as it is the time for the meal people will give special food." But when it was
time for the meal, they ate what they had got by wandering for alms. Then the
visitor said, "Venerable sir, how is this? Do you live in this way all the time?" —
"Yes, friend." — "Venerable sir, Paclnakhandaraji is comfortable; let us go there."
Now, as the elder came out from the city [91] by the southern gate he took the
Kumbhakaragama road [which leads to Paclnakhandaraji]. The visitor asked, "But,
venerable sir, why do you take this road?" — "Did you not recommend
Paclnakhandaraji, friend?" — "But how is this, venerable sir, have you no extra
belongings in the place you have lived in for so long?" — "That is so, friend. The
bed and chair belong to the Community and they are put away [as usual]. There is
nothing else." — "But, venerable sir, I have left my staff and my oil tube and my
sandal bag there." — "Have you already collected so much, friend, living there for
just one day?" — "Yes, venerable sir."
34. He was glad in his heart, and he paid homage to the elder: "For those like
you, venerable sir, everywhere is a forest dwelling. The Thu pa ram a is a place where
the relics of four Buddhas are deposited; there is suitable hearing of the Dhamma
in the Brazen Palace; there is the Great Shrine to be seen; and one can visit elders.
It is like the time of the Buddha. It is here that you should live." On the following
day he took his bowl and [outer] robe and went away by himself. It is no impediment
for one like that.
35. 2 Family means a family consisting of relatives or of supporters. For even a
family consisting of supporters is an impediment for someone who lives in close
association with it in the way beginning, "He is pleased when they are pleased" (S
III 11), and who does not even go to a neighbouring monastery to hear the Dhamma
without members of the family
36. But even mother and father are not an impediment for another, as in the case
of the young bhikkhu, the nephew of the elder who lived at the Korandaka
Monastery. He went to Rohana for instruction, it seems. The elder's sister, who was
a lay devotee, was always asking the elder how her son was getting on. One day
the elder set out for Rohana to fetch him back.
37. The young bhikkhu too thought, "I have lived here for a long time. Now I
might go and visit my preceptor and find out how the lay devotee is," and he left
13. The last sentence here might refer to a free mass distribution of gruel (yagu), which
appears to have been more or less constantly maintained at Anuradhapura.
88
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
Rohana. The two met on the banks of the [Mahaveli] River. He did the duties to the
elder at the foot of a tree. When asked, "Where are you going?" he told him his
purpose. The elder said: "You have done well. The lay devotee is always asking
after you. That was why I came. You may go, but I shall stay here for the Rains,"
and he dismissed him. [92] He arrived at the monastery on the actual day for taking
up residence for the Rains. The lodging allotted to him happened to be the one for
which his father had undertaken responsibility
38. His father came on the following day and asked, "To whom was our lodging
allotted, venerable sirs?" When he heard that it had fallen to a young visitor, he
went to him. After paying homage to him, he said, "Venerable sir, there is an
obligation for him who has taken up residence for the Rains in our lodging." —
"What is it, lay follower?" — "It is to take alms food only in our house for the three
months, and to let us know the time of departure after the Pavarana ceremony."
He consented in silence. The lay devotee went home and told his wife. "There is a
visiting lord who has taken up residence for the Rains in our lodging. He must be
carefully looked after," and she agreed. She prepared good food of various kinds
for him. 14 Though the youth went to his relatives' home at the time of the meal, no
one recognized him.
39. When he had eaten alms food there during the three months and had
completed the residence for the Rains, he announced his departure. Then his
relatives said, "Let it be tomorrow, venerable sir," and on the following day, when
they had fed him in their house and filled his oil tube and given him a lump of
sugar and a nine-cubit length of cloth, they said, "Now you are leaving, venerable
sir." He gave his blessing and set out for Rohana.
40. His preceptor had completed the Pavarana ceremony and was on his way
back. They met at the same place as before. He did the duties to the elder at the
foot of a tree. The elder asked him, "How was it, my dear, did you see the good
woman lay devotee?" He replied, "Yes, venerable sir," and he told him all that had
happened. He then anointed the elder's feet with the oil, made him a drink with
the sugar, and presented him with the length of cloth. He then, after paying homage
to the elder, told him, "Venerable sir, only Rohana suits me," and he departed. The
elder too arrived back at his monastery, and next day he went into the village of
Korandaka.
41. The lay devotee, his sister, had always kept looking down the road, thinking,
"My brother is now coming with my son." When she saw him coming alone, she
thought, "My son must be dead; that is why the elder is coming alone," and she
fell at the elder's feet, lamenting and weeping. Suspecting that it must have been
out of fewness of wishes that the youth had gone away without announcing himself,
[93] the elder comforted her and told her all that had happened, and he took the
length of cloth out of his bag and showed it to her.
14. It is usual to render the set phrase panitam khadanlyam bhojanlyam by some such
phrase as "sumptuous food both hard and soft," which is literal but unfamiliar-
sounding.
89
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
42. She was appeased. She prostrated herself in the direction taken by her son,
and she said: “Surely the Blessed One taught the way of the Rathavinlta, the way
of the Nalaka, the way of the Tuvataka, and the way of the great Noble Ones'
heritages 15 showing contentment with the four requisites and delight in
development, making a bhikkhu such as my son a body-witness. So, although for
three months he ate in the house of the mother who bore him, yet he never said 'I
am your son, you are my mother!' Oh, admirable man!" Even mother and father
are no impediment for one such as him, so how much less any other family that
supports him.
43. 3. Gain is the four requisites. How are they an impediment? Wherever a
meritorious bhikkhu goes, people give him a large supply of requisites. With giving
blessings to them and teaching them the Dhamma he gets no chance to do the
ascetic's duties. From sunrise till the first watch of the night he never breaks his
association with people. Again, even at dawn, alms-food eaters fond of opulence
come and say "Venerable sir, such and such a man lay follower, woman lay follower,
friend, friend's daughter, wants to see you," and being ready to go, he replies,
"Take the bowl and robe, friend." So he is always on the alert. Thus these requisites
are an impediment for him. He should leave his group and wander by himself
where he is not known. This is the way his impediment is severed.
44. 4 Class is a class (group) of students of suttas or students of Abhidhamma. If
with the group's instruction and questioning he gets no opportunity for the ascetic's
duties, then that group is an impediment for him. He should sever that impediment
in this way: if those bhikkhus have already acquired the main part and little still
remains, he should finish that off and then go to the forest. If they have only acquired
little and much still remains, [94] he should, without travelling more than a league,
approach another instructor of a class within the radius of a league and say "Help
those venerable ones with instruction, etc." If he does not find anyone in this way
he should take leave of the class, saying. "I have a task to see to, friends; go where
it suits you," and he should do his own work.
45. 5. Building ( kamma ) is new building work ( nava-kamma ). Since one engaged
in this must know about what [material] has and has not been got by carpenters,
etc., and must see about what has and has not been done, it is always an impediment.
It should be severed in this way If little remains it should be completed. If much
remains, it should be handed over to the Community or to bhikkhus who are
entrusted with the Community's affairs, if it is a new building for the Community;
or if it is for himself, it should be handed over to those whom he entrusts with his
own affairs, but if these are not available, he should relinquish it to the Community
and depart.
15. "The way of the Rathavinlta (Rathavinlta-patipada)": this is a reference to certain
suttas that were adopted by bhikkhus as a "way" (patipada) or guide to practice. The
suttas mentioned here are Rathavinlta (M 1 145), Nalaka (Sn, p. 131), Tuvataka (Sn 179),
Noble One's Heritages (ariyavamsa — A II 27). Others are mentioned at M-a I 92; III 6;
S-a III 291. The Ariyavamsa Sutta itself has a long commentary on practice, and it is
mentioned in the Commentaries as a popular subject for preaching (see e.g. commentary
to AN III 42).
90
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
46. 6. Travel is going on a journey. If someone is expected to give the going forth
somewhere else, or if some requisite is obtainable there and he cannot rest content
without getting it [that will be an impediment; for] even if he goes into the forest
to do the ascetic's duties, he will find it hard to get rid of thoughts about the journey
So one in this position should apply himself to the ascetic's duties after he has
done the journey and transacted the business.
47. 7 Kin in the case of the monastery means teacher, preceptor, co-resident, pupil,
those with the same preceptor as oneself, and those with the same teacher as oneself;
and in the case of the house it means mother, father, brother, and so on. When they
are sick they are an impediment for him. Therefore that impediment should be
severed by curing them with nursing.
48. Herein, when the preceptor is sick he must be cared for as long as life lasts if
the sickness does not soon depart. Likewise the teacher at the going forth, the
teacher at the admission, the co-resident, the pupils to whom one has given the
admission and the going forth, and those who have the same preceptor. But the
teacher from whom one takes the dependence, the teacher who gives one
instruction, the pupil to whom one has given the dependence, the pupil to whom
one is giving instruction, and those who have that same teacher as oneself, should
be looked after as long as the dependence or the instruction has not been terminated.
If one is able to do so, one should look after them even beyond that [period],
49. Mother and father should be treated like the preceptor; if they live within the
kingdom and look to their son for help, it should be given. [95] Also if they have no
medicine, he should give them his own. If he has none, he should go in search of it
as alms and give that. But in the case of brothers or sisters, one should only give
them what is theirs. If they have none, then one should give one's own temporarily
and later get it back, but one should not complain if one does not get it back. It is
not allowed either to make medicine for or to give it to a sister's husband who is
not related by blood; but one can give it to one's sister saying, “Give it to your
husband." The same applies to one's brother's wife. But it is allowed to make it for
their children since they are blood relatives.
50. 8. Affliction is any kind of illness. It is an impediment when it is actually
afflicting; therefore it should be severed by treatment with medicine. But if it is not
cured after taking medicine for a few days, then the ascetic's duties should be
done after apostrophizing one's person in this way: "I am not your slave, or your
hireling. I have come to suffering through maintaining you through the
beginningless round of rebirths."
51. 9. Books means responsibility for the scriptures. That is an impediment only
for one who is constantly busy with recitations, etc., but not for others. Here are
relevant stories. The Elder Revata, it seems, the Majjhima reciter, went to the Elder
Revata, the dweller in Malaya (the Hill Country), and asked him for a meditation
subject. The elder asked him, "How are you in the scriptures, friend?" — "I am
studying the Majjhima [Nikaya], venerable sir." — "The Majjhima is a hard
responsibility friend. When a man is still learning the First Fifty by heart, he is
faced with the Middle Fifty; and when he is still learning that by heart, he is faced
91
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
with the Last Fifty; How can you take up a meditation subject?" — "Venerable sir,
when I have taken a meditation subject from you, I shall not look at the scriptures
again." He took the meditation subject, and doing no recitation for nineteen years,
he reached Arahantship in the twentieth year. He told bhikkhus who came for
recitation: "I have not looked at the scriptures for twenty years, friends, [96] yet I
am familiar with them. You may begin." And from beginning to end he had no
hesitation even over a single syllable.
52. The Elder Maha-Naga, too, who lived at Karuliyagiri (Karaliyagiri) put aside
the scriptures for eighteen years, and then he recited the Dhatukatha to the
bhikkhus. When they checked this with the town-dwelling elders [of Anuradha-
pura], not a single question was found out of its order.
53. In the Great Monastery too the Elder Tipitaka-Cula-Abhaya had the golden
drum struck, saying: "I shall expound the three Pitakas in the circle of [experts in]
the Five Collections of discourses," and this was before he had learnt the
commentaries. The Community of Bhikkhus said, "'Which teachers' teaching is
it? Unless you give only the teaching of our own teachers we shall not let you
speak." Also his preceptor asked him when he went to wait on him, "Did you have
the drum beaten, friend?" — "Yes, venerable sir." — "For what reason?" — "I shall
expound the scriptures, venerable sir." — "Friend Abhaya, how do the teachers
explain this passage?" — "They explain it in this way, venerable sir." The elder
dissented, saying "Hum." Again three times, each time in a different way, he said,
"They explain it in this way, venerable sir." The elder always dissented, saying,
"Hum." Then he said, "Friend, your first explanation was the way of the teachers.
But it is because you have not actually learnt it from the teachers' lips that you are
unable to maintain that the teachers say such and such. Go and learn it from our
own teachers." — "Where shall I go, venerable sir?" — "There is an elder named Maha
Dhammarakkhita living in the Tuladharapabbata Monastery in the Rohana country
beyond the [Mahaveli] River. He knows all the scriptures. Go to him." Saying,
"Good, venerable sir," he paid homage to the elder. He went with five hundred
bhikkhus to the Elder Maha-Dhammarakkhita, and when he had paid homage to
him, he sat down. The elder asked, "Why have you come?" — "To hear the Dhamma,
venerable sir." — "Friend Abhaya, they ask me about the Digha and the Majjhima
from time to time, but I have not looked at the others for thirty years. Still you may
repeat them in my presence by night, and I shall explain them to you by day." He
said, "Good, venerable sir," and he acted accordingly
54. The inhabitants of the village had a large pavilion built at the door of his
dwelling, and they came daily to hear the Dhamma. Explaining by day what had
been repeated by night, [97] the Elder [Dhammarakkhita] eventually completed
the instruction. Then he sat down on a mat on the ground before the Elder Abhaya
and said, "Friend, explain a meditation subject to me." — "What are you saying,
venerable sir, have I not heard it all from you? What can I explain to you that you
do not already know?" The senior elder said, "This path is different for one who
has actually travelled by."
55 . The Elder Abhaya was then, it seems, a stream-enterer. When the Elder Abhaya
had given his teacher a meditation subject, he returned to Anuradhapura. Later,
92
Chapter III
Taking a Meditation Subject
while he was expounding the Dhamma in the Brazen Palace, he heard that the
elder had attained Nibbana. On hearing this, he said, "Bring me [my] robe, friends."
Then he put on the robe and said, "The Arahant path befits our teacher, friends.
Our teacher was a true thoroughbred. He sat down on a mat before his own
Dhamma pupil and said, 'Explain a meditation subject to me.' The Arahant path
befits our teacher, friends."
For such as these, books are no impediment.
56. 10. Supernormal powers are the supernormal powers of the ordinary man.
They are hard to maintain, like a prone infant or like young corn, and the
slightest thing breaks them. But they are an impediment for insight, not for
concentration, since they are obtainable through concentration. So the
supernormal powers are an impediment that should be severed by one who
seeks insight; the others are impediments to be severed by one who seeks
concentration.
This, in the first place, is the detailed explanation of the impediments.
57. Approach the good friend, the giver of a meditation subject (§28): meditation subjects
are of two kinds, that is, generally useful meditation subjects and special meditation
subjects. Herein, loving-kindness towards the Community of Bhikkhus, etc., and
also mindfulness of death are what are called generally useful meditation subjects.
Some say perception of foulness, too.
58. When a bhikkhu takes up a meditation subject, he should first develop
loving-kindness towards the Community of Bhikkhus within the boundary, 16
limiting it at first [to "all bhikkhus in this monastery"], in this way: "May they
be happy and free from affliction." Then he should develop it towards all deities
within the boundary. Then towards all the principal people in the village that
is his alms resort; then to [all human beings there and to] all living beings
dependent on the human beings. With loving-kindness towards the Community
of Bhikkhus he produces kindliness in his co-residents; then they are easy for
him to live with. With loving-kindness towards the deities within the boundary
he is protected by kindly deities with lawful protection. [98] With loving-
kindness towards the principal people in the village that is his alms resort his
requisites are protected by well-disposed principal people with lawful
protection. With loving-kindness to all human beings there he goes about
without incurring their dislike since they trust him. With loving-kindness to
all living beings he can wander unhindered everywhere.
With mindfulness of death, thinking, "I have got to die," he gives up improper
search (see S II 194; M-a 1 115), and with a growing sense of urgency he comes to
live without attachment. When his mind is familiar with the perception of foulness,
then even divine objects do not tempt his mind to greed.
16. Sima — "boundary": loosely used in this sense, it corresponds vaguely to what is meant
by "parish." In the strict sense it is the actual area (usually a "chapter house") agreed
according to the rules laid down in the Vinaya and marked by boundary stones, within
which the Community (sangha) carries out its formal acts.
93
Path of Purification
Part 2: Concentration (Samadhi)
59. So these are called “g
Visuddhimagga
Anónimo