La Divina Comedia

PENGUIN § CLASSICS

DANTE

The Divine Comedy Vol. ii: Purgatory

PENGUIN [Qj CLASSICS

Dante

The Divine Comedy Vol. II: Purgatory

TRANSLATED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION, NOTES, AND COMMENTARY, BY MARK MUSA

"A superlatively readable new edition"

— London Review of Books

In the second volume of his definitive translation of The

Divine Comedy, Mark Musa again brings his poetic- sensitivity and skill as a translator and annotator to the

difficult task of making Dante's masterpiece vital for English-speaking readers. In Purgatory, Dante deals with the origins of sin as he struggles up the terraces of Mount Purgatory on his arduous journey toward God. In Musa's

fine idiomatic translation — complete with prose introductions, bibliography, and glossary — Dante comes alive as the universal poet — sublime, grim, intellectual, simple, humorous, tender, and ecstatic.

"It moves one to virtual awe.... The language itself becomes, as it should, a religious experience." — Los Angeles Times

The cover shows "Dante and Vergil Enter Purgatory" by Luca Signorelli in Orvieto Cathedral, Orvieto

Literature

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THE PENGUIN CLASSICS

Dante Alighieri was bom in Florence in 1265 and belonged to a noble but impoverished family. He followed a normal course of studies, possibly attending University in Bologna, and when he was about twenty he married Gemma Donati, by whom he had several children. He had first met Bice Pottinati, whom he called Beatrice, in 1274, and when she died in 1290, he sought distraction by studying philosophy and theology and by writing La Vita nuova. During this time he became involved in the strife between the Guelfs and the Ghibellines; he became a prominent White Guelf, and when the Black Guelfs came to power in 1302, Dante, during an absence from Florence, was condemned to exile. He took refuge first in Verona, and after wandering from place to place — as far as Paris and even, some have said, to Oxford — he settled in Ravenna. While there he completed The Divine Com- edy, which he began in about 1308. Dante died in Ravenna in 1321.

Mark Musa is a graduate of Rutgers University (B.A., 1956), the Univer- sity of Florence (Fulbright, 1956-58), and the Johns Hopkins University (M.A., 1959; Ph.D., 1961). He is a former Guggenheim fellow and the au- thor of a number of books and articles. Best known for his translations of the Italian classics (Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, and the poetty of the Middle Ages) as well as his Dante criticism, he holds the title of Dis- tinguished Professor of French and Italian and is Director of the Center for Italian Studies at Indiana University. He translated and edited The Divine Comedy, Vol. I: Inferno and translated and edited with Peter Bondanella The Portable Machiavelli, also published by Penguin Books.

DANTE ALIGHIERI THE DIVINE COMEDY

VOLUME II

PURGATORY

TRANSLATED WITH AN INTRODUCTION, NOTES, AND COMMENTARY BY

MARK MUSA

©

PENGUIN BOOKS

PENGUIN BOOKS Published by the Penguin Group Viking Penguin Inc., 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York 10010, U.S.A. Penguin Books Ltd, 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 5TZ, England Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 2801 John Street, Markham, Ontario, Canada L3R 1B4 Penguin Books (N.Z.) Ltd, 182-190 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand

Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England

This translation first published in the United States of America by Indiana University Press 1981 Published with a new Introduction and a Glossary and Index of Persons and Places in The Penguin Classics 1985

Published simultaneously in Canada 5 7 9 10 8 6

Copyright © Mark Musa, 1981, 1985 All rights reserved

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Dante Alighieri, 1265-1321. Purgatory

Translation of: Purgatorio, v. 2 of Divina commedia. Bibliography: p. Includes index. I. Musa, Mark. 11. Title. PQ4315.3.M8 1984 Bji'.i 84-1204 ISBN o 14 044.442 4

Prinred in the United States of America Set in CRT Garamond

For my Mom

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank John C. McGaltiard and especially Thomas Bergin for reading and commenting on this version of the Purgatory. Their sug- gestions, though not always heeded, were always most helpful. Many thanks also to Lisa Davis for lending a beautifully keen eye to the final version of this book. And I must thank so many of my students who listened, com- mented on, and discussed this translation as well as the notes and commen- tary with me in and out of the classroom. My wholehearted thanks to alt of you!

For their comments and suggestions concerning the introduction to the Penguin edition, I wish to thank my colleagues Jim Jensen of the English department and Peter Bondanelta of the French and Italian department. I am also grateful to Cliff Marcus, Susan Welsand, and Colleen McNenny for their help with the glossary.

CONTENTS

Introduction ix

Abbreviations xxv

Canto I i

Canto II 17

Canto III 29

Canto IV 40

Canto V 49

Canto VI 57

Canto VII 69

Canto VIII 82

Canto IX 96

Canto X 108

Canto XI 118

Canto XII 128

Canto XIII 138

Canto XIV 149

Canto XV 161

Canto XVI 171

Canto XVII 181

Canto XVIII 191

Canto XIX 202

Canto XX 214

Canto XXI 228

Canto XXII 236

Canto XXIII 249

Canto XXIV 257

CONTENTS / vii

Canto

XXV

269

Canto

XXVI

279

Canto

XXVII

290

Canto

XXVIII

300

Canto

XXIX

309

Canto

XXX

321

Canto

XXXI

330

Canto

XXXII

343

Canto

XXXIII

358

Glossary and Index of

Persons and Places 37 1

Selected Bibliography 395

Illustrations appear on pages xxvi, 22, 166, following page 190, and 369.

CONTENTS / viii

Introduction to the PURGATORY

The great English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in his Defence of Poetry says that "Homer was the first and Dante the second epic poet: that is, the second poet, the series of whose creations bore a defined and intelligible relation to the knowledge and sentiment and religion of the age in which he lived." It is in this sense that we may speak of The Divine Comedy as an epic, as a poem that captures an entire civili- zation (just as Homer in his Iliad captures the whole of an ancient culture), for in it is mirrored a rather complete picture of the medie- val European world. When Dante began writing his masterpiece, Duccio and Giotto's paintings were on the walls of churches and homdi, Gothic architecture was at its peak, the troubadours had left a hefty canon of lyric poetry behind them, the Romance of the Rose had been written, and scholastic philosophy was at its high point, while the conflict between church and temporal power was nearing its final stages. All this and much more is reflected in the verses of Dante's masterpiece.

The subject matter of The Divine Comedy, however, was not new: We find some of the same ideas and philosophies, the concern with religion, virtue, and the demonic, in many of the writers of the times. Nor was this the first time that the three realms of The Divine Comedy made an appearance in literature, nor would it be fair to say that Dante's landscapes and punishments were altogether original ones. What was original, however, is the fact that Dante put himself, as a character, into his own poem, and in so doing, he gave it the important dramatic ingredient that gave the poem eternal life.

Holding Dante's artistic world together is his special use of alle- gory, concerning which in his famous letter to Can Grande della

INTRODUCTION / ix

Scala (see the Introduction to Inferno, pp. 41-43) he states: "The subject of the work, taken in its literal sense, is the state of souls after death; but if the work is taken allegorically, its subject is how man by the exercise of his free will justly merits reward or punishment." So then, in this our life on earth, as in life after death, man gets what he himself chooses, and reward and punishment are meted out with perfect justice. And justice, most unlike the type found in Homer's epic, is done in The Divine Comedy so that punishment is proportion- ate to the sin as reward is to intrinsic goodness. Dante, in fact, makes the sin itself the punishment in the Inferno. As Dante the Pilgrim travels through Dante the Poet's Inferno, what he is witness to is a poetic reenactment of each sinner's sin.

Strange as it may seem to us today, the dividing line between sal- vation and damnation in Dante's world is simply the state of the soul at the moment of death. If man dies at peace with God, he is saved — in fact, he need only murmur the name of the Virgin Mary before he dies (as we shall learn from a saved sinner named Buon- conte in Canto V of the Purgatory). If, however, one dies not at peace with God, he is damned for eternity. Immediately there comes to mind the charming and seductive figure of Francesca da Rimini in the circle of the Lustful in Canto V of the Inferno, who, if we are to believe the lovely lady, seems to be not quite sure why she is in Hell. God and Dante, however, can make no mistake. We know the un- told ending of her account to the Pilgrim. We know the condition of her soul at the moment of her death, and so we know why she is there.

In the Inferno the damned are grouped according to the sinful acts they committed; in the Purgatory repentant sinners are grouped ac- cording to the tendencies that were the cause of their sins. Penance is not to be considered as a punishment but rather as a corrective meas- ure for that sinner who has repented. It was a discipline imposed in order to help one fight the old habit of one's sin or the residual tend- ency to sin. This is what we see happening on the Mountain of Pur- gatory. While in Hell punishment was retributive (it is the sin itself), in Purgatory it is remedial (it teaches the virtue that is the opposite of that tendency to sin).

As the Pilgrim makes his way down the slope of the mountain of Purgatory at the close of the first canto, the reader is reminded of his entrance into the "dark wood" in Inferno I, 2; there, too, was a de- serted slope; there, too, a mountain of Hope, but one that appeared

X / INTRODUCTION

suddenly, mysteriously, only to prove inaccessible. Whereas in the Inferno he felt he had lost forever the right path he had wandered from, now he and Virgil go confidently in search of it {Purgatory I, lines 1 19-120). Thus, the Pilgrim who reaches the shore (130) to participate in the ritual that will prepare him for the ascent is very different from the figure who appears in the first canto of The Divine Comedy.

Dante created the island-mountain of Purgatory to counterbalance the Inferno's deep pit of Hell. It consists of three parts: the very top is the Earthly Paradise; the second part, sealed off by a gate and guarded by an angel, with seven terraces corresponding to the seven Deadly Sins, is reserved for those who have been permitted to enter and begin the self-willed torments of their purgation. The souls who are cleansed of sin in the second part pass to the Earthly Paradise and then ascend to Heaven. The third and lowest part is the Antepurga- tory, where souls who are not ready to begin their purgation dwell. The Pilgrim is told by a number of individuals he meets that these souls, the "Late Repentant," are forced to postpone the purgation they all desire because, while alive, they had put off repentance until the end.

We glimpsed the mountain of Purgatory earlier in the poem, while still in the Inferno. It was clearly foreshadowed by the hill that the Pilgrim attempted to climb in the opening canto of The Divine Comedy. We saw it again later in the mountain that mysteriously loomed up before the eyes of Ulysses and his crew in Canto XXVI of the Inferno (133-142), forecasting their disastrous end, since that voyage, unlike the one the Pilgrim is taking, was not sanctioned in Heaven. Earlier, the Pilgrim's ascent was prevented by the appearance of a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf, the last beast blocking his progress upward and forcing him back down into the "dark wood." Now that he has made his descent in humility through all of Hell, he is able and permitted to try again. The mountain stands high and clear before him now as the true mountain of Purgatory, which he can and must ascend.

Virgil explains to the Pilgrim in the last canto of the Inferno (XXXIV, i2ifT) that the mountain of Purgatory rises in the middle of the Earth's southern hemisphere opposite Jerusalem. When Lu- cifer fell from Heaven through to the center of the earth, the mate- rial that rushed upward created the mountain. If the mountain's height is equal to the depth of Lucifer's fall from the surface of the

INTRODUCTION / xi

Earth to its center, it is quite high — perhaps over 3000 miles high. We are told as early as Canto IX of Purgatory, when the Pilgrim reaches the gate to Purgatory proper, he has already reached the limit of the Earth's atmosphere from which point forward all natural phe- nomena such as rain, snow, and wind are absent. We are also told that the mountain slopes at an angle of more than 45 degrees and that the seven rather narrow terraces have no railings on their outer edges to prevent one from falling to the bottom.

This mountain, whose creation was the miraculous result of Lu- cifer's fall, serves as a passageway not only for those assigned to Pur- gatory but also for those destined for immediate passage to Heaven. In Purgatory II, 104-105, Casella tells the Pilgrim that after death all the souls that do not "sink to Acheron's shore" gather at the river Tiber to be transported to the shores of Purgatory. At the very be- ginning of Purgatory, Dante allows the Pilgrim to witness, immedi- ately after he has seen all the damned in Hell, the mysterious arrival of those souls on the boat from the Tiber. Those destined for Heaven are also included among the passengers and must make their way to Heaven by first climbing to the mountain's summit, the Earthly Paradise. Aboard the boat, then, we must think of there being three different categories of the Saved: those destined immediately for Heaven (if only one or two), those free to proceed directly to their purgation (the great majority), and those few who must wait behind in the Antepurgatory. Since only six cantos of the Purgatory are de- voted to those who must wait behind, it is reasonable to assume they represent a minority of souls. At the very edge of Antepurgatory, there is already an anticipation of Purgatory proper and even of Heaven beyond — a glorious hopeful beginning, a note Dante will sound again and again in this poem.

Just as Virgil suddenly appeared out of nowhere upon the vague landscape of the opening canto of the Inferno, so, too, at the foot of the true mountain appears another figure. It is Cato, the guardian of Mount Purgatory. Virgil explains to Cato in the opening canto of Purgatory why and how he and his ward are there, and in doing so defines in a tercet (70-72) the moral purpose of the Pilgrim's jour- ney:

May it please you to welcome him — he goes in search of freedom, and how dear that is, the man who gives up life for it well knows.

Xli / INTRODUCTION

It is "freedom" from the shackles of original and actual sin that the Pilgrim seeks and eventually succeeds in finding. Virgil tells him at the close of Canto XXVII (139-142) before entering the Earthly Paradise:

Expect no longer words or signs from me. Now is your will upright, wholesome and free, and not to heed its pleasure would be wrong:

I crown and miter you lord of yourself!

These words bring to a close the central portion of the Purgatory. The Pilgrim, having climbed the seven terraces and participated in the purgation of the seven Deadly Sins, is ready at this point to leave Virgil behind forever and enter the Earthly Paradise. He is now in a state of innocence, the state of Adam before the Fall, when mankind had no need for the authority of the emperor or the pope.

When the Pilgrim and Virgil arrive on the shores of the mountain of Purgatory, they are both as new to these shores as the boatload of souls who disembark just afterwards in Canto II and who, seeing the two men already on the shore, ask for directions up the mountain. The souls from the boat are amazed to see that the Pilgrim is alive and gather around him with great interest. The Pilgrim, recognizing an old friend in this group, a musician called Casella, begs his friend to stop and ease his weariness by singing a song for him. Casella does so by singing the words of one of Dante's own poems. It is impor- tant to note that the souls who are gathered around the singer Ca- sella are the same ones who a few verses earlier in the canto (II, 46-48) arrived eti the shores of Purgatory singing a different song:

In exitu Israel de Aegypto,

they all were singing with a single voice, chanting it verse by verse until the end.

In his letter to Can Grande, which serves as an introduction to the entire Divine Comedy, Dante gives us the song's significance, the meaning of the Exodus event. Exodus can be seen as the pattern of all three canticles of The Divine Comedy, but especially for the Purga- tory, which deals with the difficult process by which the Pilgrim moves from the ignorance and slavery of sin to the freedom of grace

INTRODUCTION / xiii

and knowledge. The triviality of Casella's song, then, is in direct contrast to the importance of the first song.

The Pilgrim, Virgil, and all the souls gathered around them are so totally absorbed by Casella's soothing music that they are oblivious to everything else going on. Cato, the venerable guardian of Purga- tory, suddenly appears again. This time he comes to break up the worldly concert on the open slopes of the mountain. Virgil is most embarrassed by the incident, and all the souls run off in search of the path upwards. In this scene we are being taught a lesson about life on earth: souls in the Antepurgatory, a place that so resembles the world of the living, should not be concerned with such trivialities. Man should not be so absorbed in worldly pursuits.

In this particular case man is so concerned about poetry and song that he forgets his ultimate goal, which, as we know by this time, is to reach God. It is important for the meaning of the Purgatory that Dante the Poet establish this point in the middle section of his tri- partite poem as early as possible since the theme of poetry, its pur- pose and goal, becomes increasingly more significant the higher the mountain is climbed.

In the first eight cantos, which are devoted to the Pilgrim's progress in the Antepurgatory (and its fringes), the Pilgrim meets five different groups of souls (and one solitary individual, Sordello, who will serve to introduce the fifth group). These groups are the souls that surround (i) Casella; (2) Manfred; (3) Belacqua; (4) Ja- capo del Cassero, Buonconte da Montefeltro, and la Pia, and (5) Nino Visconti and Conrad Malaspina (the Princes). The sequence of groups two through five clearly suggests a hierarchical order from the most sinful to the least sinful. Like the others, the members of Manfred's group were late in repenting, but they had also incurred excommunication and had made no attempt to make peace with the Church. Belacqua's group, which immediately follows Manfred's, has no distinguishing features. Their attitudes of indifference, which have earned for them the label "the Indolent," are meant to symbol- ize their lack of spiritual zeal. They are "the Late Repentant" pure and simple, preceded by a group more sinful and followed by two groups less sinful. The distinguishing feature of the last two groups can be considered as an attenuation of guilt. Their delay in repent- ance is partly excused by (early) violent death or by preoccupation with affairs of state.

xiv / INTRODUCTION

The hierarchical distinction of these groups is borne out by the fact that while the second group sings no hymns, those souls with Buonconte sing the Miserere, and those of the last group in the Val- ley of the Princes sing two Compline hymns. Because of Manfred's alienation from the Church, he was perhaps not fit to sing the hymns, whereas the failure of the third group to do so is easily ex- plained by their general apathy (Belacqua is the epitome of laziness, so much so that the Pilgrim asks him if he is up to his old ways again). The piety of the fourth group is presented as rather perfunc- tory: they break off singing the Miserere to utter cries of amazement as they see the Pilgrim's shadow on the ground before them. There is no indication that they make a practice of singing hymns. But the fervor and concentration of the fifth group as they sing their prayers, especially the Te lucis ante, is dramatic: the Pilgrim all but swoons in ecstasy. And it is made clear that their orisons take place every eve- ning. In the practice of singing hymns, then, the last two groups are distinguished from each other.

The extent of homogeneity of each group of souls in the Antepur- gatory is problematic. It docs not automatically follow that because the individually famous Manfred speaks of his excommunication and contumacy toward the Church that all the souls with him share his fate and attitudes. Dante, however, suggests their homogeneity by presenting them as a flock of sheep, each doing what the other does. The fourth group's similarities are most clearly characterized. Before the Pilgrim begins his conversation with Jacopo, he is told by a nameless member of the group {Purgatory V, 52-3) that each has died a violent death and waited until the last hour to repent. As for the inhabitants of the valley, we come to learn from Sordello's words that all are of princely rank.

Just how long the Late Repentant must wait before they may pass through the gate into Purgatory proper to begin their purgation is also problematic. The period imposed on the Excommunicated, as Manfred tells {Purgatory III, 135-40), is exactly thirty times as long as their excommunication lasted. Belacqua states {Purgatory IV, 130-32) that he must wait the length of his lifetime on earth. Noth- ing whatsoever is said on this subject in the treatment of the two groups that follow. It is not until canto XI that we learn their fate. The Pilgrim, surprised that Provenzan Salvani was allowed to begin his purgation so soon, inquires:

INTRODUCTION / XV

And I: "If it is true that any soul

who has delayed repentance till the last must wait down there before he can ascend,

the same amount of time he lived on earth (unless he's helped by efficacious prayer) — then how has he arrived so fast up here?"

(127-132)

From what the Pilgrim here takes for granted, we can only assume that Belacqua's words, instead of being limited to the "Late Re- pentant pure and simple" were meant (by Dante if not by Belacqua) to apply also to the last two groups. Thus there are two terms: the Excommunicated will be there thirty times the duration of their ex- communication; all the rest will be there for the length of their natu- ral lives. One is tempted to ask why Dante refrained from giving the reader this information at the proper time — and how could the Pil- grim know, concerning the last groups, facts that he was never told? These two problems do not seem to concern critics, but this does not necessarily mean that they are unimportant.

The Antepurgatory leaves us with other questions. For instance, what exactly is Cato's role? In discussing Dante's choice of Cato scholars allude to the passage in the Aeneid ( VIII, 670) where Cato is represented as lawgiver. His function in the Purgatory, however, is rather like that of a policeman on his beat. But what is his beat? Does he restrict his activities to the shore, never appearing on the mountain slope? Does he greet every incoming boatload of souls — or only those whom we see singing, who, like Casella's group, need to be stirred into action? Does he ever give directions to the newly arrived souls as to the best path to take for the ascent? He was not present before the music began, when the bewildered souls were forced to ask directions from Virgil and the Pilgrim, who were un- able to help them. Surely the brief scene in which we see Cato per- forming his appointed duties leaves much to be desired in the way of clarification, and may even suggest some confusion in the "organiza- tion" of the Antepurgatory.

The allocation of the Late Repentant souls, who have no overseer, seems also somewhat disorganized — or at least, highly flexible. Un- like the damned in Hell and those expiating their sins in Purgatory proper, the Late Repentant are assigned no fixed abode, and appear to

Xvi / INTRODUCTION

have nothing to do but wander. We see two groups in movement up the mountain: the Excommunicated and those who died a violent death, the first proceeding very slowly, the second more rapidly. The other two groups are seated on the ground: Belacqua's in postures of indolence, the Princes concentrating on their worship. One is tempted to guess that Belacqua's group has chosen a temporary rest- ing place behind the great boulder and will soon be on its way again, whereas the Princes in the Valley seem to live there. It is, of course, possible that they come there only at nightfall to sing their evening hymns and await the arrival of the angels to protect them from the serpent. Perhaps it is because Dante intended the Antepurgatory to be so close a reflection of our life on earth that at times it appears to be so unstructured and puzzling.

This is not the case with Purgatory proper. When we leave the Antepurgatory, we leave behind all signs of nature as we know it on our earth. Once past the gate, the colors and atmosphere, the non- chalance and motion of the Antepurgatory (and our world) disap- pear, replaced by the endless steep and naked stone of the mountain that the Pilgrim must climb. And once the Pilgrim has had his first dream in the Valley of the Princes at the end of his first day on the mountain and has passed with his guide, Virgil, through the gates into Purgatory proper, all becomes highly structured, ritualistic, and thoroughly organized. Seven P s (the Peccata, Latin for "sins") are inscribed upon \ the 'Pilgrim's forehead, by Ithe -first angel 'he meets (IX,ii2). Each of the following angels he encounters will remove one of the P s, lightening his conscience, as he passes from one ter- race to the next. Blending with the highly structured nature of the mount is an atmosphere of tranquillity and serenity, solitude and si- lence, in which color arid sound seem to be muted. From time to time there is the quiet sound of music and voices singing. Here souls address the Pilgrim as "brother."

The middle portion of the mountain is surrounded by seven con- centric ledges, each separated from the other by a steep cliff. On each ledge, or terrace, one of the seven Capital Sins is purged: Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth, Avarice (and Prodigality), Gluttony, Lust. The plan of the first terrace (cantos X through XII), where souls are punished for the sin of Pride, the root of all sin, and where every soul entering Purgatory proper is required to spend a certain amount of time, is paradigmatic and establishes the pattern of purgation that is followed throughout Purgatory proper. Each group of souls on its particular

INTRODUCTION / xvii

terrace is assigned a prayer. When a soul has finished purging his sin on one level, he climbs to the next one via a stairway where an angel-sentry performs a final cleansing gesture. A beatitude appropri- ate to the sin that has been cleansed is assigned to each ledge. In ad- dition, on each terrace of Purgatory, representations of the sin being purged as well as examples of the virtue opposed to that sin are found. These representations take on various forms; for example, on the first terrace they appear as carvings in the stone of the mountain. They are intended to incite disdain for that particular sin, while the representations of virtue are designed to inspire souls to emulate vir- tuous behavior. The examples that comprise both of these are drawn from Christian and pagan lore.

As Virgil in Canto XI of the Inferno explained the moral structure of Hell, so here in Canto XVII of Purgatory he describes the moral structure of this realm which, unlike Hell with its eternal pain, is temporary. The Pilgrim learns that there are two kinds of love that God places in man's heart before he is born. The first is instinctive, the natural desire to return to God, and because it leads man back to the Creator, it can never in itself be wrong. The second kind of love involves our free will, and given human error, can mislead us into choosing evil. Virgil goes on to explain that love that is wrongly directed always aims at harm for one's neighbor. He defines this through the first three of the seven Deadly Sins: Pride, Envy, and Wrath. Sloth, the insufficiency of love for true good or God, is the sin being purged on the central terrace of the mountain, the place where Virgil explains the purgatorial structure to his ward. Finally, excessive love for secondary goods, that which is not the true good, is defined in terms of the last three of the seven Deadly Sins: Avarice, Gluttony, and Lust.

Because of its place and power within the human soul, Love is the source of all actions, the good as well as those that merit punish- ment. This idea is at the heart of our understanding of The Divine Comedy, and if we keep in mind the main action of the Pilgrim in Purgatory, the reason why he is making this climb, which is to free his judgment and will and reach a state of innocence (much like Adam before the Fall), then we may better understand why there are so many discussions of Free Will in the course of the ascent of Purga- tory. In fact, cantos XVI, XVII, and XVIII, which are at the center of The Divine Comedy, deal primarily with Love and Free Will.

In the introduction to the Inferno (Vol. I, p. 45), I discussed the

xviii / INTRODUCTION

Pilgrim's participation in the different sins he encounters on his journey to Lucifer at the center of the Earth. His participation was at times obvious and at other times subtle. Here in Purgatory the tech- nique of participation is again at work. The Pilgrim's participation in the purging of Pride, for example, is obvious: as the penitents of Pride make their way along the terrace under heavy weights that bend their bodies and force their eyes to examine the carvings of de- feated Pride on the terrace floor, the Pilgrim also bends down, as if he were examining his own conscience. In order to speak to the suf- fering souls on this terrace (cantos X-XII), he imitates their pos- ture. Later (cantos XV-XVI), on the Terrace of the Wrathful, the penitent he is with speaks to the Pilgrim as they walk blindly along through thick, dark smoke. The final terrace of the Purgatory is where Lust is purged. How accurate and real that participation is for the Pilgrim — the reality of actually having to pass through those burning flames of lust that separate him from his beloved Beatrice who waits on the other side, at the top of the mountain.

The Pilgrim's participation in the sin of Gluttony, which occurs on the terrace immediately preceding that of Lust, is more symbolic and has more to do with poetty than with the literal sin of gluttony. Gluttony is the act of filling oneself, of taking into oneself, for a glo- rification of oneself. For the poets purging themselves on this terrace, poetry was gluttony while they were alive on earth. Now in Purga- tory and oh their way to Paradise they are learning the true meaning of their poetic art. All we need do is remember the rest of the words of the psalm sung by all of the Gluttonous at the beginning of Canto XXIII: "Labia mea, Domine, aperies, et os meum annuntiabit lau- dem tuam" ("Open my lips, O Lord, and my mouth shall proclaim your praises.") The lips those penitents had used for glorification of self, they now use to send forth praise to God.

Before talking about the third and final section of Purgatory, some mention should be made of the Pilgrim's three dreams, because they are part of the mechanism connecting each of the three parts of the Purgatory to one another. All three dreams mark a new and impor- tant stage in his journey. They are prophetic, involve female figures, and are to some degree erotic. The Pilgrim and his guide arrive on the shores of the mountain at dawn of Easter Sunday and spend four days and three nights climbing. During each of the three nights the Pilgrim has a dream and each dream takes place in a canto connected to the number nine: cantos IX, XIX, and XXVII.

INTRODUCTION / xix

The Pilgrim, overcome by the fatigue of his day's journey, falls asleep in the Valley of the Princes (Canto IX) and has his first dream close to dawn the following morning. This dream marks the Pil- grim's passage to Purgatory proper from the Antepurgatory. It takes shape within a framework of allusions to classical mythology, is the most erotic of all (this aspect will be brought out in the notes dis- cussing each dream), and prophesies the Pilgrim's ascent of the mountain. The imaginary blaze with which the dream ends may, in fact, foreshadow the fire of the Empyrean as well as the wall of fire that the Pilgrim must pass through on the Terrace of the Lustful. The second night on the mountain follows a day of much discussion between Marco Lombardo and Virgil on Love as well as moral and political philosophy. The dream the Pilgrim has this time is clearer in its eroticism than the first. The hideous-looking female, who is trans- formed before the Pilgrim's eyes into a lovely woman, represents the sins of incontinence, the vices of Avarice, Gluttony, and (especially) Lust. The third dream is the clearest of all. It is Leah and Rachel in the Pilgrim's final dream who are like Matilda and Beatrice whom the Pilgrim will meet the next day on entering the Terrestrial Para- dise. This dream in all of its aspects points straight ahead to the Gar- den of Eden, while the first and second dreams take part of their meaning from the preceding action and part from future events in the canticle. It seems that as the Pilgrim grows in understanding with each day that he climbs higher on the mountain, the dreams become easier to interpret.

By the time we reach the final and third part of the Purgatory and are into the Earthly Paradise, it becomes clear that the climb of Mount Purgatory has all been in preparation for Christian Revela- tion. What happens here in the last six cantos of the Purgatory points beyond, to the ultimate goal, to the Paradise where man is fulfilled in the supernatural vision of God. If Adam, our first father, had not committed Original Sin, then mankind would have passed directly from the Garden of Eden, where the Pilgrim now finds himself alone, into a life of perfection in this world and the next. Because Adam sinned, mankind must start his journey from earth, from Jeru- salem, which is the place of the Redemption, and then must make his way up to regain his lost innocence. By reaching the Garden of Eden at the top of Mount Purgatory, the Pilgrim has reached the first of his two goals, "the happiness of this life" (beatitudinem huius vitae). Man's second goal, "happiness in the eternal life" (beatitu-

XX / INTRODUCTION

dinem vitae eteriie) is, of course, the subject of the final part of The Divine Comedy, the Paradise.

In Canto XXVII of the Purgatory Virgil brings his role in the Pil- grim's journey to an end when he announces to his ward that he no longer needs to guide him. Virgil, in his role of natural reason, can lead the Pilgrim to Eden, to his original state of innocence, but he cannot himself understand Eden. If he could, he would be there right next to the Pilgrim standing in this enchanted wood. The climb is over and the journey that began in a wood, the "dark wood" of In- ferno I, comes to an end at the entrance to another wood, but a wood of a different texture. This is the Terrestrial Paradise, the Garden of Eden, the antechamber to Paradise itself. Things seen here are noth- ing like those of the real world of the Antepurgatory or of the stark and structured world of Purgatory proper. The souls the Pilgrim meets here as well as the elaborate pageant where the Christian and pagan worlds join to reenact the fall of man, his redemption, and the changing history of the church, belong more to the world of Paradise than the purgatorial world. The last six cantos of the Purgatory are essentially the introduction and opening to the Paradise.

Before leaving the Pilgrim, Virgil tells him, as I mentioned earlier, that he can do as he pleases once he enters this wood. The Pilgrim enters cautiously, slowly, and as he does he feels a constant breeze caressing his brow. The wood is thick with trees and color that shines clear and bright. In the Terrestrial Paradise all is in perfect har- mony and Dante begins to fulfill the promise he made concerning Beatrice at the close of the Vita nuova; that is, to treat her in a way that is worthy of her significance. In these cantos the poet's entire life under the influence of Beatrice is reenvoked, from the time he first met her at the age of nine until the present time of the poem. She appears here in different and changing roles: for a time, dressed in her special colors, she is the lady of the Vita nuova; then she is a stern judge; and finally she is a wise teacher. Never, however, does she ap- pear as a tender, loving lady. Never does she speak to her lover's heart. She speaks always to the Pilgrim's mind and conscience.

Both The Divine Comedy and the Vita nuova are to a certain degree autobiographical and confessional. We have seen this aspect of the poem on occasions in the Inferno; for instance, when the Pilgrim admits to having broken a baptismal font in the baptistry of San Giovanni in Florence {Inferno XIX). But confessional allegory is even more evident here in the closing six cantos of Purgatory. The

INTRODUCTION / xxi

Vita nuova makes it clear that the nature of Beatrice was destined to inspire the stern resolution to strive for spiritual growth, not tender sentiments, and certainly not the weak tears that fill the pages of that little book. The divine Beatrice would approve of tears, but only tears of deep contrition, as she herself tells the Pilgrim at the top of the mountain. Although the lover of the Vita nuova failed to under- stand the significance of Beatrice, and the Pilgrim, as we saw in Canto V of the Inferno, failed to understand the significance of Fran- cesca, here at the summit of Purgatory and entrance to Paradise, the Pilgrim will see and finally fully comprehend Beatrice. The Pilgrim, overcome by her sudden appearance, turns to Virgil for comfort. Finding him gone, he begins to weep. In Canto XXX (55-57) Bea- trice, knowing the bitter tears of contrition that he must shed (after confessing his failure to learn the meaning of her death and before being washed in the waters of Lethe), addresses her lover here for the first time in the poem as "Dante," and rebukes him sternly for his tears:

"Dante, though Virgil leaves you, do not weep, not yet, that is, for you shall have to weep from yet another wound. Do not weep yet."

This is no place for tenderness. In fact, in the tercet that immediately follows (58-60), Beatrice is compared to a stern, masculine, and even military figure: "Just as an admiral from bow or stern . . ."

As she was in the Vita nuova, Beatrice here, too, is a Christ figure. Earlier in this same canto (XXX, 19) she is heralded onto the stage of the Earthly Paradise in the masculine terms of Christ: "Benedictus qui venis!" She has come to judge her lover as Christ on the Final Day will come to judge all mankind. This judgment of one man, Dante the Pilgrim, the Poet, the Lover — for he is all of these at this point on the mount — stands for the judgment all men will come to on that Final Day.

Here, then, in Canto XXX of the Purgatory, in the coming of Beatrice, we have the Final Advent of Christ. The pattern of the three Comings of Christ — the three symbolic events that encompass all of Christian time — find their completion in The Divine Comedy here at the top of the mountain of Purgatory. Much like the three dreams the Pilgrim has during his stay in Purgatory, the three Ad-

xxii / INTRODUCTION

vents that occur in the Poem become increasingly easier to under- stand. Dante prepares us for the Final Advent in a different way. Preceding the Third Advent there is no address to the reader. The first address to the reader, asking him to study carefully the ac- count of the opening of the gate of Dis {Inferno IX, 61-63), stressed the difficulty of the proper interpretation; the one contained in Pur- gatory VIII (19-21), before the coming of the angels in the Valley of the Princes, encouraged us to believe that what will follow will be easier to interpret: "the truth, this time,/\% covered by a thinner veil . . ." (italics mine). If there is no appeal to the reader in the canto describing the Third Advent, it must mean that the event de- scribed is easy to interpret. It certainly must have been difficult for the poet to suggest the First Advent, to suggest somehow Christ's thirty-three years on earth by narrating a single happening; nor was it all that simple to present on stage an act that is invisible, that takes place in the hearts of men every day: the Second Advent (see Purga- tory VIII, note 19). But how else should the poet enact for the Pil- grim the Final Coming of Christ, the Third Advent, except to present the coming of Beatrice to judge her lover (the event de- scribed in Canto XXX after the account in XXIX of the apocalyptic procession intended to announce her Coming)? Like the three dreams, the three Advents take place at crucial points in the action of the poem: the First Advent at the entrance to the City of Dis, the Second at the entrance to Purgatory proper, and the Third on the threshold of Paradise.

The Purgatory, like the Inferno (and the Paradise to come), ends with the word "stars." It is the poet's way of making three circles into one in imitation of the Trinity (we will discover this when we have read the final canto of the Paradise, the hundredth canto of the poem itself). The circular ending to the Purgatory is brilliantly re- flected by the poet in his triple use of words having to do with re- birth, purity, and freedom:

I returned to her reborn, a tree renewed, in bloom with newborn foliage, immaculate,

eager to rise, now ready for the stars.

These are the motivating forces of the central portion of The Divine Comedy. These are the notes that sounded so strongly in the opening

INTRODUCTION / xxiii

cantos at the foot of the mountain. And these are those same "stars" the Pilgrim caught sight of as he came out of Hell and onto the shores of Purgatory. Then he could only see them; now he is ready to climb toward them; in the Paradise he will have joined them.

M.M. May 1984 Pollensa, Mallorca

xxiv / INTRODUCTION

ABBREVIATIONS

a. articulus

Aen. Aeneid (Virgil)

Ars amat. Ars amaloria (Ovid)

Conf. Confessidnes (Augustine)

Consol. philos. Comolatio philosophiae (Boethius)

Conv. Convivio (Dance Alighieri)

Decam. // Decameron (Giovanni Boccaccio)

De civ. Dei Ad Marcellinum De civitate Dei contra paganos (Au- gustine)

De doct. Chris. De doctrina Christiana (Augustine)

De mon. De monorchia (Dante Alighieri)

De vulg. eloqu. De vulgari eloquentia (Dante Alighieri)

Eclog. Eclogues (Virgil)

Episc. Epistolae (Dante Alighieri)

Eth. Nicom. Ethica Nicomachea (Aristotle)

Hist. Historiarum adversum paganos libri septem (Orosius)

Inf. Inferno (Dante Alighieri)

lect. lectio

Metam. Metamorphoses (Ovid) Metaphys. Metaphysica (Aristotle)

Moral. Moralium libri. sire Expositio in librum b. lob (Gregory I) Nat. hist. Naturalis historia (Pliny) obj. objectio

Par. Paradiso (Dante Alighieri) Phars. Pharsalia (Lucan) Purg. Purgatorio (Dante Alighieri) q. quaestio resp. respondeo

Summa theol. Summa theologica (Thomas Aquinas) suppl. supplementum Theb. Thebaid (Statius)

Dante's

PURGATORY

CANTO I

Having LEFT THE Inferno behind, Dante announces his intention to sing of the second kingdom, Purgatory, and calls upon the Muses, in particular Calliope, to accompany his song. As the dawn approaches, he feels a sense of renewal, and, look- ing up into the heavens, he sees four stars. Turning his gaze earthward again, he discovers standing near him a dignified old man: Cato of Utica. Cato thinks Dante and Virgil are refugees from Hell, and he questions them as to how they managed to escape. Virgil explains that Dante is still a living man, and that, at the command of a lady from Heaven, he, Virgil, has been sent to guide this man on a journey for the purpose of his salvation. Already this journey has taken them through Hell, and now it is their intention to see the souls of Purgatory. Cato assents to their passage. He then instructs Virgil to bind a reed around the Pilgrim's waist and to be sure to cleanse him of every trace of stain from the infernal regions. The two poets descend to the shore, where they proceed to carry out Cato's instructions. The purgation is marked by a miracle: when Virgil pulls a reed from the ground, another springs up immediately to take its place.

For better waters, now, the little bark of my poetic powers hoists its sails,

and leaves behind that crudest of the seas. i

And I shall sing about that second realm where man's soul goes to purify itself

and become worthy to ascend to Heaven. c>

Here let death's poetry arise to life, O Muses sacrosanct whose liege I am!

And let Calliope rise up and play y

her sweet accompaniment in the same strain

that pierced the wretched magpies with the truth

of unforgivable presumptuousness. u

The tender tint of orient sapphire, suffusing the still reaches of the sky,

as far as the horizon deeply clear, 15

renewed my eyes' delight, now that I found myself free of the deathly atmosphere that had weighed heavy on my eyes and heart.

The lovely planet kindling love in man

made all the eastern sky smile with her light, veiling the Fish that shimmered in her train.

Then to my right I turned to contemplate the other pole, and there saw those four stars the first man saw, and no man after him.

The heavens seemed to revel in their flames. O widowed Northern Hemisphere, deprived forever of the vision of their light!

And when I looked away from those four stars, turning a little toward the other pole, where no sign of the Wain was visible,

I saw near me an ancient man, alone, whose face commanded all the reverence that any son could offer to his sire.

Long-flowing was his beard and streaked with white, as was his hair, which in two tresses fell to rest upon his chest on either side.

The rays of light from those four sacred stars struck with such radiance upon his face, it was as if the sun were shining there.

"Who are you two who challenged the blind stream and have escaped from the eternal prison?" he said, moving his venerable locks.

"Who guided you? What served you as a lamp to light your way out of the heavy night that keeps the pit of Hell forever black?

Are all the laws of God's Abyss destroyed?

Have new decisions now been made in Heaven so that, though damned, you come up to my cliff?"

My leader quickly seized me by the arm;

his words, his touch, the way he looked at me, compelled my knees and brow to reverence.

2 / CANTO I

Then he addressed him: "Not on my behalf have I come here; a lady sent from Heaven asked me to guide this man along his way. 54

But since it is your will that we reveal the circumstances of our presence here, how can my will deny yours what it asks? 57

This man has not yet seen his final hour, although so close to it his folly brought him that little time was left to change his ways. 60

So I was sent to help him, as I said; there was no other way to save his soul than by my guiding him along this road. 6j

Already I have shown him all the Damned; I want to show him now the souls of those who purge themselves of guilt in your domain. 66

How we came here would take too long to tell; from Heaven comes the power that has served to lead him here to see and hear you now. 69

May it please you to welcome him — he goes in search of freedom, and how dear that is, the man who gives up life for it well knows. 72

You know, you found death sweet in Utica for freedom's sake; there you put off that robe which will be radiant on the Great Day. 75

We have not broken Heaven's timeless laws. This man still lives; Minos does not bind me; I come from that same Round where the chaste eyes 7*

of your dear Marcia still plead with your soul, O blessed heart, to hold her as your own; for love of her, then, bend your will to ours, 8/

allow us to go through your seven realms,

and I shall tell her how you have been kind —

if you will let me speak your name below." 84

"Marcia was so enchanting to my eyes," he answered then, "that while I was alive, there was no wish of hers I would not grant. 87

canto 1 / 3

She dwells beyond the evil river now, and can no longer move me by that law decreed upon the day I issued forth.

But if a heavenly lady, as you say,

moves and directs you, why your flattery? Ask in her name, there is no need for more.

Go with this man, see that you gird his waist with a smooth reed; take care to bathe his face till every trace of filth has disappeared,

for it would not be fitting that he go with vision clouded by the mists of Hell, to face the first of Heaven's ministers.

Around this little island at its base, down there, just where the waves break on the shore, you will find rushes growing in soft sand.

No other plant producing leaves or stalk that hardens could survive in such a place — only the reeds that yield to buffeting.

When you are ready to begin to scale

the mountainside, do not come back this way; the rising sun will show you where to climb."

With that he vanished. From my knees I rose, and silent, drawing closer to my guide, I looked into his eyes. He said to me:

"Follow my footsteps; now we must turn back, for over there the plain begins to slope, descending gently to the shore below."

The dawn was gaining ground, putting to flight the last hour of the night; I recognized, far off, the rippling waters of the sea.

We made our way along that lonely plain

like men who seek the right path they have lost, counting each step a loss till it is found.

When we had reached a place where the cool shade allowed the dew to linger on the slope, resisting a while longer the sun's rays,

4 / CANTO I

my master placed both of his widespread hands gently upon the tender grass, and I,

who understood what his intention was, 126

offered my tear-stained face to him, and he made my face clean, restoring its true color, once buried underneath the dirt of Hell. 129

At last we touched upon the lonely shore that never yet has seen its waters sailed by one who then returned to tell the tale. 132

There, as another willed, he girded me. Oh, miracle! When he pulled out the reed, immediately a second humble plant ; j5

sprang up from where the first one had been picked.

NOTES

1-6. For better waters: The first tercet introduces the theme of the sea voyage, a metaphor both for the journey undertaken by Dante the Pilgrim and for the process of composition in which the genius of Dante the Poet is involved. The same image with the same twofold implication is found in the Paradise at the beginning of Canto II, and here the "little bark" has become a mighty ship, the metaphor being considerably developed to include Dante's readers in their boats. The pres- ence of this image already in the Inferno would seem to be guaranteed in lines 1 and 3 of this canto: the words For better waters, now . . . , and leave behind that cruelest of the seas are surely reminders of the Pilgrim's earlier travels through Hell. Yet no reference to "Dante's ship" is to be found in the first canticle. For an explanation of this inconsistency, see notes to Purg. I, 7-12 and 115-36.

7-12

The Invocation to the Muses points both backward to the beginning of the Inferno and forward to the beginning of the Paradise. The Invocation in the Inferno is contained in one ter- cet; actually, it consists of one line: "O Muses, O lofty intellect, help me now"; in the other two lines of the tercet Dante calls upon his own memory to record faithfully what he has seen (Inf. II, 7-9).

CANTO I / 5

In our passage the Invocation, expanded to two tercets, sin- gles out Calliope, leader of the Muses. The appeal is made more elaborate by the allusion to the arrogant daughters of King Pierus: the Poet asks of Calliope that she do him the favor of accompanying his poetry with the same strain, the same exalted music that had served to bring low the presumptuous princesses. By contrasting himself with the "magpies," the Poet stresses his modesty: unlike them, he has not challenged; he simply seeks for help. (The need for humility is constantly stressed in the Purgatory; there will be other allusions to it in this canto.) At the same time, however, it seems clear that Dante the Poet has been cautiously gaining confidence in his own poetic powers.

And the difference between the Invocation here and that of the Inferno may explain the absence, there, of the image of the Poet's ship. At the beginning of his poem, when he must hum- bly beg the Muses, simply: "Help me now," how could he posit the "ship of his talent"?

7. Here let death's poetry arise to life: The morta poesia, "dead poetry," of the original must refer to the poetry of the Inferno, "dead" in that it treated of souls dead to God and to His grace. But note also the suggestion of resurrection contained in this line.

9. Calliope: The greatest of the Muses, who, in Greek mythology, presides over heroic or epic poetry.

1 1 - 1 2. that pierced the wretched magpies: Pierus, king of Emathia in Macedonia, had nine daughters, to whom he un- wisely gave the names of the nine Muses. In their presumption they challenged the Muses to a contest in song, in which they sang the praises of the Titans who waged war against Jupiter (cf. Inf. XXXI). Defeated by Calliope, who was chosen to rep- resent all the Muses, they were punished by being transformed into magpies (cf. Ovid, Metam. V, 294-678).

13-30

These six tercets are devoted to a description of the sky: the passage is important if only because it invites us to imagine the experience of the Pilgrim, who, having emerged from the darkness of Hell, is allowed for the first time to see the heavens above him. And this description of the heavens with which the

6 / canto 1

Purgatory begins is, in fact, the beginning of the end of the Divine Comedy, for the Paradise concludes with the Beatific Vi- sion of God in the Empyrean. From this moment on we will never be able to forget the heavens above the Pilgrim, the heavens toward which he will be climbing throughout his jour- ney in Purgatory and into which he will enter, still continuing to ascend, at the beginning of the Paradise.

As for the graphic details of the description, it is indeed a clear and delicate glow of color that strikes our eyes after the grim reds and dead blacks of the skyless Hell. The atmosphere of Purgatory contrasts strongly with that of the Inferno, sensu- ously as well as spiritually. A new vocabulary is in evidence: the gentle glow (13), the spreading color (15), the smiling eastern sky (20), the heavens lit with joy (25) (there is a similar delicate treatment of the details of the landscape at the end of the canto). And opposed to the heavy, sullen despair and excruciat- ing torment of Hell, Purgatory holds out the prospect of new hope. Though there will be much stress in this canticle on the arduous, painful purgation of the soul, we are constantly made aware of the increasing capacity of the soul for love, knowledge and self-perfection: the note of hope was already sounded within the first two tercets treating of the "sea voyage": For better waters, now . . .

Already the Invocation to the Muses had contained the sug- gestion of the resurrection motif in line 7;- now, in the descrip- tion of the heavens, we learn that the time is just before dawn, the hour of rebirth and new beginnings. Moreover, because of the position of the stars that are described here, it has been determined by scholars that the date is supposed to be April 10, 1300, Easter Sunday. The Pilgrim descended into Hell on Good Friday, and now he rises from the "dead atmosphere." The main events in Dante's poem — the descent of the Pilgrim into Hell, his emergence into Purgatory, and his final ascent into Paradise — are an imitation of the central events of divine history: the death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ.

The eastern origin of the sapphire directs our gaze to that point on the horizon where the sun, symbol for Christ, is just about to rise. At this same point the planet of love, Venus, has risen with the constellation of Pisces, which it outshines, light- ing up the whole eastern sky. Pisces is the last of the twelve signs of the Zodiac. The sun, when it rises, will be in the first sign, Aries, or the Ram.

CANTO I / 7

23. those four stars: No living man since the time of Adam and Eve has seen the four stars that the Pilgrim now sees. These stars would have been visible to Adam and Eve because the Garden of Eden, in which they were placed after their cre- ation, was located at the top of the mountain of Purgatory (the Pilgrim is now at the bottom of this same mountain). After the Fall, Adam and Eve were driven from the garden, and they and their offspring — the whole human race — were consigned, to inhabit the lands opposite the Earthly Paradise, that is, accord- ing to Dante's geography, the Northern Hemisphere. Hence, the stars of the southern sky would be invisible in the inhabited northern part of the globe.

Allegorically, the four stars represent the four cardinal vir- tues: Prudence, Temperance, Justice, and Fortitude. A problem arises when, in lines 26 and 27, Dante laments the fact that the inhabited world is widowed, deprived forever of the sight of these stars (or virtues). But it is not likely that the poet is say- ing that after the Fall the world was deprived and will continue to be deprived of the virtues of Prudence, Temperance, Justice, and Fortitude! Surely Virgil and the other noble shades of an- tiquity now in Limbo possess these four virtues; in fact, it was the pagan philosophers who were the first to describe them. And every Christian, if he is prepared to receive sanctifying grace, will be endowed with these virtues (as well as with the three theological virtues). In the case of the Christian, the four virtues in question are referred to as the "infused" cardinal vir- tues; the pagans may possess only the "acquired" cardinal vir- tues.

But, though these virtues can be possessed in individual cases by pagans and Christians alike, they no longer form an inevitable part of human nature as they did before the Fall. When God endowed Adam with a combination of these virtues and an immortal body, He created a perfect man. This perfec- tion was to pass to Adam's progeny, but when Adam sinned and lost Eden, mankind lost Eden and human nature was defiled. This Edenic state of existence was never to be recov- ered. Even with the Redemption, when Christ opened up the way for man to Salvation, we were not restored to the perfect Edenic existence of our first parents, with the natural infusion of virtue and the immortality of the body.

Thus, the first reference to the four stars leads to a lament, actually, over the loss of Eden; and this lament anticipates the

8 / canto 1

great joy the Pilgrim will experience when, at the end of Canto XXVII, he is led by Virgil to the entrance of the preternatur- ally beautiful Earthly Paradise and encouraged to "let pleasure be your guide."

See Singleton (1958), pp. 159-83, for the allegorical significance of the four stars as it is revealed in the course of the journey up the mountain of Purgatory.

30. no sign of the Wain: The constellation of the Wain (or Big Bear, Ursa Major), since it is near the North Pole, is not visible in the Southern Hemisphere.

31-75

Here we are introduced to Cato of Utica, the guardian of the Antepurgatory. Cato (Marcus Porsius'Cato Uticensis, 95-46 B.C.) was a devout Stoic who became famous for his stern moral principles. Although he opposed the ambitions of both Caesar and Pompey, when the civil war broke out in 49 B.C., he sided with the latter against Caesar. After Caesar's vic- tory at Pharsalia, Cato continued his resistance in Northern Africa, where he joined forces with Metellus Scipio, but they were defeated at the battle of Thapsus, and all of Africa, with the exception of Utica, fell into Caesar's hands. Rather than submit to Caesar, Cato resolved to take his own life. He repor- tedly spent the night before his suicide reading Plato's Pbaedo, which deals with the immortality of the soul.

Dante's profound admiration for the character of Cato is ex- pressed in earlier writings. In Monarchy (II, v, 15) he calls Cato "that most severe author of true liberty," and in the Convivio (IV, xxviii, 1 2 1- 2 1 3) he makes the startling analogy: "And what earthly man is more worthy to represent God himself than Cato? Certainly none." Dante's appreciation of Cato be- longs to a tradition that our poet inherited from antiquity: in particular, he must have known Lucan (Phars. II, 380-90), who praises Cato's integrity, and Cicero, who in the De Officiis jus- tifies and idealizes Cato's suicide.

How can one justify the appropriateness of Cato's presence on the shores of Purgatory and of his role as guardian of the repentant souls newly arrived to begin, in time, the process of purgation? As for the fact of Cato's suicide, it will become clear from Virgil's words to him later (73-75) that Dante, like Cic- ero, viewed this idealistically, not as an act meriting punish-

canto 1 / 9

ment but as a supreme reaffirmation of the great Stoic's love of freedom. Not only was Dante ready to judge the pagans in terms of their own moral code; perhaps he even looked upon Cato's death as reflecting the sacrificial death of the Savior. (In early illustrations of the Comedy Cato is sometimes shown with a radiating nimbus.) At any rate, it could be argued that since the labors of the souls in Purgatory are devoted to the pursuit of ultimate spiritual freedom, and Cato had died for the sake of political freedom, he could most fittingly be conceived as their guardian — if we remember that throughout the Purgatory we are offered as ideal, a blend of civil and moral liberty. The role of "guardian" was perhaps suggested to Dante by the allusion to Cato in Aen. VIII, 670, where he is represented as lawgiver of the virtuous souls in the Elysium.

Now, in itself, there is nothing incongruous about the idea of a virtuous pagan occupying a position of authority over Chris- tian souls, whom he encourages upward toward Heaven in their struggle to achieve salvation (Purg. II), once we accept the con- tributory role of Virgil himself in the Pilgrim's search for salva- tion. In fact, a parallel between the two pagans is suggested by a comparison between Cato's sudden appearance from nowhere in Purg. I, 31, and that of Virgil in Inf. I, 62 (and Cato, like Virgil, belongs, as we shall learn, to Limbo). Yet most critics believe that Cato has been saved. The only possible evidence to this effect is to be found in verses 73-75, in which Virgil, praising Cato for his suicide, mentions the fate of his body on the Judgment Day: "... Utica . . . there you put off that robe which will be radiant on the Great Day." And this prophecy of Cato's radiant body has been for most scholars a prophecy of his entrance into Heaven — delayed until the Judgment Day.

Of the few who find verse 75 inconclusive, some seek for new evidence of Cato's salvation outside our canto (cf. Chimenz, p. 326, who refers us to Par. XX, with its discussion of fides implicita). Others abandoning the possibility of Cato's ascent to Heaven, imagine a different explanation for this am- biguous line: Ciardi (p. 38) is content to speak vaguely of a "special triumph" for Cato on the Judgment Day; Carroll (p. 7) suggests that on that day Cato will return to Limbo as lawgiver, in line with the role assigned him in the Aeneid (see note to I, 89). Carroll's would seem to be the more likely interpretation: the evidence of verse 75 in favor of Cato's salvation is surely weak (and to seek the explanation of Purg. I in Par. XX is un-

10 / canto 1

warranted). Still, I must confess that I do not completely un- derstand the implications of verse 75.

31./ saw near me an ancient man, alone: The description of the heavens gives way to a description of Cato's face, but in his face the stars will be seen again.

34. streaked with white: Cato's beard with its mixture of colors is a fitting emblem of Purgatory — which place is not completely shrouded in darkness, as is the Inferno, nor totally imbued with light, as is Paradise: in Purgatory we will see the regular alternation of day and night. In addition, the souls in Purgatory, although they have been saved, are still not entirely cleansed from the stain of sin until they are released.

37-39. The rays of light: If we think in terms of Cato as lawgiver, it is tempting to see in this description a parallel with Moses the lawgiver: Cato, standing at the foot of a mountain with his face brightly lit, could remind us of the moment (Gen. 35:29) when Moses came down from the mountain with the Tables of the Law in his hands, "and the skin of his face shone because he had been talking with God." Furthermore, Cato's present position in Purgatory might recall the fate of Moses, who came in sight of the Promised Land but could not enter it.

40. the blind stream: This is the "little stream" that comes from Lethe and flows into Cocytus. The Pilgrim and his guide had followed the course of this stream out of Hell, through the earth, to the lower slope of the mountain of Purgatory (cf. Inf. XXXIV, 127-34).

73-75. You know: The inevitable separation of the body from the soul at death, as well as the place and the circum- stances of this event, is a recurrent theme in the opening cantos of the Purgatory.

73. Utica: Second most important city in ancient North Af- rica (after Carthage), located on the coast approximately thirty miles northwest of Carthage. Utica was the scene of the last stand of Pompey against Caesar, as well as the place where Cato subsequently took his life.

79. your dear Mania: In 56 B.C. Cato gave his second wife, Marcia, to his friend Hortentius. When Hortentius died, Mar- cia asked Cato to take her back. The episode, recorded in Lu-

canto 1 / 1 1

can's Pharsalia (II, 326 ff.), was seen by Dante in the Convivio as an allegory of the soul's tardy return to God at the onset of old age. Marcia is mentioned among the souls of the virtuous pagans in Limbo (Inf. IV, 128).

89. by that law: This reference to a law that was proclaimed the day Cato left Limbo behind is not 'too clear. To most schol- ars it represents the absolute distinction between the Damned and the Blessed, made forever on that day of the Harrowing of Hell, when the elect souls were rescued from Limbo; Cato's allusion to it here would explain his estrangement from Marcia. But to the few who believe that Cato is not saved, that his rescue from Limbo along with the Patriarchs differed from theirs in far more than the mere postponement of his ascent to Heaven, the law in question would apply only to Cato's unique situation: it would represent the divine decision to rescue Cato from Limbo that he might serve in Purgatory for a finite period of time, only to return to Limbo. In favor of this "private" in- terpretation is Cato's reference in verse 90 to "the day I issued forth." But would such a special dispensation be called a "law"? In any case, this interpretation would not explain Cato's es- trangement from Marcia, as would the generally accepted one.

92. why your flattery?: Cato accedes to Virgil's request for the Pilgrim's admission because of the intervention of the "heavenly lady" in his behalf — not because of Virgil's flattery. The choice of the word (lusinghe) is interesting: it does invite a more critical re-reading of Virgil's deferential words to Cato.

After summarizing their journey up to this point, Virgil pleads movingly with Cato to look with pleasure upon the Pil- grim's arrival, because of the purity of his goal — which Virgil likens to that of Cato: "He goes in search of freedom," Virgil tells Cato. "How dear that is . . . you know." And he bolsters his request by a reference to Cato's glorious fate "on that Great Day." The factual statement that follows (that the Pilgrim is still alive, that Virgil is from Limbo) leads immediately to praise of Cato's wife and to an attempt to exploit the tenderness Virgil assumes to exist in their relationship. Cato's rebuff is unmistak- able. Is it, perhaps, deserved?

95. a smooth reed: The reed will now replace the cord that the Pilgrim wore fastened round his waist while going through the Inferno. The Pilgrim tells us (Inf. XVI, 100- 108) that with this

12 / canto 1

cord he had once foolishly hoped to ensnare the leopard (which he encountered in the opening canto of the Inferno), a confes- sion of his excessive self-confidence. At Virgil's request, how- ever, he discarded the cord, which was then made to serve Virgil's mysterious purpose (Inf. XVI, 1 12-14). Now, in order to ascend the Mount of Purgatory, he must be girded with a reed, clearly symbolizing humility, the opposite of his former self-confidence.

107. the mountainside: the mountain referred to by Cato is, of course, Mount Purgatory, which dominates the small island on which the two travellers have recently found themselves. It is mentioned belatedly and is never presented to view as a part of the topography; it is the mountain of Salvation, and its pres- ence is to be taken for granted'.

Virgil and the Pilgrim, following the dark passage leading up out of Hell, had evidently emerged from an opening in the slope of the mountain, so close to the bottom that the descent to its foot and to the shore around it, which Cato now enjoins upon them, will amount simply to a token act suggestive of humility. When the Pilgrim came out upon the slope his first act, as we know, was to look up at the sky. Then he let his eyes rest on Cato's face: up to this point he has seen nothing of the landscape.

115-36

Now at last, after a final glance at the sky, the Pilgrim is able to gaze on the terrain itself and the waters surrounding the shore. Our discussion of the elaborate description of the sky (13-30, beginning "The tender tint of orient sapphire") men- tioned the "new vocabulary" of the Purgatory to be found in the sensuous descriptions. Here, too, the Poet chooses from a new lexicon that could have no place in the Inferno: rippling waters (117), cool shade (121), dew (122); note, too, the word "gently" (125), used of a human gesture, which perfectly cap- tures the mood of the lines describing natural phenomena.

And as the Pilgrim makes his way down the slope, the reader is reminded of his entrance into the Dark Wood; there, too, a deserted shore (pia&gia iliserta: Inf. I, 29); there, too, a moun- tain of Hope, but one that appears suddenly, mysteriously, only to prove inaccessible. Whereas he felt he had lost forever the right path he had wandered from, now he and Virgil go

canto 1/13

confidently in search of it (119-20). Thus, the Pilgrim who reaches the shore (130) to participate in the ritual that will pre- pare him for the ascent is very different from the figure who appears in the first canto of the Divine Comedy.

But as he reaches this shore where the reeds of humility grow, a contrasting figure comes to mind: the mention of the lonely shore that never saw a man sail on its waters and return ( 1 30- 32) is a clear evocation of the great ill-fated voyage of Ulysses, who, according to the story invented by Dante (Inf. XXVI), dared to pass through the forbidden Pillars of Hercules into the unknown waters of the South Atlantic, where, finally, a storm sank his ship, not far from a dark mountain-island. This must have been, according to Dante's geography, the same mountain of Purgatory, at whose foot the Pilgrim now finds himself, cleansed of the fumes of Hell and ready to ascend once he has been girded with the reed of humility. It was pre- cisely Ulysses' lack of humility that cut short his voyage just off the shores of Purgatory.

That the voyage of Ulysses is meant to be seen as a foil to the progress of the Pilgrim is also shown by a verbal link be- tween the passage that closes Purg: I and the final lines of Inf. XXVI: com' altrui piacque. The Pilgrim girds himself "as pleased Another" (133); when Ulysses' ship goes down, the waters close over it "as pleased Another" (Inf. XXVI, 147). "Altrui," of course, is God, the God who condemned Ulysses' "mad flight" (folk volo, Inf. XXVI, 125) but now approves of the Pilgrim's preparations (in spite of his past follia, mentioned by Virgil to Cato here in line 59).

Though it is only at the end of this canto that we find a clear allusion to the voyage of Ulysses (one recognized by most scholars), there is, perhaps, a suggestion of it at the very be- ginning: in the opening lines when the poet applies to himself the metaphor of a sea voyage in the "little bark of my poetic powers." Here, Dante is looking forward both to the success of his Pilgrim's journey and to the successful accomplishment of his own poetic endeavor: to the proper use of his talent. But Ulysses, too, had been blessed by a God-given talent — which, misdirected by his follia, led him to his destruction.

That the Pilgrim's encounter with Ulysses in Hell had made him keenly aware of the dangers inherent in the possession of extraordinary gifts is powerfully suggested in the well-known passage of the Inferno when the poet speaks of the necessity he

1 4 / canto 1

feels, whenever he remembers the events of that canto, to curb his talent lest it speed where virtue does not guide (XXVI, 19-24). And in these words, perhaps ("lest talent speed where virtue does not guide"), we have in embryonic form that image of the "bark of my poetic powers," missing from the beginning of the Inferno and appearing full-fledged only in the opening lines of Purg. I — an image suggested by the experience of Ulysses.

Now the absence of the image at the beginning of the Divine Comedy has already been attributed to the poet's modesty at this point. But to explain its absence there is not to explain its pres- ence here; perhaps this image of a successful sea voyage would never have taken shape without the challenge of Ulysses' fail- ure.

127. my tear-stained face: Surely the tears this line refers to are not the Pilgrim's recent tears of humility but those he shed upon witnessing certain scenes of punishment in Hell. As such, they would form part of the "trace of filth" (96) that Cato urged be wiped away. For, according to Carroll (p. 12), the Pilgrim's past tears had made him less fit to climb the mountain.

134-36. When he pulled out the reed: The springing back of the reed is modeled on an episode in the sixth book of the Aeneid (135-44): the Sibyl tells Aeneas that, in preparation for his descent into the underworld, he must pluck a golden bough to carry with him as a kind of a passport — and no sooner is the bough pulled out than another springs up to take its place. Similarly, here, the reed (of humility) is the Pilgrim's necessary passport to the mountain of Purgatory.

This reminiscence of Aeneas at the end of the first canto of the Purgatory must remind the reader of the moving line in Inf. II when the Pilgrim cries out to Virgil: "But I am not Aeneas, I am not Paul." By the end of Inf. I Virgil had explained that he had been chosen by heavenly powers to guide the Pilgrim through Hell and Purgatory toward Paradise. The Pilgrim at first accepts the challenge of such a journey; later, his humility — or, as Virgil will call it, his cowardice — makes him recoil from the venture. At the very beginning, Virgil has pre- sented himself to the Pilgrim as the creator of the pius Aeneas; now, in Inf. II, the Pilgrim, become fearful, reminds him of the preeminence, the sublimity, of that figure predestined to be the founder of the Roman Empire; Aeneas, he said, could well be

canto i/15

permitted to visit the Kingdom of the Dead — but, he adds, "I am not Aeneas."

And surely, with the echo here of Aen. VI, the repetition of the miracle of the "plucked plant reborn," Dante intends to assure the reader of the success of his Pilgrim, to elevate him to the rank of that Aeneas he had earlier praised so highly. Thus it is with a reminder of the successful voyage of Aeneas, pre- ceded by a reminder of the tragic doom of Ulysses, that the first canto of Dante's Purgatory ends.

1 6 / canto I

CANTO II

As THE SUN rises, Dante and Virgil are still standing at the water's edge and wondering which road to take in order to as- cend the mountain of Purgatory, when the Pilgrim sees a red- dish glow moving across the water. The light approaches at an incredible speed, and eventually they are able to discern the wings of an angel. The angel is the miraculous pilot of a ship containing souls of the Redeemed, who are singing the psalm In exitu Israel de Aegyplo. At a sign from the angel boatsman, these souls disembark, only to roam about on the shore. Ap- parently, they are strangers, and, mistaking Virgil and Dante for familiars of the place, they ask them which road leads up the mountainside. Virgil answers that they, too, are pilgrims, only recently arrived. At this point some of the souls realize that the Pilgrim is still alive, and they stare at him in fascina- tion. Recognizing a face that he knows in this crowd of souls, Dante tries three times in vain to embrace the shade of his old friend Casella, a musician; then he asks Casella for a song and, as he sings, all the souls are held spellbound. Suddenly the Just Old Man, Cato, appears to disperse the rapt crowd, sternly re- buking them for their negligence and exhorting them to run to the mountain to begin their ascent.

The sun was touching the horizon now, the highest point of whose meridian arc was just above Jerusalem; and Night, ;

revolving always opposite to him, rose from the Ganges with the Scales that fall out of her hand when she outweighs the day. 6

Thus, where we were, Aurora's lovely face with a vermilion flush on her white cheeks was aging in a glow of golden light. y

We were still standing at the water's edge, wondering about the road ahead, like men whose thoughts go forward while their bodies stay, ,2

when, suddenly, I saw, low in the west

(like the red glow of Mars that burns at dawn

through the thick haze that hovers on the sea), 15

CANTO II/17

a light — I hope to see it come again! — moving across the waters at a speed faster than any earthly flight could be.

I turned in wonder to my guide, and then, when I looked back at it again, the light was larger and more brilliant than before, ■

and there appeared, on both sides of this light, a whiteness indefinable, and then, another whiteness grew beneath the shape.

My guide was silent all the while, but when the first two whitenesses turned into wings, and he saw who the steersman was, he cried:

"Fall to your knees, fall to your knees! Behold the angel of the Lord! And fold your hands. Expect to see more ministers like him.

See how he scorns to use man's instruments; he needs no oars, no sails, only his wings to navigate between such distant shores.

See how he has them pointing up to Heaven: he fans the air with these immortal plumes that do not moult as mortal feathers do."

Closer and closer to our shore he came,

brighter and brighter shone the bird of God, until I could no longer bear the light,

and bowed my head. He steered straight to the shore, his boat so swift and light upon the wave, it left no sign of truly sailing there;

and the celestial pilot stood astern

with blessedness inscribed upon his face. More than a hundred souls were in his ship:

In exitu Israel de Aegypto,

they all were singing with a single voice, chanting it verse by verse until the end.

The angel signed them with the holy cross, and they rushed from the ship onto the shore; he disappeared, swiftly, as he had come.

18 / CANTO II

The souls left there seemed strangers to this place: they roamed about, while looking all around, endeavoring to understand new things.

The sun, which with its shafts of light had chased the Goat out of the heavens' highest field, was shooting rays of day throughout the sky,

when those new souls looked up to where we were, and called to us: "If you should know the road that leads up to the mountainside, show us."

And Virgil answered them: "You seem to think that we are souls familiar with this place, but we, like all of you, are pilgrims here;

we just arrived, not much ahead of you,

but by a road which was so rough and hard — to climb this mountain now will be like play."

Those souls who noticed that my body breathed, and realized that I was still alive, in their amazement turned a deathly pale.

Just as a crowd, greedy for news, surrounds the messenger who bears the olive branch, and none too shy to elbow-in his way,

so all the happy souls of these Redeemed stared at my face, forgetting, as it were, the way to go to make their beauty whole.

One of these souls pushed forward, arms outstretched, and he appeared so eager to embrace me that his affection moved me to show mine.

0 empty shades, whose human forms seem real! Three times I clasped my hands around his form, as many times they came back to my breast.

1 must have been the picture of surprise, for he was smiling as he drew away,

and I plunged forward still in search of him.

Then, gently, he suggested I not try,

and by his voice I knew who this shade was; I begged him stay and speak to me awhile.

CANTO II / 19

"As once I loved you in my mortal flesh, without it now I love you still," he said. "Of course I'll stay. But tell me why you're here."

"I make this journey now, O my Casella, hoping one day to come back here again," I said. "But how did you lose so much time?"

He answered: "I cannot complain if he who, as he pleases, picks his passengers, often refused to take me in his boat,

for that Just Will is always guiding his.

But for the last three .months, indulgently, he has been taking all who wish to cross;

so, when I went to seek the shore again, where Tiber's waters turn to salty sea, benignly, he accepted me aboard.

Now, back again he flies to Tiber's mouth, which is the meeting place of all the dead, except for those who sink to Acheron's shore."

"If no new law prevents remembering

or practicing those love songs that once brought peace to my restless longings in the world,"

I said, "pray sing, and give a little rest

to my poor soul which, burdened by my .flesh, has climbed this far and is exhausted now."

Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,

began the words of his sweet melody — their sweetness still is sounding in my soul.

My master and myself and all those souls that came with him were deeply lost in joy, as if that sound were all that did exist.

And while we stood enraptured by the sound

of those sweet notes — a sudden cry: "What's this, you lazy souls?" It was the Just Old Man.

"What negligence to stand around like this!

Run to the mountain, shed that slough which still does not let God be manifest to you!"

20 / CANTO II

Just as a flock of pigeons in a field

peacefully feeding on the grain and tares,

no longer strutting proud of how they look, 126

immediately abandon all their food, flying away, seized by a greater need — if something should occur that startles them — 129

so did that new-formed flock of souls give up their feast of song, and seek the mountainside, rushing to find a place they hoped was there. 132

And we were just as quick to take to flight.

NOTES

1 -6. The sun was touching the horizon now: Purgatory alone of the three realms of the otherworld exists in time. Conse- quently, again and again we are made aware of time. In this learned periphrasis, the poet begins the canto by telling us, in a roundabout way, the time of day.

On the globe as Dante conceived it, Jerusalem is the center of the known world, and Purgatory is directly opposite it. The westernmost point of the Hemisphere of Land is the Pillars of Hercules, just west of Spain, and the easternmost point of human habitation is the Ganges, which is in India. Purgatory, Jerusalem, the Pillars of Hercules, and the Ganges were thought by Dante to share a common horizon. The horizon of any point on earth can be described by a circle perpendicular to that point's meridian circle, which is the circle passing through the point and the north and south poles (see diagram). Thus the sun would move, according to Dante's conceptualization, on a line from the Ganges through Jerusalem to the Pillars of Her- cules, and around to Purgatory. Therefore, at the time the canto opens, it is midnight at the Ganges, sunset at Jerusalem, noon at the Pillars of Hercules, and dawn at Purgatory.

Dante further adds that the night is rising "with the Scales," that is, in the constellation of Libra. Libra is the constellation opposite Aries. Because the sun is in Aries from March 21 to April 21, "night" will be in Libra on April 10. Libra remains a night constellation until September 21, the autumnal equinox. On that day, the sun passes into Libra.

Furthermore, the time periphrasis contains another of the

CANTO II/21

North Pole

Pillars of Hercules

South Pole

motifs that will be of critical importance in this and the follow- ing canto — the Exodus. The opening lines are written from the point of view of Jerusalem; this central position occupied by Jerusalem invites us to compare the Pilgrim's journey to Israel's journey out of Egypt, for the goal of that journey too was Jerusalem and the promised land.

8. with a vermilion flush: The description of the dawn's lovely face and blushing cheeks is reminiscent of Purg. I, 127, where the color reappears in the Pilgrim's cheeks as Virgil washes away the last stains of the Inferno. Here again, the verses sound the note of optimism and a new beginning.

1 2. whose thoughts go forward while their bodies stay: The rest- lessness of the Pilgrim's thoughts as they go forward shows his desire to begin the journey, but, although he is properly dis- posed to that journey in his heart, he hesitates, unsure of which direction to take.

31. See how he scorns to use man's instruments: The oars and sails, the human instruments that the angel boatsman has re- placed with his wings, recall once again the ill-fated voyage of Ulysses, who says, "we made our oars our wings in that mad flight" (Inf. XXVI, 126). Incidentally, the path of Ulysses' "mad flight," which came within sight of the shores of Purga-

22 / canto 11

tory, would have been essentially the same as the trajectory taken by the angel.

The figure of the angel boatsman here suggests a contrast with Charon, the boatsman who appears at the corresponding stage in Inf. III. The angel carries the souls of the Blessed to Purgatory, whereas Charon, who is called a "devil" (109), fer- ries the Damned across the river Acheron into Hell.

41. his boat so swift and light: On the shores of the river Acheron (Inf. Ill, 93), when Charon realizes that Dante is not one of the souls of the Damned, but a living' man, he prophe- sies the Pilgrim's eventual salvation and passage to Purgatory, saying that he will be carried there by a "lighter skiff." In addi- tion, the swiftness of the boat here recalls the approach of an- other boat in the Inferno, that of Phlegyas on the river Styx (VIII, 13-15).

42. it left no sign of truly sailing there: The boat draws no water because the souls of the Saved have no weight.

46. In exitu Israel de Aegypto: "When Israel came out of Egypt" (Psalm 1 13) is a song of thanksgiving to God for freeing the nation of Israel from the bondage of Egypt. For Christians the Exodus, or liberation of the Jews, prefigures Christ's Resur- rection from the dead. In turn, his death and Resurrection served to free each individual Christian soul from the slavery of sin.

Since at this point in the action of the poem it is Easter Sun- day morning, the very day of the Resurrection, the singing of this psalm is particularly appropriate, and the connection be- tween the Exodus and Resurrection is thus reinforced. There will continue to be reminders of the Exodus and Resurrection in the Purgatory, whose subject is the laborious process by which the Pilgrim moves from the bondage and ignorance of sin to the freedom of grace and knowledge.

In the Epistle to Can Grande della Scala, which serves as a sort of general introduction to the entire Comedy, Dante gives his own interpretation of this psalm-verse and the significance of the Exodus event:

For the clarity of what will be said, it is to be understood that this work [the Comedy] is not simple, but rather it is polysemous, that is, endowed with many meanings. For the first meaning is that which one derives from the letter, another is that which one derives from

CANTO II / 23

things signified by the letter. The first is called "literal" and the second "allegorical" or "mystical." So that this method of exposition may be clearer, one may consider it in these lines: "When Israel came out of Egypt, the house of Jacob from people of strange lan- guage, Judah was his sanctuary and Israel his dominion." If we look Only at the letter, this signifies that the children of Israel went out of Egypt in the time of Moses; if we look at the allegory, it signifies our redemption through Christ; if we look at the moral sense, it signifies the turning of the souls from the sorrow and misery of sin to a state of grace; if we look at the anagogical sense, it signifies the passage of the blessed souls from the slavery of this corruption to the freedom of eternal glory. And although these mystical meanings are called by various names, in general they can all be called allegor- ical, inasmuch as they are different (diversi) from the literal or his- torical. For "allegoria" comes from "alleon" in Greek, which in Latin is alienum (strange) or diversum (different)."

Certainly it was no accident that Dante, in the Epistle, chose this particular passage to illustrate his use of manifold interpre- tation. Exodus, with all its concomitant significance, is quite simply the figure or pattern for the action of the entire Comedy.

47. they all were singing with a single voice: This chorus is in marked contrast to the sounds that issue from the approaching boats in the Inferno. Charon comes toward the Pilgrim and his guide screaming, "Woe to you perverted souls!" (Ill, 84), and Phlegyas, gloating over his booty, shouts: "Aha, I've got you now, you wretched soul!" (VIII, 18). Moreover, the souls of the Damned, whom Charon takes away in his boat, far from singing, curse God, their mothers and fathers, and the human race (III, 103-105).

55-57. The sun . . . the Goat: At dawn the constellation Capricorn lies on the meridian, ninety degrees from the hori- zon. Because of the sun's ever-increasing light, Capricorn is now invisible. In other words, the daylight is getting stronger.

59-65. If you should know the road: In Virgil's words we have the image of the Christian soul as pilgrim travelling from death to life, from sin to grace; this is a commonplace in patristic thought and derives ultimately from the story of the Exodus.

67-75

The Pilgrim's breathing marks him as a living man and causes a stir of excited curiosity among the recently arrived

24 / CANTO 11

souls. (Later, when the sun has risen higher, it will be the ability of the Pilgrim's body to cast a shadow that serves as a key motif in the Antepurgatory.) Though', they do nothing but stare, motionless, their curiosity is compared to that of an eager crowd surrounding the bearer of news, pushing and shoving. Heedless of everything but this newly discovered marvel, the souls forget the purpose of their journey, which should remain always uppermost in their minds (74-75: "... forgetting . . . / the way to go to make their beauty whole"). They should be thinking only of purifying their souls.

7 1. the messenger: In Dante's time messengers of either peace or victory customarily carried an olive branch as a token of the good news they bore. This was a practice inherited from Roman antiquity.

91. 0 my Casella: From the scanty information available, most of which seems to derive from this canto, we know that Casella, a musician and singer, was a friend of Dante's and very likely set to music Dante's canzone "Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona," if not others as well. Documents mentioning his name indicate that he was a Florentine, though the commentary of the Anonimo fiorentino (fourteenth century) refers to him as "Casella da Pistoja." The manuscript of a thirteenth-century bal- lad by Lemmo da Pistoia (Vatican MS. 3214) includes the anno- tation "Casella diede il suono" ("Casella wrote the music"); a document dated July 13, 1282, and preserved in Siena records that Casella received a fine for loitering in the streets at night!

Since Casella was a singer, it is appropriate that Dante rec- ognize him by his voice (86).

98. But for the last three months: The change in attitude on the part of the angel-pilot, mentioned by Casella, is generally understood in light of the fact that in 1300, during the great Jubilee Year, Pope Boniface VIII granted a plenary indulgence to those participating in a pilgrimage to Rome. This papal bull makes no' mention of any special indulgence for the souls of the dead, but Dante here seems to be following a common belief that it did.

If the pilot's new attitude has been in effect for three months, and Casella was already at the Tiber waiting before this change took place, why did not Casella take advantage of the

CANTO 11 / 25

change immediately instead of waiting three months? This is never explained. See Porena, p. 27.

101. where Tiber's waters turn to salty sea: Ostia, where the Tiber River enters the sea, is the place where souls departing for Purgatory gather to await transport. Actually, all souls that have not been damned gather there, according to Casella; this . can only mean that the souls destined for Heaven must first climb the mountain of Purgatory. Ostia was the seaport of Rome, and Rome was a natural point of departure for the souls of the Blessed since it was the center of the church.

107-108. that once brought I peace to my restless longings: Surely as Dante the Poet wrote these words he was aware of the vanity of his- younger self's easy satisfaction. According to the teachings of St. Augustine, the human heart can find rest only in God (Con/. I, i: . . . et inquietum est cor nostrum, donee requiescat in te. "... our hearts are restless till they rest in Thee"). Consequently, it must remain restless until united with Him after death in the Beatific Vision. Aesthetic pleasure may seem to set the heart at rest, but such pleasure is fallacious and is to be avoided as a distraction from the journey to God.

112. Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona ("Love that speaks to me in my mind"): The first verse of the second canzone, which Dante comments on in the third book of his Convivio. In the Paradise (VIII, 37) Dante has Charles Martel quote the first verse of the first canzone of the Convivio. In the Purgatory (XXIV, 51) Bonagiunta da Lucca will cite the opening verse of Dante's most important canzone in the Vita nuova: Donne ch'avete intelletto d'amore. For a discussion of Casella's song, see Freccero.

115. My master and myself and all those souls: Again the souls are distracted from their journey, and this time the Pilgrim, together with Virgil, shares their mood of utter absorption. But this scene is described by the poet rather sympathetically: he emphasizes the beauty of the music; he seems to treat respect- fully the sensitive receptivity of the audience — which con- tained perhaps a few souls destined for Heaven, as well as Vir- gil and the Pilgrim, both exemplary figures — a distinguished group committing a "distinguished sin." In itself, the enjoyment of music and poetry is legitimate, even recommendable, under appropriate circumstances. What these souls, newly arrived

26 / CANTO 11

from earth, had failed to see was that, from this time on, there would never again exist for them circumstances favorable to even the most refined of earthly pleasures.

Perhaps Dante, who loved the arts, allowed himself to be lenient here in his treatment of this mass reaction of self- indulgence — knowing that Cato would come two lines later to utterly condemn these souls.

120. // was the Just Old Man: Cato unexpectedly materializes out of nowhere (again!) to sternly rebuke the laggard souls for having surrendered to the perverse sweetness of Casella's song, thus completely neglecting their journey to God.

Cato's anger at the souls who have momentarily forgotten God may remind one of the anger of Moses, who, coming down from the mountain with the tablets of the Law, found the Jews worshipping a golden calf. (For another parallel between Cato and Moses, see note to Purg. I, 89.)

Of course, the two instances of defection are not of the same degree of gravity; indeed, the reader may feel that Cato's angry words to the newly arrived, confused, leaderless group are un- duly severe. In fact, there can be no doubt that his advice to them, "Run to the Mountain, shed that slough . . ." (122) is of no practical worth whatsoever: they cannot begin their purga- tion until God wills it, and Cato's impatience is unrealistic. But Dante evidently found it fitting that the newly arrived souls hear words that would shake them to their depths, and he chose Cato to deliver them — this pagan soul of harshly un- compromising, impatient idealism, who took his own life rather than compromise. If Dante once wrote that Cato was perhaps worthy to represent God Himself (see note to I, 31-75), he may have been thinking of the Old Testamentary Jehovah, given to wrath.

That the poet assigns to Cato the task of rebuking the self- indulgent souls makes still more difficult the solution of what would have been a difficult problem anyway: since the poem sung by Casella for the delight of the group was written by the younger Dante, one may wonder if criticism of the souls' be- havior is not also intended as criticism of the type of poetry that Dante used to write. But, even granted we were sure just how to classify Amor che ne la mente- mi ragiona (cited in verse 1 12 of this canto), why should Dante's earlier poetry concern Cato? He was interested now in the correct behavior of

CANTO 11 / 27

the newly arrived souls, not in the Pilgrim, and surely not in the subtleties of his verse — of which he may not have heard a word. For further discussion of Cato's rebuke, see Hollander.

122. shed that slough: The slough is the old skin that a ser- pent sheds. The image here is one of abandoning the old ways and adopting the new. It is an image of rebirth that works well with the resurrection and dawn motifs that run through the first two cantos.

28 / CANTO II

CANTO III

As THE CROWD of souls breaks up, Virgil seems ashamed of having permitted the Pilgrim's self-indulgence. But they re- sume their journey and Dante raises his eyes to take in the enormous height of the mountain that stretches up toward Heaven. Then, looking down, he sees his own shadow on the ground in front. of him and becomes alarmed when he fails to see the shadow of his guide, thinking, for one brief second, that he has been deserted. This leads to an explanation by Virgil of the diaphanous bodies of the dead: though a shade casts no shadow, it is yet sensitive to pain and heat and cold; such is the mysterious will of the Creator, which cannot be understood by human reason. In the meantime, they have reached the foot of the mountain but find the slope impossible to scale because it is too steep. They then see a band of souls moving toward them with unbelievable slowness, and they set out to meet them in order to ask directions. The souls are amazed to see the Pil- grim's shadow; their spokesman, Manfred, explains that, de- spite his excommunication by the church, he has been saved through everlasting love by repenting at the very end of his life. Because of this delay, however, he is required to wait in the Antepurgatory thirty times as long as he waited on earth to repent — though this period can be shortened by the good prayers of the faithful in the world.

In sudden flight those souls were scattering, rushing across the plain and toward the hill where Reason spurs the probing of the soul, 3

but I drew closer to my faithful friend.

And where could I have run without his help?

Who else but he could take me up the mount? 6

He looked as if he suffered from remorse — O dignity of conscience, noble, chaste,

how one slight fault can sting you into shame! 9

Now when he had resumed his normal stride, free of the haste that mars man's dignity, my mind, confined till then to what took place, 12

CANTO III / 29

broke free, and now was eager to explore: I raised my eyes to marvel at the mount that grew out of the sea toward Heaven's height. o

The sun behind us blazing red with light outlined my human form upon the ground before me, as my body blocked its rays. ;g

I quickly turned around, seized by the fear that I had been abandoned, for I saw

the ground was dark only in front of me; 21

and then my Comfort turned to me and said: "Why are you so uneasy — do you think that I am not here with you, guiding you? 24

Evening has fallen on the tomb where lies my body that could cast a shadow once; from Brindisi to Naples it was moved. 2?

If now I cast no shadow on the ground,

you should not be surprised. Think of the spheres:

not one of them obstructs the others' light. jo

Yet bodies such as ours are sensitive

to pain and cold and heat — willed by that Power

which wills its secret not to be revealed; 33

madness it is to hope that human minds can ever understand the Infinite

that comprehends Three Persons in One Being. 36

Be satisfied with quia unexplained,

O human race! If you knew everything,

no need for Mary to have borne a son. j<,

You. saw the hopeless longing of those souls

whose thirst, were this not so, would have been quenched, but which, instead, endures as endless pain: 42

I speak of Plato and of Aristotle,

and many others." Then he bent his head,

remaining silent with his anguished thoughts. 43

By now we had come to the mountain's foot, and there we found a rocky slope so steep the nimblest legs would not have served you there. 48

30 / CANTO III

The craggiest, the crudest precipice between Turbia and Lerici would seem, compared with this, inviting stairs to climb.

"How can we tell," my guide said, stopping short, "just where this mountain face might slope enough to let someone who has no wings ascend?"

While he was standing there, his head bent low, searching his mind to find some helpful way, and I was looking up at all that rock —

along the diffside to my left, a crowd

of souls was coming toward us, moving slow, so slowly that they did not seem to move.

"Master," I said, "look over there! You'll see some people coming who should know the way — if you have not yet found it by yourself."

He looked up then, and said with great relief: "Let us go meet them, for they move so slow; and you, dear son, be steadfast in your hopes."

We were as yet as far from that long crowd (even after we had gone a thousand steps), as a good slingsman's hand could throw a stone,

when they all pressed together suddenly and huddled up against the towering rock; too stunned to move, they stared in disbelief.

"O you elect who ended well your lives," Virgil began, "I ask you, in the name of that same peace I know awaits you all,

to tell us where the mountain slopes enough for us to start our climb: the more one learns, the more one comes to hate the waste of time."

As sheep will often start to leave the fold,

first one, then two, then three — then, hesitantly, the rest will move, with muzzles to the ground,

and what the first sheep does, the others do: if it should stop, they all push up against it, resigned to huddle quiet in ignorance —

canto ill / 31

just so I saw the leaders of that flock

of chosen souls take their first steps toward us, their faces meek, their movements dignified.

But when the souls in front saw the sun's light was broken on the ground to my right side, my shadow stretching to the rising cliff,

they stopped, and started slowly shrinking back; all of the rest that followed on their heels did as they did, not knowing why they did.

"Before you ask me I will answer you:

this form you see breaking the sunlight here upon the ground is a man's body. But,

this should not startle you; you can be sure

that not without the power coming from Heaven does he come here seeking to scale this wall."

Thus spoke my master. And that worthy group, with gesturing hands that urged us to turn round, replied: "Go lead the way ahead of us."

Then one soul cried: "Whoever you may be, look back as you walk on and ask yourself if you have ever seen me down on earth."

I turned to him and looked hard at his face: a handsomely patrician blond he was, although a sword wound cut through one eyebrow.

When I, in all humility, confessed

I did not recognize him, he said: "Look," as he revealed a gash above his breast.

Then with a smile he said, "Manfred I am,

grandson of Empress Constance, and I beg you, when you are with the living once again,

go to my lovely child, mother of kings who honor Sicily and Aragon; whatever may be rumored, tell her this:

As I lay there, my body torn by these

two mortal wounds, weeping, I gave my soul to Him Who grants forgiveness willingly.

32 / CANTO III

Horrible was the nature of my sins, but boundless mercy stretches out its arms to any man who comes in search of it, ,23

and if the Pastor of Cosenza, sent • by Clement in his rage to hunt me out; had understood those words in God's own book, 126

my body's bones would still be where they were: by the bridgehead near Benevento trenched under the guard of a heavy mound of stones. 129

Now they are swept by wind and drenched by rain outside my kingdom, by the Verde's banks,, where they were brought by him with tapers quenched. 132

The church's curse is not the final word, for Everlasting Love may still return,

if hope reveals the slightest hint of green. ;jj

True, he who dies scorning the Holy Church, although he turns repentant at life's end, must stay outside, a wanderer on this bank, / js

for thirty times as long as he has lived

in his presumptuousness — although good prayers

may shorten the duration of his term. 141

You see how you can make me happy now by telling my good Constance I am here; explain to her this law that holds me back, 144

for those down there can help us much up here.

NOTES

5. And where could I have run without his help?: These lines, which express so warmly the Pilgrim's recognition of his de- pendence on Virgil, render more poignant his despair a mo- ment later, when, seeing only his own shadow on the ground and not that of his guide, he fears he has been abandoned (19-21).

7. He looked as if: Virgil's reactions to the consciousness of his sin here are exemplary: any offense, no matter how slight,

canto in / 33

should inspire in the noble soul feelings of shame and remorse.

14. / raised my eyes to marvel at the mount: As the Pilgrim looks up, we are reminded once again (cf . Purg. I, 1 1 5 - 36) that he finds himself now in the same situation that he was in at the beginning of the Inferno: at the foot of a mountain he wished to climb (cf. Inf. I, 16-17: "I raised my head and saw the hilltop shawled / in morning rays of light").

16. The sun behind us: The two poets have begun their jour- ney on the eastern side of the island; the recently risen sun lies behind them as they turn to face the mountain. The theme of Dante's shadow begins in these lines, with his first experience since emerging from Hell of seeing before him the shadow his body has cast, and continues in the next line with his momen- tary alarm at failing to see Virgil's shadow. From now on the Pilgrim's shadow will distinguish him from the other souls in Purgatory, as his breathing did in the dim light of Purg. II (67-69). The shadow seems to represent all the earthly vanities to which living men are attached.

25-27. the tomb where lies I my body that could cast: By order of Augustus, Virgil's body was taken from Brindisi, where he died in 19 B.C., to be buried in Naples. Dante's lines recall the familiar epitaph for Virgil quoted in Suetonius's Vita Virgili, XXXVI: Mantua me genuit; Calabri rapuere: tenet nunc Parthe- nope; cecini pascua, rura, duces ("Mantua bore me; in Calabria [Brindisi] I died; Parthenope [Naples] now holds my bones; I sang of shepherds, fields and heroes").

This mention of the transfer of Virgil's body is a preparation for Manfred, whose body, he will tell us (127-32), was disin- terred and taken outside of the kingdom of Naples. The sep- aration of body and soul (26) is a recurrent theme in the Antepurgatory. Anticipation of the Last Day, when soul and (glorified) body will be reunited, has appeared in connection with Cato (Purg. I, 75).

28. // now 1 cast no shadow: Virgil's explanation of the ab- sence of his shadow briefly touches on the various aspects of the "diaphanous body" of the shades; a fuller explanation of these phenomena will be given by the poet Statius in Canto XXV.

34 / CANTO III

37 _ 45- Be satisfied with quia unexplained: In his speech, Virgil addresses all of mankind, both directly in his apostrophe, "O human race," and by addressing himself to the protagonist, who represents Everyman.

As for Virgil's terminology, Carroll (p. 39) explains, "In scholastic phraseology, the quia is equivalent to the fact, the thing that can be demonstrated by means of the effect. It is op- posed to the quid, the thing which is demonstrated by its final cause. Dante's meaning is that human reason, being powerless to penetrate to the essence or quiddity, must remain contented with the quia, the fact as seen in its effects."

The ancient philosophers were not content with the quia, and yet, living outside the Christian dispensation, they were unable to see beyond it, since the light of reason alone could not penetrate the mystery of God (cf. Inf. IV, 34-42). Had they been able to know Christ, they would have been taken by Him into Heaven, where, among the elect, their every intellec- tual desire would finally have been satisfied in the contempla- tion of the Beatific Vision. Virgil's anguished meditation is brought on by the realization that he too, along with Aristotle and Plato, is one of these souls eternally condemned to hope- less longing (cf. in particular Inf. IV, 39). In the course of the Purgatory, Virgil will become an increasingly pathetic figure.

50. Turbia and Lerici: Both towns are located on the Italian Riviera. Lerici lies south of Genova near La Spezia; Turbia be- tween Monaco and Nice. Between these two towns along the coast, the mountains descend abruptly — indeed, perpen- dicularly — into the sea, making passage all but impossible.

55. While he was standing there: Virgil looks down and within himself in search of the right way. The Pilgrim looks up and about, outside of himself. Thus he sees a potential source of aid coming down the road, which Virgil, scrutinizing only his own rational faculties, fails to find. The journey up the mountain of Purgatory will demand a certain openness, as well as faith and trust.

60. so slowly that they did not seem to move: The abnormal, nightmarish slowness with which the Excommunicated move is most puzzling. Those who see in it a reflection of the fact that these souls were "slow" to repent have jumped to too easy a conclusion: not only is postponement of an act quite different

canto m / 35

from the slow performance of an act but there is no indication that this group waited longer than any other to repent (Man- fred, their spokesman, died relatively young). Moreover, this group does move, does go forward, while the group next to be seen cannot manage to get on their feet.

70-72. when they all pressed together suddenly: It seems only natural that the group of souls should be startled at the sight of Virgil and the Pilgrim: two souls, apparently attached to no group, coming from the opposite direction. What is puzzling is the slowness with which they show their reaction: the two travellers, surely in sight of them, had covered one thousand paces walking toward them before they stop to huddle and to stare.

79. As sheep will often start to leave the fold: The Excommuni- cated souls are presented as sheep, and the comparison has a double force. In the first place, since they chose to live their lives without the spiritual guidance of the church, they now have no leader, no shepherd, but blindly follow the sheep in front without knowing why. In the second place, this slow for- ward movement without knowing the way is in fact the virtue of faith as defined by St. Thomas Aquinas. Thus, these souls carry out Virgil's earlier admonition (37) to be content with the quia, without knowing the why or how.

88. But when the souls in front saw the sun's light: That the souls are amazed when they see that the Pilgrim's body casts a shadow is to be expected. This phenomenon could not occur in Hell; nevertheless, we are made aware that the Pilgrim still has his mortal body in the Inferno by the fact that his weight makes a boat settle in the water, his foot dislodges a stone, and he accidentally kicks one of the Damned in the head.

1 01. with gesturing hands: The gesture is the typical Italian one of pushing the back of one's hand toward a person. Ac- cording to Castelvetro, the backs of these souls' hands -are fac- ing the Pilgrim and his guide because "when we call a person to us we indicate this to him with the palm of our hand, and when we would have him depart from us we gesture with the back of our hand."

36 / CANTO III

108. although a sword wound cut through one eyebrow: There is nothing in the account of the nature of diaphanous bodies (Purg. XXV, 34-108) to explain how or why Manfred bears his mortal wounds in the afterlife.

112. Manfred 1 am: Manfred (1232-66) was the natural son of Frederick II, who legitimized him and stipulated that he should be regent during the reign of his half-brother, Conrad IV. At Conrad's death, Manfred once more assumed regency, as Conrad's son, Conradin, was an infant. Upon a rumor of Conradin's death, Manfred was made king of Sicily. He was a Ghibelline and an excommunicate (in fact, he had been ex- communicated twice, by Alexander IV and Urban IV), and Urban could not bear to see him occupy the throne. Urban offered the crown to Louis IX of France and, upon his refusal, to his brother, Charles of Anjou. Charles decided immediately to take possession of his kingdom and waged a fierce attack against Manfred. Betrayed by his followers and outnumbered by the French, Manfred was killed at the battle of Benevento in 1266.

After the battle, Charles refused Manfred's body honorable burial in consecrated ground because he had been excommuni- cated. Instead, he had him buried near the bridge at Bene- vento, where his army filed past, each dropping a stone upon the grave so that a huge cairn was formed. Later, however, Pope Clement IV insisted that Manfred's body be disinterred and moved outside the limits of the kingdom of Naples (and thus outside church territory). The body was then thrown on the banks of the river Verde and left unburied.

One may compare the ignominious transportation of Man- fred's body with the glorious and respectful removal of Virgil's body by imperial order from Brindisi to Naples (III, 25-27). Ironically, however, despite the earthly glory accorded him, Virgil is numbered among the Damned, while Manfred is among the Blessed.

113. Empress Constance: Constance (1154-98), wife of Henry VI, was the mother of Frederick II of Sicily. Since Man- fred is the natural son of Frederick, he identifies himself with reference to his paternal grandmother.

1 1 5 - 1 6. my lovely child, mother of kings: Manfred's daughter and grandmother had the same name, Constance. His daugh-

canto m / 37

ter's two sons became respectively the King of Aragon and the King of Sicily.

Henry VI

Constance of Sicily

Frederick II

Bianca Lancia di Monferrato

Manfred

Beatrice of Savoy

Constance

Peter III of Aragon

Frederick, King of Sicily James of Aragon

121. Horrible was the nature of my sins: Manfred was said by his enemies to have murdered his father, his brother Conrad, and two of his nephews, and to have attempted to murder his young nephew, Conradin.

1 24. the Pastor of Cosenza: This particular Archbishop of Cosenza has been identified as either Bartolomeo Pignatelli or his successor, Tommaso d'Agni. In any case, the archbishop re- ferred to here had Manfred's body disinterred on the order of Pope Clement IV and cast outside church territory (see note to III, 112).

126. had understood those words in God's own book: The words in question may well be verse 37 in John 6: "Him that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out."

131. outside my kingdom: Again the theme of exile is intro- duced. It will be repeated with Jacopo del Cassero, Buonconte, and Pia in Canto V.

132. with tapers quenched: When the bodies of the Excom- municated were taken to their grave, the mortuary candles were first extinguished, then carried upside down.

135. if hope reveals the slightest hint of green: Green is the color of hope. Manfred's hope and faith at the end of his life have brought him to Purgatory and allow him to smile as he tells the gruesome story of his death and the vindictiveness of the pope. There is even a glimmer of hopefulness in the ig- nominious disposition of Manfred's body on the banks of the

38 / CANTO III

Verde, which is Italian for "green." (During his life, according to contemporary accounts, Manfred always dressed in green.)

139. for thirty times as long as he has lived: The poet's choice of the number thirty was possibly inspired by a provision in Canon Law that calls for a thirty-day period of grace before the ban of excommunication goes into effect.

140. good prayers: Here begins the theme of "intercession." Throughout the Antepurgatory, there is an emphasis on the value of intercessory prayer, offered by the faithful on earth in behalf of the souls who are purifying themselves in Purgatory. This doctrine will be repeated and refined in the cantos that follow.

143. Constance: Manfred's daughter, who died in 1302, at Barcelona. Her mother was Beatrice of Savoy. In 1262 she married Peter III of Aragon, who thereupon claimed the sov- ereignty of Sicily.

canto in / 39

CANTO IV

After LISTENING TO Manfred for some time (the Pilgrim being deeply absorbed), the two poets are shown a gap in the rock through which they may begin their ascent. The climb is arduous, and they must use both hands and feet in making their way. When they finally reach a ledge, the Pilgrim is exhausted and they stop to rest. He is puzzled by the fact that the sun is on their left, and Virgil explains that this phenomenon is due to the geographical location of the mountain of Purgatory. Fur- thermore, he adds, the mountain is such that it is most difficult to climb at the beginning but becomes easier and easier, until at last it requires no effort. Their conversation, however, has been overheard and is interrupted by a sarcastic remark from behind a massive rock. The speaker is Belacqua, an old friend of the Poet's, who, together with the other souls on this level, belongs to the second class of the Late Repentant: the Indolent. They must wait outside the gates of Purgatory proper for as many years as they put off repentance on earth. Belacqua repeats the doctrine that prayer can shorten their period of waiting, adding the qualification that it must be prayer from a heart in the state of grace.

When any of our senses is aroused to intensity of pleasure or of pain,

the soul gives itself up to that one sense, 3

oblivious to all its other powers. This fact serves to refute the false belief that in our bodies more than one soul burns. 6

And so it is that when we see or hear something which wholly captivates the soul, we easily can lose all sense of time. 9

The sense aware of time is different

from that which dominates all of the soul:

the first is free to roam, the other, bound. 12

And I was now experiencing this truth, listening to that soul and marvelling.

The sun had climbed a good fifty degrees, j 5

40 / canto iv

and I had not been conscious of the fact,

when at some point along the way, those souls cried out in one voice: "Here is what you seek."

A peasant, at the time the grapes grow ripe, with one small forkful of his thorns could seal an opening within his hedge more wide

than was the gap through which my guide and I were forced to climb, the two of us alone, once we had parted company with that flock.

Up to San Leo, down to Noli, climb, climb to the top of Mount Bismantova on your two feet, but here a man must fly:

yes, fly — that is to say, with the swift wings of strong desire, and following that guide who gave me hope, spreading his light before me.

Squeezed in between the tight walls of the pass, we struggled upward through that broken rock, using our hands and feet to climb the ground.

Once we were through that narrow passageway up the high cliff and on an open slope, "Master," I said, "where must we go from here?"

And he replied: "Now, do not change your course, keep climbing up the mountain, close to me, until we find a more experienced guide."

The peak rose higher than my sight could reach, the slope soared upright, steeper than a line drawn from mid-quadrant to the center's point.

I felt my strength drain from me, and I cried: "O my sweet father, turn and look at me; unless you slow your pace, you'll lose me here."

"My son," he said, "keep climbing, just to there," and pointed to a ledge, not far above, that made its way around the mountain slope.

His words were like a goad, and I strained on behind him, climbing with my hands and knees until I felt the ledge beneath my feet.

canto iv / 41

And here we both sat down to face the east, to rest, as we surveyed all we had climbed — a backward glance can often lift the heart.

I looked down at the shoreline far below, and then looked up: the sun, amazingly, was shining to the left of us. The Poet

was well aware that I was stupefied as I observed the chatiot of light making its course between us and the north.

"Now, were Castor and Pollux," he began, "to take that mirror in their company, whose light is shed below and heavenward,

you would perceive the flaming Zodiac revolving even closer to the Bears — unless the sun strayed from its ancient path.

If you would understand how this may be, try to imagine Zion and this Mount located on the earth in such a way

that while each lies in different hemispheres, the two of them share one horizon; then, the lofty path, which Phaeton's chariot

could not hold fast to, had to pass this height on one side here, but on the other there — as you must see, if you think carefully."

"Oh, master, you are right!" I answered him; "Now, finally, I clearly understand this point that always baffled me before:

of Heaven's moving circles, the mid-one (called the Equator by astronomers), which always lies between winter and sun,

is, for the very reason you set forth,

as far north from this place where we now stand as once the Hebrews saw it to the south.

But would you kindly tell me, if you please, how much more climbing we must do: this peak soars higher than my eyes can see." And he:

42 / canto iv

"This Mount is not like others: at the start it is most difficult to climb, but then, the more one climbs the easier it becomes;

and when the slope feels gentle to the point that climbing up would be as effortless as floating down a river in a boat —

well then, you have arrived at the road's end, and there you can expect, at last, to rest. I say no more, and what I said is true."

Hardly had he stopped speaking when we heard a voice not far away: "But, probably, you'll feel like sitting down before you do!"

Both of us turned to where the voice had come and to our left we saw a massive rock that neither one of us had noticed there.

We went up to the boulder and, behind,

there were some people hidden in its shade: so many sprawling shapes of indolence.

There was one there who, you could tell, was tired, for he sat with his arms hugging his knees, letting his head droop down between his legs.

"O my dear master, look at him!" I said,' "See that man? Lazier he could not look, not even if 'Lazy' were his middle name."

That shape then turned to look at us, and said, raising his face no higher than his thigh: "If you're so energetic, run on up."

And then I knew who this soul had to be! Exhausted, out of breath, nevertheless, I struggled toward him. Finally, when I

stood by his side, he raised his head a bit and said: "Is it quite clear to you by now just why the sun drives past you on the left?"

His lazy ways and his sarcastic words

made me half smile, and I replied to him: "Belacqua! I'll not have to worry now

CANTO iv /

about your fate! But tell me why are you just sitting like this? Waiting for a guide? Or simply being your old self again?" 126

"Brother, what good will climbing do?" he said. "God's angel sitting at the gate will not let me begin my penitence inside. 129

Before I start, the heavens must revolve as many times as while I was alive,

for I put off repenting till the end. jjj

Prayers could, of course, make my time shorter here: prayers from a heart that lives in grace — the rest are worthless, for they go unheard in Heaven!" ijj

The Poet had by now begun to climb;

he said, "Come now, see how the sun has touched Heaven's highest point, while on the western shore ij8

Night sets her foot upon Morocco's sands."

NOTES

1- 12. When any of our senses is aroused: Dante here refutes the idea that man possesses more than one soul. The idea of multiple souls was set forth by Aristotle, who maintained that man had three souls existing in a kind of hierarchical arrange- ment: the vegetative soul, through which growth was exhibited, the sentient soul, which governed sensation and movement, and the rational soul, which gave rise to man's capacity for rea- son. These souls were differentiated from one another by their degrees of heat, the vegetative soul having the lowest heat and the rational the highest heat.

Thomas Aquinas consolidated Aristotle's idea with Christian doctrine by maintaining that the soul is a unity endowed with three faculties, which he called "virtues" or "powers": the veg- etative, the sensitive, and the intellective (Summa Theol. I, 76, 3; I — II, 37, a. I, and Summa Contra Gentiles II, 58). If the soul becomes completely or strongly drawn toward one of these powers, it must of necessity neglect the others.

This passage serves to recapitulate the theme of distraction, which plays an important part in the previous cantos, and it

44 / CANTO IV

provides a philosophical explanation of the Pilgrim's experi- ences with Casella and Manfred. In each instance he becomes so completely absorbed in his interlocutor that he completely forgets the purpose of his journey and its overriding impor- tance.

1 3. And I was now experiencing this truth: He has experi- enced the truth just demonstrated, which is that he has one soul with a set of faculties, and that the preoccupation of one faculty with a given situation or issue necessitates that the other two faculties be ignored. In this particular instance, Dante has become so absorbed in conversation with Manfred that he has not noticed the passing of time (see note to IV, 1 5).

14. listening to that soul and marvelling: The word "marvel- ling" (ammirando) has strong Augustinian connotations and in particular recalls a famous passage in the Confessions (X, VIII) where the vanity of admiring the natural world at the expense of one's salvation is deplored: Et eunt homines mirari alta mon- tium . . . et relinquunt se ipsos ("And men go up to marvel at the heights of the mountains, and they forget about themselves").

1 5. fifty degrees: one degree of the sun's arc is equal to four minutes; therefore, fifteen degrees equal one hour. If the sun has risen fifty degrees, then three hours and twenty minutes have passed since sunrise.

1 8. "Here is what you seek": That is, here is the upward pas- sage that you have been looking for. The "question" answered here was asked by Virgil in III, 76-77, and the unexpectedness with which the reply finally comes, nearly seventy lines later and in a different canto, serves to remind us in a rather abrupt way that Manfred's lengthy account, as well as the philosophical explanation that begins this canto, has been an element of di- gression delaying the forward movement of the narrative, i.e., of the journey — which is immediately resumed in the next lines, with an introductory simile that blots out the figures of Manfred's group. Somehow we are reminded of the effect of Cato's words at the end of Canto II.

25-26. San Leo . . . Noli . . . Bismantova: These are names of towns that are accessible only with great difficulty. San Leo is located on an extremely steep and rugged hill in the mountain- ous district of Montefeltro, near San Marino. Noli is a town in

CANTO iv / 45

Liguria on the Gulf of Genova, which can be reached by land only through a steep descent from the mountains behind it. Bismantova was a small town on a steep, flat-topped mountain of the same name, about twenty miles south of Reggio. In the Middle Ages it was strongly fortified and could be reached only by a single tortuous path; now only the bare mountain remains.

The levels and precipices of Purgatory are also accessible only with difficulty, but the difficulty is of a different sort, which Dante explains in the following lines.

27. a man must fly: The conception of the Pilgrim's journey to God in terms of "flight" is one of the important metaphors of the Comedy. Although he is still weighed down by the gravity of sin and unable to fly at this point, the Pilgrim begins to feel the need and the desire to do so. Finally, after being cleansed of his sins in the Earthly Paradise, he, in the company of Bea- trice, will ascend, swiftly and effortlessly, from sphere to heavenly sphere.

37. do not change your course: The original nessun tuo passo caggia is untranslatable ("let not one step fall"?). There are three possible guesses: "do not slow down," or "do not turn back," or "do not turn left or right." I choose the last because it is the only one that answers the Pilgrim's question to his guide in the preceding line.

42. mid-quadrant to the center's point: That is, the mountain slopes at an angle even steeper than forty-five degrees.

43-45. / felt my strength: The utter exhaustion of the Pilgrim during his first climb, understandable in itself (unlike Virgil he is burdened by the weight of his body), serves, perhaps, to pre- pare the way for the description of the Indolent, whom the Pilgrim will encounter shortly, when he has reached the next level of the Antepurgatory.

61-75

The Pilgrim's surprise is occasioned by his seeing the sun rising to the north. Accustomed to the celestial phenomena of the Northern Hemisphere, he would naturally expect to find the sun to the south. Virgil pedantically explains that, since it is now March, the sun is in Aries. However, if it were June, when the sun is in Castor and Pollux, the Pilgrim could expect to see the sun even farther to the north, near the Big and Little Bears.

46 / CANTO IV

In order to facilitate the Pilgrim's comprehension, Virgil then asks him to imagine the globe with Jerusalem and Purga- tory in their respective hemispheres. Since they are located di- rectly opposite one another, they would share the same hori- zon, the line along which the sun travels; hence, if from Jerusalem in the Northern Hemisphere the sun appears to move from left to right, then from the mountain of Purgatory in the Southern Hemisphere it must of necessity appear to move from right to left.

Just as the Pilgrim's eyes move from "the shoreline far be- low" (55) to the sun, so our attention is directed from the earth heavenward, toward the sun and the stars. And the mention of Zion (68 ff.) or Jerusalem is another reminder of the goal of the Pilgrim's journey: the heavenly Jerusalem.

6 1 . Castor and Pollux: The constellation of Gemini. The two were twin brothers hatched from the same egg after Leda was visited by the god Jupiter in the form of a swan. When the twins died Jupiter placed them in the heavens, among the stars.

72. Phaeton's chariot: The sun. Having gained permission from his father, Apollo, to guide the chariot of the sun, Phaeton lost control of the horses. To prevent a catastrophe Jupiter struck down Phaeton with a thunderbolt. Dante refers to the story again in Inf. XVII, 107; Purg. XXIX, 1 18-20; and Par. XXXI, 125.

In this reference to Phaeton, as in the reference earlier to the Gemini, we have illustrations of Dante's didactic use of mythi- cal figures. The apotheosis of Castor and Pollux, as well as the privileged position that they enjoy "in the company of that great mirror" (62), i.e., near the sun, serves to remind us of the goal of the Pilgrim's journey and his potential success. On the other hand, the allusion to the failure of Phaeton functions as a dire reminder of the catastrophic end that awaits those who fail to keep to that "lofty path" (72).

94-96. you have arrived at the road's end: Only at the jour- ney's end will the Christian heart find rest.

98-99. But, probably: The sardonic, lazy Belacqua with just a few words seeks to counteract the effect of Virgil's optimistic, encouraging words to the Pilgrim; there is also humor in the contrast between Virgil's long-winded and painstaking "scien-

CANTO IV / 47

tific" explanations (and the Pilgrim's equally erudite response) and the appallingly indolent, terre-d-terre speech of Belacqua.

1 19-120. Is it quite clear to you by now: Belacqua is openly mocking Virgil's erudite discourse.

123. Belacqua: A Florentine lute-maker and friend of Dante's, famous for his indolence; indeed, not only his posture here, not only the sentiments he expresses, but also his laconic speech accord well with the laziness for which he was well known.

It is interesting to note that of the first two friends whom the Pilgrim meets in Purgatory, Casella is a musician and Belacqua a maker of musical instruments.

133-35. Prayers could: Again, the theme of intercession (cf. Ill, 140-41); this time, however, the doctrine is made more specific, as Belacqua states that only prayers from a heart in the state of grace can be effective in helping the souls in Purgatory.

138-39. Heaven's highest point: Since the beginning of the canto, the sun has reached the meridian of Purgatory, which would make the time there noon. Morocco, for Dante part of the westernmost area of human habitation, would be experienc- ing dusk (6:00 P.M.), so that night would just be setting foot there (see note to II, 1-6).

48 / CANTO IV

CANTO V

THE PILGRIM LEAVES behind the souls of the Indolent and is following in his guide's footsteps when, suddenly, he turns to look back: one of the group has discovered the Pilgrim's shadow and is calling it to the attention of the others. Virgil upbraids him for lagging behind and warns him against losing sight of his true goal. As they continue upward, they encounter a group of souls chanting the Miserere. They are the third class of the Late Repentant: those who died a violent death but man- aged to repent in their final moments. The first soul to come forward and speak is Jacopo del Cassero of Fano, "who tells how he was ambushed and left to bleed to death in a swamp. Next comes Buonconte of Montefeltro. At his death there ensued a struggle between the powers of good and evil for his soul; since he had uttered the name of Mary with his dying breath and shed a tear of true repentance, the heavenly faction prevailed and bore his soul off to Paradise. But a demon took possession of his corpse and played havoc with it: he conjured up a storm and sent the mortal remains plummeting down the raging and swollen river channels. Finally La Pia steps forth and gently asks Dante to remember her.

I had already parted from those shades, following in the footsteps of my guide,

when one of them back there, pointed and called: j

"That soul climbing behind the other one! Look! To his left no light is shining through! He seems to walk as if he were alive!" 6

Hearing these words, I turned around and saw souls staring in amazement at my form, at me alone — and at the broken light. 9

"What is it that has caught your interest so and makes you lag behind?" my master asked. "What do you care, if they are whispering? 12

Keep up with me and let the people talk! Be like a solid tower whose brave height remains unmoved by all the winds that blow; 15

canto v / 49

the man who lets his thoughts be turned aside by one thing or another, will lose sight of his true goal, his mind sapped of its strength."

What could I say except: "I'm coming now"? I said it, and my face took on the color that makes a man deserve to be excused.

Meanwhile, across the slope ahead of us, people were passing, chanting Miserere, singing the psalm in alternating parts.

But when they noticed that the rays of light

did not shine through my human form, they changed their chanting to a drawn-out, breathless "Ohhh!"

Then two of them, dispatched as messengers, came running up and started to implore: "We pray you, please tell us about yourselves."

My master answered them: "You may return, bearing the news to those who sent you here that this man's body is true flesh and blood;

if they were stunned, as I suppose they were, because he casts a shadow — now they know, and it could profit them to honor him."

I never saw a meteor at night

cut through the tranquil air, or bolts of light flash through the cloudy August sky at dusk,

as quickly as they rushed back to their group; then all together they wheeled round and rushed toward us like a full-charging cavalry.

"Oh look at all those souls pressing toward us," the Poet said; "each one will have his plea; listen to them, but move on as you do."

"O soul," they cried, "you there, moving toward bliss clothed in the body you were born with, stop, just for a moment, look at us and see

if you know anyone among us here,

so as to bring back news of him to earth.

Oh, wait! Where are you going? Oh, please stop!

50 / canto v

We axe all souls who met a violent death, and we were sinners to our final hour; but then the light of Heaven lit our minds,

and penitent and pardoning, we left

that life at peace with God, Who left our hearts with longing for the holy sight of Him."

I said: "I see your faces, but cannot

recognize one. But, O souls, born for bliss, if there is some way I can please you now,

tell me, and' I will do so — by that peace which I go searching for while following from world to world so great a guide as this."

One soul replied: "We need no oath from you; all of us here know you will keep your word, unless some lack of power thwarts your will.

Now, speaking for myself, I will plead first: if ever you should travel to the land between Romagna and the realm of Charles,

I beg you, be so gracious as to ask

the souls in Fano to say prayers for me, that I may soon begin to purge my guilt.

I came from Fano, but the deep-cut wounds from which I saw my life's blood spilling out, were dealt me in the Antenori's land —

the land where I believed I was most safe. Azzo of Este had me killed (his hatred for me reached far beyond all reason's bounds).

If only I had fled toward Mira when at Oriaco they took me by surprise, I still would be with men who live and breathe;

instead, I ran into the swampy mire:

the reeds entangled me; I fell, and there

I watched a pool of blood fill from my veins."

Another soul said: "Oh, may the desire

that draws you up the mountain be fulfilled; and you, please help me satisfy my own.

canto v /

I am Buonconte, once from Montefeltro; no one, not even Giovanna, cares for me, and so, I walk ashamed among these souls."

I said: "What violence — or was it chance? — swept you so far away from Campaldin that no one ever found your burial place?"

He said: "Below the Casentino flows the river Archiano, which arises above the convent in the Apennines.

Beyond, it takes another name, and there I made my way, my throat an open wound, fleeing on foot, and bloodying the plain.

There 1 went blind. I could no longer speak, but as I died, I murmured Mary's name, and there I fell and left my empty flesh.

Now hear the truth. Tell it to living men: God's angel took me up, and Hell's fiend cried: 'O you from Heaven, why steal what is mine?

You may be getting his immortal part — and won it for a measly tear, at that, but for his body I have other plans!'

You know how vapor gathers in the air, then turns to water when it has returned to where the cold condenses it as rain.

To that ill will, intent on evilness,

he joined intelligence and, by that power within his nature, stirred up mist and wind,

until the valley, by the end of day,

from Pratomagno to the mountain chain,

was fogbound. With dense clouds he charged the sky:

the saturated air turned into rain;

water poured down, and what the sodden ground rejected filled and overflowed the deepest

gullies, whose spilling waters came to join and form great torrents rushing violently, relentlessly, to reach the royal stream.

5 2 / can in v

Close to its mouth the raging Archiano discovered my cold body — sweeping it

into the Arno, loosening the cross 126

I'd made upon my breast in final pain; it dragged me to its banks, along its bed, then swathed me in the shroud of all its spoils." 129

"Oh, please, when you are in the world again, and are quite rested from your journey here," a third soul, following on the second, said, j.p

"Oh, please remember me! I am called Pia. Siena gave me life, Maremma death,

as he knows who began it when he put ij5 his gem upon my finger, pledging faith."

NOTES

1. those shades: The souls of the Indolent surrounding Belac- qua.

3. when one of them back there, pointed and called: The reader may well wonder how the Pilgrim, having just turned his back on the souls of the Indolent, could have noticed the gesture here indicated. Evidently, Dante the Pilgrim, on hearing their words of amazement, turns around to face them and sees a finger pointing at him; Dante the Narrator takes advantage of his omniscience to predicate the gesture at the appropriate moment in the narrative flow.

9-21. at me alone — and at the broken light: The souls left behind, having realized that the Pilgrim must be a living man because of the shadow cast by his body, focus their attention upon him. The Pilgrim, too easily impressed by the interest shown in him, allows himself once more to forget the impor- tance of moving ahead in his journey — until the reproachful platitudes of Virgil bring a blush to his face.

23-24. Miserere: The opening word of Psalm 50, a prayer that asks God for forgiveness of sins and the purification of the soul of the sinner. Each group of souls in Antepurgatory and Purgatory proper will have its own particular prayer, with the exception of the Excommunicated and the Indolent.

canto v / 5 3

29. came running: In contrast to the appropriately sluggish movement of Canto IV, which treated of the souls of the Indo- lent, this canto is fast and busy. The speed that will be everywhere apparent reflects, somehow, the violent deaths and hurried last repentances of the souls in this circle. The three speakers in the canto follow each other in rapid succession, with little or no intervention on the part of the narrator be- tween their speeches.

37-42. / never saw a meteor: Note the images of speed and violence: meteors, lightning, and a cavalry charge! This passage also serves as preparation for the violent storm that is to sweep off Buonconte's body later on in this canto (106-29).

45. but move on as you do: Virgil, if not the Pilgrim, has learned Cato's lesson: do not waste time (see II, 120-23).

5 1 . Oh, wait! Where are you going? Oh. please stop!: The lan- guage of the original Italian, "deh, perche vai? deh, perche non t'arresti?" communicates something of the relentless rhythm of a moving train. Actually, it is the Pilgrim and his guide who are relentless in their forward movement.

64. One soul replied: The speaker, who is not named in the canto, is Jacopo del Cassero. In 1 296, as podesta of Bologna, he opposed the designs of the powerful and ruthless Azzo VIII of Este. In 1298, while en route to Milan to assume the office of podesta there, Jacopo was set upon and brutally murdered by Azzo's henchmen at Oriago, a town on the river Brenta be- tween Venice and Padova. He is the first of the three speakers in this canto who died a violent death.

68-69. to the land: Jacopo's birthplace, Fano, was located in the March of Ancona, south of Romagna and north of the Kingdom of Naples, which was ruled by Charles of Anjou.

70-72. / beg you, be so gracious: Once again we are reminded of the power of intercessory prayer to help the souls in Purga- tory (cf. Ill, 141; IV, 133-35)-

75-76. the Antenori's land: Padova, where Jacopo thought he would be safe. The Padovans, according to legend, were de- scendants of Antenor, the son of Priam, who betrayed Troy to the Greeks and who, it was believed, later founded the city of

54 / canto v

Padova. Dante names an entire division of Cocytus in Hell after him for his act of heinous treachery {Inf. XXXII, 88).

77. Azzo of Este: Azzo VIII of Este, Marquis of Este, and Lord of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio, who died in 1308. It was believed that he murdered his own father, Obizzo, suffocating him with a pillow. Dante mentions him in an invective against degenerate princes in De vulg. I, xii, 38, and probably is refer- ring to him in Inf. XII, 1 1 1 and XVIII, 56.

79. Mir a: A small town between Oriago and Padova, located on a canal fed by the Brenta.

88. / am Buonconte, once from Montefeltro: The son of Guido of Montefeltro (Inf. XXVII). In 1289 he led the forces of the Ghibellines of Arezzo against the Florentine Guelphs in the battle of Campaldino. Guido's side suffered defeat and he was slain. His body was never found.

89. no one, not even Giovanna: The widow of Buonconte was named Giovanna, and "no one" probably refers to the daughter and brother who survived him.

95. Archiano: A tributary of the Arno.

104- 1 08. God's angel took me up, and Hell's fiend cried: There is a similar struggle between the powers of good and evil for the soul of Guido of Montefeltro, Buonconte's father (Inf. XXVII). It is impossible to overlook the didactic comparison that Dante draws by juxtaposing these two figures: Guido in his later years took what he thought to be the necessary steps to assure his salvation but unfortunately overlooked the one thing that was truly necessary — sincere repentance. Buonconte, on the other hand, though he waited until the last possible mo- ment to repent, was saved because he shed tears of true contri- tion. The son's salvation mocks the vain efforts of the father.

116. Pratomagno: A locale near Arezzo on the Arno, now called Pratovecchio.

130-36

Ob, please, when you are in the world again: The speaker is probably Pia de' Tolomei of Siena, wife of Nello della Pietra de' Pannocchieschi (see Lisini). Though Pia, unlike the first two speakers, does not give us any details, early commentators hint

canto v / 55

that her jealous husband suspected . her of adultery and had her thrown from a window to her death.

Pia's brief speech shows her to be well bred, gentle, and considerate, as she asks the Pilgrim to remember her only after he has rested from his long journey. Her nobility and her ele- gance of speech, manifest in these few lines, recall the figure of Francesca of Rimini (Inf. V), if for no other reason than the fact that she is the first and only other woman allowed to speak to the Pilgrim thus far in the Divine Comedy. While Pia's speech is extremely short — her whole life summed up in a single deca- syllabic! (134) — Francesca is given to verbosity. Take, for example, Pia's simple, unpretentious assertion, "Siena gave me life." When Francesca (Inf. V, 97-99) informs the Pilgrim of her birthplace, it is in almost epic strains:

The place where I was born lies on the shore where the river Po with its attendant streams descends to seek its final resting place.

It is precisely Francesca's constant self-assertion, her hunger for attention and appreciation, that stands out so strikingly against the tender self-effacement of La Pia. The contrast in the dispositions of these two women is further underlined and given a moral dimension by their positions in Hell and Purga- tory, respectively. For a more detailed analysis of the character of Francesca da Rimini see Musa (1974), pp. 19-35.

134. Siena . . . Maremma: As with the other speeches of this canto, even the brief words of Pia contain references to geo- graphical areas. The frequent and often detailed references to earthly geography throughout this canto underline the attach- ment still felt by the dwellers in the Antepurgatory to the scenes of their life on earth.

56 / canto v

CANTO VI

THE SOULS OF those who have died by violence continue to press eagerly upon the Pilgrim. Among them Dante recog- nizes Benincasa of Laterina; Guccio Tarlati of Pietramala; Federigo Novello; Farinata, son of Marzucco degli Scornigiani; Count Orso of Mangona; and Pierre de la Brosse of Turenne. As he frees himself from this encumbering crowd of shades, the Pilgrim asks Virgil about the power of prayer to affect the will of Heaven. Virgil gives a partial explanation and tells the Pilgrim that he will have to wait until Beatrice gives him a more comprehensive elucidation of the matter. Noting a figure seated in silence not far away, Virgil and the Pilgrim go up to him to ask directions; upon learning that Virgil is a Mantuan by birth, the stranger embraces him. It is the shade of Sordello. At this point there is a break in the action of the poem, and Dante inveighs at length against the evil and corruption of Italy.

The loser, when a game of dice breaks up, despondent, often lingers there as he,

learning the hard way, replays all his throws. j

The crowd leaves with the winner: some in front, some tugging at him from behind, the rest close to his side beg to be recognized. 6

He keeps on going, listening to them all; the ones who get a handout will not push, and this is his protection from the crowd. 9

I was that man caught in a begging throng,

turning my face toward one and then the next,

buying my way out with my promises. 12

I saw the Aretine who met his death

at the revengeful hand of Ghin di Tacco;

I saw that soul who drowned giving pursuit. 15

I saw with hands outstretched, imploring me, Federigo Novello, and the Pisan, too,

whose death inspired good Marzucco's strength. is

CANTO VI / 57

I saw Count Orso, and I saw that soul torn from its body, so he said, by hate and envy — not for any wrong he did:

Pierre de la Brosse, I mean. And while still here on earth, the Lady of Brabant might well take care lest she end up in fouler flock.

Once I had freed myself from all those shades who prayed only that others pray for them and thus quicken their way to bliss, I said:

"It seems to me that somewhere in your verse, you, O my Light, deny explicitly the power of prayer to bend the laws of Heaven;

yet these souls ask precisely for such prayers.

Does this, then, mean their hopes are all in vain? Or have I failed to understand your words?"

And he: "What I once wrote means what it says; yet, if you think about it carefully, you must see that their hopes are not deceived.

High justice would in no way be debased if ardent love should cancel instantly the debt these penitents must satisfy.

The words of mine you cite apply alone

to those whose sins could not be purged by prayer, because their prayers had no access to God.

Do not try to resolve so deep a doubt; wait until she shall make it clearer — she, the light between truth and intelligence.

You understand me: I mean Beatrice, she will appear upon this mountain top; you will behold her smiling in her bliss."

I said: "My lord, let us make greater haste: I'm not as tired as I was before; and look! The mountain casts a shadow now."

"As long as daylight lasts we shall move on, climbing as far as possible," he said, "but things are not the way you think they are.

58 / CANTO VI

Before you reach the top you'll see the sun come out from where the slope is hiding him, preventing you from casting any shade.

But see that spirit stationed over there, all by himself, the one who looks at us; he will show us the quickest way to go."

We made our way toward him. (O Lombard soul, how stately and disdainful you appeared, what majesty was in your steady gaze!)

He did not say a word to us, but let us keep on moving up toward him, while he was watching like a couchant lion on guard.

But Virgil went straight up to him and asked directions for the best way to ascend. The shade ignored the question put to him,

asking of us, instead, where we were born and who we were. My gentle guide began: "Mantua ..." And the other, until then

all self-absorbed, sprang to his feet and came toward him: "O Mantuan, I am Sordello of your own town" — and the two shades embraced.

(Ah, slavish Italy, the home of grief,

ship without pilot caught in a raging storm, no queen of provinces — whorehouse of shame!

How quick that noble soul was to respond to the mere sound of his sweet city's name, by welcoming his fellow citizen —

while, now, no one within your bounds knows rest from war, and those enclosed by the same wall and moat, even they are at each other's throats!

O wretched Italy, search all your coasts, probe to your very center: can you find within you any part that is at peace?

What matter if Justinian repaired

the bridle — if the saddle's empty now!

The shame would have been less if he had not.

CANTO vi / 59

You priests who should pursue your holiness, remembering what God prescribes for you, let Caesar take the saddle as he should —

see how this beast has grown viciously wild, without the rider's spurs to set her straight, since you dared take the reins into your hands!

O German Albert, you abandon her, allowing her, ungoverned, to run wild. You should have been astride her saddle-bow!

Let a just judgment fall down from the stars upon your house: one unmistakable and strange enough to terrify your heir!

You and your sire, whom greed for greater wealth holds back up there, have let this come to pas. c : the garden of the Empire is laid waste.

Come see the Cappelletti, callous heart, see the Monaldi, the Montecchi ruined, the Filippeschi fearful of their fate.

Come, heartless one, come see your noblemen

who suffer; help them heal their wounds; come see how safe it is to dwell in Santafior.

Come see your city, Rome, in mourning now, widowed, alone, lamenting night and day: "My Caesar, why have you abandoned me?"

Come see how people love each other now! If you cannot be moved to pity us, then come and feel the shame your name has earned!

O Jove Supreme, crucified here on earth for all mankind, have I the right to ask if Your just eyes no longer look on us?

Or is this part of a great plan conceived in Your deep intellect, to some good end that we are powerless to understand?

For all the towns of Italy are filled

with tyrants: any dolt who plays the role of partisan can pass for a Marcellus.

60 / CANTO VI

Florence, my Florence! How happy you must be with this digression, for you're not involved — thank your resourceful citizens for that! 129

Some men have justice in their hearts; they think before they shoot their judgments from the bow — your people merely shoot off words about it! 132

Some men think twice when offered public post; your citizens accept before they're asked, shouting, "I'll gladly sacrifice- myself!" 135

Rejoice, I say to you, you have good cause, rich as you are, so wise, knowing such peace! The facts bear out the truth of what I say. ijs

Athens and Lacedaemon, still well known for ancient laws and civil discipline,

showed but the faintest signs of order then 141

compared to you, who plan so cleverly that by the time November is half done the laws spun in October are in shreds. 144

How often within memory have you changed coinage and customs, laws and offices,

and members of your body politic! 147

Think back, and if you see the truth, you'll see that you are like a woman, very sick,

who finds no rest on her soft, sumptuous bed, /50 but turns and tosses to escape her pain.)

NOTES

1-9. The loser, when a game of dice breaks up: As Dante the Pilgrim walks away from Jacopo, Buonconte, and La Pia, he is surrounded by souls, each of whom wishes to detain him and gain that moment of recognition that would enable this living man who travels through their realm to request prayer among the living for him. Dante compares this scene to the aftermath of a dice game, which finds the winner elbowing his way through a crowd of newly acquired friends, whom he satisfies with a coin here and a coin there, thus clearing a path for him- self through the crowd. And as he makes his way, he seems to

canto vi / 6 1

be dealing out promises as the winner might share his takings until he can break free from the crowd.

Dante has obviously chosen the metaphor of a game of dice only in order to exploit the comparison between the winner and the Pilgrim; the loser in this assumed game has no role to play in the subsequent scene with the crowd outside. Why, then, does Dante not only mention the loser first (in itself quite understandable as a means to get him out of the way) but dwell upon his reactions, and so sympathetically that the reader feels almost invited to remain behind with him?

13. the Aretine: Benincasa da Laterina was a jurist from Arezzo. Ghin di Tacco (1 4), motivated by a desire to vindicate the death sentence given to a close relative, perhaps his father or brother, entered Benincasa's courtroom in disguise, mur- dered him, and escaped, carrying with him the judge's head. Ghin di Tacco is mentioned by Boccaccio in the Decameron (X, 2) as an infamous thief and highwayman.

15. that soul who drowned: Guccio Tarlati da Pietramala died by drowning in the Arno following the battle of either Cam- paldino or Montaperti. There is some confusion among histo- rians and commentators as to whether the Ghibelline Guccio was pursuing his enemy or being pursued at the time of his death.

17. Federigo Novello, and the Pisan, too: Son of Count Guido Novello, Federigo was killed in 1291 by one of the Guelphs, Bostoli d' Arezzo, in a battle that took place in the Casentino. The Pisan is Farinata, a doctor of law and son of Messer Mar- zucco degli Scornigiani of Pisa.

18. good Marzucco's strength: This is supposedly a reference to the fortitude of a Francescan Friar Minor (Marzucco) who demonstrated his "strength" by forgiving the murderer of his son, Farinata, "the Pisan" mentioned in the preceding verse (17). There are, however, no reliable records supporting the event that Dante seems to be alluding to here.

19. Count Or so: The son of Napoleone dell'Acerbaia, Orso was viciously murdered by his cousin Alberto di Mangona. Al- berto's father, Alessandro, and Napoleone were brothers who killed each other. Both are punished among the traitors in Caina (Inf. XXXII, 55-58).

62 / CANTO VI

22-24. Pierre de la Brosse: Surgeon and chancellor to Philip III of France, Pierre was falsely accused of treachery by Philip's second wife, Mary of Brabant (23), and was hanged in 1278.

According to a popular account, Pierre was charged with hav- ing tried (unsuccessfully) to seduce the queen. It is more likely that he was accused of corresponding with Alfonso X, who was engaged in war with Philip at the time, and that the incriminat- ing letters were forged on the queen's instructions. In any event, it is clear from verses 23-24 that Dante considers the queen as responsible for Pierre's death, and therefore in danger of ending up "in fouler flock" than Pierre — that is, in Hell.

24-48

Dante has already alluded several times to the power of intercessory prayer to help the souls in Purgatory (III, 141; IV, 133-35; V, 70-72). Here the Pilgrim raises the question of whether prayer actually has the power to bend the divine laws. His confusion stems from a passage in Virgil's Aeneid (VI, 373-76): Aeneas on his journey to Hades encounters the shade of his drowned steersman, Palinurus; he wishes to be conveyed across the river Styx, but passage is forbidden him since his body remains unburied. To his imprecations the Sibyl responds:

unde haec o Palinure tibi tarn dira cupido? tu Stygias inhumatus aquas amnemque severum Eumenidium aspicies ripamve iniussus adibis? desine fata deum flecti sperare precando.

Whence, Palinurus, this wild longing of yours?

Shall you, unburied, view the Stygian waters and

The Furies' stern river, and unbidden, draw near the bank?

Stop dreaming that heaven's decrees may be turned aside by prayer.

In an attempt to assuage the Pilgrim's doubts, Virgil explains that prayer disunited from God — i.e., the prayers of the damned, of pagans, of souls not in the state of grace — are in- efficacious. However, "ardent love," prayer offered from a heart in the state of grace, can satisfy in a single moment, with- out changing divine justice, the debt of penance owed by the souls in the Antepurgatory.

One may wonder why the Pilgrim should have been dis- turbed by the ideas expressed in the Aeneid: why should he

CANTO vi / 63

expect the pagan Virgil to have a true understanding of the efficacy of Christian prayers? Perhaps the Pilgrim remembers Virgil's words in the Inferno describing the deep impression made upon him by the Harrowing of Hell, which he had been able to witness soon after his arrival in Limbo. It is this Virgil, not the author of the Aeneid, who might now understand the difference becween pagan and Christian prayers, and the Pil- grim would have been tactfully inviting Virgil to elaborate upon the development that had taken place in his understanding.

45. the light between truth and intelligence: Beatrice, standing, as it were, "becween" Truth (the meaning of prayer) and Intel- lect (the Pilgrim's mind), will be able to illuminate fully for him the true meaning of prayer. The matter involves grace, which goes beyond Virgil's understanding.

49. let us make greater haste: The name of Beatrice has served as a whip to speed the Pilgrim on.

51-57. and look! The mountain casts a shadow now: Though it is only midafternoon, the Pilgrim's body cannot intercept the sun's rays; he and his guide are climbing the eastern slope of the mountain, which is lost in shadow. Thus, when the two come upon Sordello a moment later, the Pilgrim will be lacking the distinguishing mark of a living man that made him the cen- ter of attraction for the three previous groups of souls. And Sordello will all but ignore his presence.

58. that spirit: This is the spirit of Sordello of Goito. An adventurer and a poet, Sordello was born in the town of Goito, near Mantua, about 1200. Although relatively little is known about his life, it is likely that the wrath he incurred as a result of several episodes with women necessitated his leaving Italy. While staying with the Strasso family at Ceneda (some fifteen miles from Treviso), he secretly married Otta, a lady of the family, and fled with her to Treviso in 1227. There, he placed himself under the protection of Ezzelino III da Romano, whose sister, Cunizza, he had previously helped to abduct for political reasons. However, he soon formed a liaison with Cunizza; when Ezzelino discovered the affair in 1229, Sordello was forced to flee Treviso. After travelling to Spain and Por- tugal, he went to Provence and entered the service of Charles of Anjou. With Charles, he went to Italy in 1265 as part of the expedition to take possession of the kingdom of Sicily from

64 / CANTO VI

Manfred. Sordello shared in the distribution of Apulian fiefs made by Charles after his hold on the kingdom had become solidified. Nothing is known of Sordello's death, although his fiefs were reassigned in August 1269. For the life and works of Sordello, see Boni.

Dante's conception of Sordello as a political analyst probably derives from Sordello's political and moral poetry (all, inciden- tally, written in Provencal), particularly the planh or lament over the death of Blacatz, in which the shortcomings and vices of eight contemporary rulers are condemned with fierce indig- nation. It is surely this planh which accounts for the presence of Sordello in the Divine Comedy, and the role assigned to him in Canto VII of presenting the Princes in the Valley. For the text of the planh with English translation and commentary, see Bowra.

59. all by himself: Sordello is the first solitary soul that we encounter in the Antepurgatory. His "aloneness" is stressed in the original (sola, soletta), and his physical solitude is reinforced in the next tercet by the suggestion of inner alienation.

A number of commentators seem disinclined to respect this solitude of Sordello. Some wish to attach him to the group we have just seen of those who died a violent death; others, look- ing ahead, align him with the group of the Princes in the Valley of Canto VII. But what would it mean, in Sordello's case, to "belong" to this group or that? According to the story here told, according to the staging, we have been made to feel that, before catching sight of the figure of Sordello, the Pilgrim and his guide have left behind the last member of the vociferous and cohesive group gathered about Jacopo, Buonconte, and Pia. The mere existence, in the absence of any information about the historical Sordello after the year 1269, of a tradition that he died a violent death, the mere possibility that he may have come to belong to the category of those-who-died-a- violent-death, should not blur the clear onstage impression of splendid isolation that Dante the Poet has achieved.

As for the second group — that of the Princes in the Valley — the reader, impressed by the sight of Sordello's soli- tary figure in line 59, does not even know of their existence yet. To what extent this impression of his aloneness will give way to one of fusion will become evident when the princes appear (with whom, obviously, Sordello, who was no ruler, can have no "categorical" link).

CANTO VI / 65

6i-6 3

While Virgil and the Pilgrim make their way toward Sordello, Dante the Poet, inspired by his memories, apos- trophizes Sordello briefly. This discrete intervention prepares us for the poet's voice to be heard in the explosive, lengthy auctorial interruption that will occur a few lines later (85-151), when Dante inveighs against his native Italy.

62. bow stately and disdainful: The description of Sordello in these terms may remind us of Farinata (Inf. X, 22-51), another "stately and disdainful" character associated with political strife. But the line that follows, together with this one, would rather remind us of the noble spirits of Limbo (Inf. IV, 112- 14); of the two associations this is probably the more important, in view of the greeting that is about to take place.

66. a couchant lion: In Gen. 49:9 we find the phrase "re- quiescens accubuisti ut leo" ("He couches and couches as a lion"), which describes Judah, who will hold the sceptre until it comes to the one to whom it rightfully belongs— that is, to David. Both Judah and David are, in this context, figures of Christ, who will come to rule the world. To associate Sordello with Judah by means of the lion is another way of announcing the. coming of Christ — which is going to take place allegorically in the poem in the Valley of the Princes.

67-151

Ignoring Virgil's request for directions, Sordello asks the two travellers where they are from and who they are. At the sound of the name "Mantua," Sordello, who had been so aloof, so self-absorbed, leaps to his feet and embraces Virgil warmly; the memory of this gesture so moves Dante the Poet that, as the two characters are locked in their embrace, he begins the famous invective: "Ah, slavish Italy . . . !" — and narrative time stands still as we listen to his voice for the rest of the canto. In lines 72-73 of the narrative, Sordello had interrupted Virgil; in line 76 Dante the Poet interrupts the narrative itself. Now, whenever the. Poet speaks in his own voice, there must be a suspension of the narrative; we have just seen a minor example of this (61 -63), but here we have the most dramatic instance of this device to be found in the Divine Comedy: not only the length and intensity of the apostrophe but the shock of "the

66 / CANTO VI

two shades embraced," followed by "Ah, slavish Italy . . . !" This is the only case where narrative time is forced to give way to auctorial time by the interruption of a brief, clear-cut action already in progress.

Dante has obviously invented the gesture of Sordello in order to exploit it the next moment to dramatic effect; in other words, it is there solely for the sake of his apostrophe. He needed to insert his description precisely at this point: it should precede Sordello's presentation of the Princes in the Valley (Canto VII), and it should be delivered in the "presence" of Sordello (i.e., with Sordello onstage), whom he had chosen be- cause of his concern for political issues. Let it, then, be inspired by a movement on the part of Sordello, a movement of affec- tion reminding Dante, by way of contrast, of the situation in strife-torn Italy.

But why should Sordello's simple, spontaneous gesture, showing a sentimental attachment to his hometown and his fel- low citizens, inspire Dante's apostrophe — how could this "provincial" reaction inspire such a broad, complex description of Italy seen from the perspective of the shamefully disor- ganized empire? Is not the result disproportionate to the cause — has Dante not been more clever than judicious in his exploitation of the invented embrace? Not if we remember simply that Sordello's gesture is a sign of love. A gesture of no great import (if pure in its spontaneity), the expression of a feeling probably short-lived, but a sign nevertheless of the greatest force in the cosmos. It is as if for the moment, while he contrasts Sordello's action with the state of Italy, there exists for Dante only that force, Love, and the hideous lack of it. For Dante's use of narrative technique in this canto, see Musa (1974), PP- 85-109.

71-72. My gentle guide began: I "Mantua . . . ": What was Virgil about to say concerning Mantua? To Sayers (p. 115) Virgil is "doubtless about to quote the inscription on his tomb in Naples . . . which begins: Mantua me genuit — Mantua gave me birth." But can one really imagine that Virgil, in answer to a request for factual information, would recite the Latin words of his epitaph (if he knew them): "Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuerere, tenet nunc Parthenope; cecini pascua rura duces"?

84. are at each other's throats: This is clearly meant to contrast with "they embraced each other" (75).

canto vi / 67

88. Justinian: Author of the celebrated sixth-century code of Roman law, the Corpus iuris civilis, the "bridle" of line 89. Jus- tinian was emperor of Constantinople from 527 to 565 (cf. Par. VI, 12).

97. German Albert: Albert of Hapsburg was elected Emperor of the Romans in 1298. Because his coronation in Milan was delayed by affairs in Germany, Albert never came to Italy to bring unity and order. In 1308 he was assassinated by his nephew and was succeeded by Henry VII.

106-107. the Cappelletti .. . . the Monaldi, the Montecchi . . . the Filippeschi: The Cappelletti, the anti-imperial (Guelph) party in Cremona, opposed the Montecchi (or Monticoli) fac- tion, which had influence throughout Lombardy. By the end of the thirteenth century both parties had declined.

The Monaldi (Guelph) and the Filippeschi (Ghibelline) were two opposing families of Orvieto. The Filippeschi were ex- pelled from the city in 1312.

in. Santafior: From the ninth century to 1300 Santafiora, located in the Sienese Maremma, belonged to the powerful Ghibelline Aldobrandeschi family, who were also known as the Counts of Santafiora. By Dante's time the Guelphs of Siena had managed to erode their power considerably.

1 18. Jove Supreme: Since the poet makes it a practice never to use explicitly the name of Christ except in the Paradise, here he uses the pagan approximation of the Christian concept he wishes to express.

1 26. Marcellus: Of the three Roman consuls by this name, the reference here is probably to Marcus Claudius Marcellus, a partisan of Pompey who loudly opposed Caesar and the em- pire. Cicero's Pro Marcello deals with the pardoning of Marcel- lus by Julius Caesar at the intercession of the senate. Marcellus was later murdered by one of his own attendants while in Greece.

139. Athens and Lacedaemon: Two Greek cities, Athens and Sparta, where, according to Justinian's Institutiones, civil law originated. The allusion is to the laws of Solon (Athens) and Lycurgus (Sparta).

68 / CANTO VI

CANTO VII

THE ACTION IS renewed as Virgil and Sordello conclude their elaborate embrace. Upon learning that he has embraced not merely a fellow Mantuan but Virgil, the very glory of the Latin race, Sordello does him further homage. Virgil explains to Sordello the nature and scope of his journey with the Pil- grim and asks to be shown the quickest way up the mountain. Sordello volunteers his services as guide but remarks that it is almost nightfall and that it is the law of Purgatory that no one may ascend the mountain at night: the darkness of the shadows afflicts the will with impotence. However, Sordello knows of a good place to rest and suggests that they might spend the night there. He leads the two poets to a ledge above the Valley of the Princes, where they see the so-called Negligent Rulers, who are singing the Salve Regina. From this vantage above the valley, Sordello points out a number of the souls below: Rudolf of Hapsburg; Henry VII of Luxembourg; Ottokar II, king of Bohemia; Philip III of France; Henry the Fat of Navarre; Peter III of Aragon; his son, Charles of Anjou; Henry III of England; and William VII (Longsword).

When this glad, ceremonious embrace

had been repeated several times, Sordello,

stepping back, said, "Tell me, who are you two?" 3

"Before those souls worthy to climb to God were taken to this mountain by H.is grace, my bones were buried by Octavian. 6

I am Virgil. The reason I lost Heaven

was through no other fault than lack of faith."

This was the answer my guide gave that shade. 9

As one who suddenly beholds a thing incredible will first believe and then

misdoubt and say: "It is — it cannot be!" < =

so seemed Sordello. Then he bent his head and, this time, reverently, turned to embrace my master as a vassal does his lord. 15

CANTO VII / 69

"O glory of the Latin race," he said,

"you who did prove the power of our tongue,

0 deathless excellence of my own land,

what merit or what grace grants me this sight? Tell me, if I am worthy of your words, are you from Hell and, if so, from what ward?"

"Through all the circles of the realm of grief have I come here," he said. "A heavenly power showed me this road, and with its aid I come.

Not what I did, but what I did not do cost me the sight of that high Sun you seek whose meaning was revealed to me too late.

There is a place down there made sorrowful by darkness of its untormented grief: no shrieks of pain are heard, but hopeless sighs.

I dwell with infant souls of innocence bit off from life by death before the sin that they were born with could be washed away;

I dwell with those who could not clothe themselves in the three holy virtues but, unstained, knew all the rest, and practiced all of them.

But if you know, and are allowed to tell, how can we find the quickest way to reach the place where Purgatory truly starts?"

"Since we are not restricted to one spot, being free to roam around and up," he said, "I'll be your guide as far as I may climb.

But, see, the day is coming to an end; at night it is forbidden to ascend, so we should think of some good place to rest.

Off to the right here is a group of souls; if you allow me, I shall take you there;

1 think you will take pleasure meeting them."

"What do you mean?" my guide said, "If a soul started to climb at night, would he be stopped, or would he simply find he could not move?"

70 / CANTO VII

Sordello drew his finger along the ground answering, "Look! After the sun has set you could not go a step beyond this line.

There's nothing that prevents our going up except the darkness of the shadows: this, alone, afflicts the will with impotence.

We can, indeed, go down the slope and roam as far around the mountain as we wish, as long as the horizon locks out day."

My lord, amazed by what he heard, replied: "In that case, take us to the place you said, where we would find a pleasurable rest."

We started on our way, and soon I saw a hollow in the mountain slope, just like the hollow that a valley makes on earth.

"Now we will go," the shade announced to us, "to where the mountain folds into a lap; there we will wait until the new day comes."

A winding path that was not very steep led to a point upon the hollow's rim where the side sloped to less than half its height.

Think of fine silver, gold, cochineal, white lead, Indian wood, glowing and deeply clear, fresh emerald the instant it is split —

the brilliant colors of the grass and flowers within that dale would outshine all of these, as nature naturally surpasses art.

But nature had not only painted there: the sweetness of a thousand odors fused in one unknown, unrecognizable.

I heard Salve Regina; sitting there

upon the grass and flowers I saw souls hidden till then below the valley's rim.

"Please do not ask me," said our Mantuan guide, "to lead you down to where you see those souls, until the sinking sun has found its nest;

CANTO vii /

from here it is much easier to see

the faces and the movements of them all than if you were among them there below.

The one who sits the highest and who looks as if he left undone what was to do, and does not join the others in their song,

was Rudolf, Emperor, who could have cured the wounds that were the death of Italy — it will be long before she lives again!

The one who seems to comfort him once ruled over that land whose waters flow into the Moldau to the Elbe to the sea:

Ottokar — more respected as a babe

than Wenceslaus, his bearded son, is now, feasting on lechery and idleness.

That snub-nosed figure in close conference with the kind-looking person at his side, dishonoring the lily, died in flight.

Look at him there, see how he beats his breast; look at the other soul, cradling his cheek within his palm, sighing. Father-in-law

and father of the Plague of France they are; they know about his dissolute, foul life, and that is why they feel such piercing grief.

That sturdy-looking soul seated beside

the big-nosed one, singing in tune with him, was girded with the cord of every good.

If only that young man behind him there had lived to rule a longer time, indeed, true merit would have flowed from cup to cup

as did not happen with the other heirs.

Now James and Frederick possess his realms, but neither got the better heritage.

Not often does the sap of virtue rise to all the branches. This is His own gift, and we can only beg that He bestow it.

72 / CANTO VII

My words apply to him with the big nose as well as Peter there, who sings with him on whose account Provence and Puglia grieve. 126

As much as this seed's plant is less than he, just so much more than Margaret and Beatrix can Constance boast her husband's excellence. 129

And see Henry of England sitting there all by himself, king of the simple life

whose branches bear him better fruit by far. 132

The one who sits below them on the ground and who looks up at them is Marquis William, whose war with Alessandria has made jjj

all Montferrat and Canavese weep.

NOTES

2. repeated several times: The Italian says literally, "three and four times." The reader must wait until the end of the invective against Italy to learn of the extraordinarily effusive nature of Sordello's embrace — which inspired the invective.

3. you two: Sordello initially addresses himself to both the Pilgrim and his guide, but after discovering the identity of Vir- gil, he will tend to forget about Dante's presence (see note to VI, 51-57).

4-9

Virgil answers for himself only, offering no information about his ward. He gives the time of his death and burial with reference to an important event in the history of salvation: the Harrowing of Hell. Up to the time of Christ's death, the souls of those who believed in the Messiah to come, unable to enter Heaven, were constrained to wait in Limbo. After He died, Christ descended into Hell and freed these souls, taking them with Him into Heaven. Virgil was not among this select group, and here he gives his lack of faith as the one and only reason for. his loss of Heaven.

6. Octavian: The Emperor Augustus, the first of the Roman emperors (63 B.C.-A.D. 14).

CANTO VII / 73

12. "// is — it cannot be": This exclamation sets a tone of ambivalence, which will come to characterize the valley.

13-21

Sordello's greeting, his awe and reverence for Virgil, suggest that for him there are no higher values than those of art and earthly fame and glory. He does not respond to or even appear to hear the important information that Virgil offers re- garding his loss of salvation!

16. Latin race: (Latini, "Latins.") General term for ancient and modern Italians who considered Latin their language.

2 1 . are you from Hell and, if so, from what ward?: Sordello does not realize that Virgil had already anticipated and, as it were, answered both his questions (in verses 7-8). Evidently, when Sordello heard the electrifying words "I am Virgil," he must have stopped listening to the important words that followed.

As a result, Virgil's explicit answer in verses 28-36 com- prises three tercets devoted to a second description of Limbo, which was already vividly described in Inf. IV. But here the picture is presented from the point of view of Virgil himself; it is the note of exile that Virgil sounds, anticipating the mood of the first evening hymn (see note to VII, 82), in which is con- centrated the nostalgia of all the souls of the Antepurgatory. And, in fact, the Antepurgatory itself is a Limbo — though, thanks to the grace of God, a temporary one.

25-36. Not what I did: Whereas the inhabitants of all the other circles in Hell are punished for what they did, those of Limbo are punished for what they failed to do: acquire the three theological virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity. Virgil proclaims the inefficacy of good works without grace: even in- nocent infants who have not been cleansed of the stain of Orig- inal Sin through baptism, and who therefore do not share in Christ's grace, must abide in Limbo. Thus, it is fitting that the suffering of the souls in Limbo is described in negative terms: not a torment but darkness, not shrieks but sighs.

40-45

Here we learn the general law of movement in Ante- purgatory, where the souls have no assigned place (cf. Aen. VI,

74 / CANTO VII

672-75): during the day they may wander up and around, but darkness will limit all upward movement. Without the sun, the light of God's grace, there can be no movement in the direction of Paradise. (Cf. line 26, "that high Sun you seek," which serves to reinforce, in this canto, the identification of the sun with God.)

42. /'// be your guide: Though offering himself as guide, Sor- dello continues to address Virgil alone, as the original shows: "a guida mi t'accosto" (cf. also verse 47: "io ti merro"). Sordello's indifference to the Pilgrim reflects, perhaps, his snobbishness, his interest in status.

49. What do you mean: Here Virgil, questioning Sordello, is cast in the role the Pilgrim ordinarily assumes with him — that of disciple. Virgil's question is also interesting in that it suggests his lack of attention to Sordello's immediately preced- ing statement, his suggestion that they proceed to join the group of souls nearby. Sordello had finished with the theme "limitations on the movements of the souls in Antepurgatory," but Virgil not only wishes to pursue it; he seems to dismiss Sordello's final words. "What do you mean?" refers only to the limitations on movement.

Virgil's refusal to keep up with the course of -thoughts ex- pressed by his interlocutor offers a parallel to Sordello's lack of attention to Virgil's words in verses 7-8 (see note to VII, 21).

52-53. drew his finger along the ground: This could easily remind the reader of the passage from the Gospel of John (8:6-8): "But Jesus, stooping down, began to write with his finger on the ground . . . and again, stooping down, he began to write on the ground." However, it is not too easy to understand what connection could exist between Sordello's explanatory gesture of tracing a line of geographical demarcation on the ground (beyond which the souls may not pass, except when it is light) and Christ's mysterious act of writing on the ground in the scene with the woman taken in adultery and her accusers. Singleton (1973, p. 144) quotes the same biblical passage but offers no explanation.

It is, perhaps, not impossible that we are expected to look ahead in John 8, after the scene with the adulteress has been concluded, when Christ says to the Pharisees in the Temple: "I

CANTO VII / 75

am the light of the world. He who follows me does not walk in darkness, but will have the light of life."

66. the hollow that a valley makes on earth: These words un- derline again the similarity between the Antepurgatory and our world — even to its geography.

73-8i

Among all the descriptions in classical or medieval litera- ture of the locus amoenus, this one is unique. The beautiful colors of the grass and flowers are praised, but in such a way that what we see is not grass and flowers but precious stones, metals, dyes and pigments, the sheen of exotic wood: products or raw materials of industry and the mechanic arts. And the natural fragrances of the various flowers can no longer be dis- tinguished, having been already concentrated into a perfume. Thanks to the list of metaphors, we are offered artificial opu- lent beauty, not the pure beauty of nature: note that the brook is missing, and the breeze and leafy trees and singing birds; these images will be found in the description of the Earthly Paradise, at the summit of the mountain of Purgatory (Canto XXVIII).

74. Indian wood, glowing and deeply clear: For different in- terpretations of this verse ("indaco legno lucido e sereno") see Cook (p. 356) and Austin. The latter takes the word "legno" to mean lychnis (lignus in medieval Latin), a bright purple jewel mentioned by several authors, among whom is Pliny (Nat. hist. XXXVII, xxix, 103).

82. Salve Regina: This reference to a hymn being sung adds an acoustic impression to those of sight and smell — as well as an indication of the presence of the valley's inhabitants.

These inhabitants have been slow in making their appear- ance, and the first glimpse of them is brief and colorless. In verse 46, Sordello had announced the presence of a group of souls "Off to the right here"; in verse 64 he and his guests start on their way to meet the group; in verse 7 1 they reach a high point from which they may look down into the valley. First the sculptured beauty of the natural scene is depicted; then the words of the hymn are heard; then, after a second reference to the grass and flowers, the Pilgrim sees souls sitting on the grass

76 / CANTO VII

as they sing. No graphic detail is offered; we are not invited to visualize them.

But the reader is, perhaps, invited to meditate on the words and the function of the familiar song they are singing. The Mar- ian antiphon Salve Regina was one of the hymns intended for the service after vespers, so that, as we hear the anonymous souls singing it in the dusk of the valley, we are made to think in terms of the daily habits of a Christian community on earth. Moreover, since it is a prayer concerned with exile and pilgrim- age, it establishes a liturgical bond between believers in this world, praying for salvation after death, and the souls in the valley, already dead, already saved, but longing for entrance into Heaven. The words that apply particularly well to both groups are: "... to thee we cry, poor banished children of Eve, to thee we send up our sighs, mourning and weeping in this valley of tears . . . and after this our exile, show unto us the blessed fruit of they womb, Jesus" (italics mine). Cf. note to Purg. VIII, 37-

88. from here: The slope from which the pilgrims survey the souls is reminiscent of the hillock in Elysium (Aen. VI, 674). There Anchises points out to Aeneas the figures in the dell below them: the illustrious men who will perform great deeds in the future, serving to establish and expand the Roman Em- pire. It is ironic that this scene from the Aeneid should serve as an inspiration for Sordello's picture, in which many of the figures have failed as rulers and have even contributed to the decay of the Holy Roman Empire.

91-136

Here Sordello begins his presentation of the Princes in the Valley. It is rather clear from certain references in his speech that the hymn Salve Regina continues to be sung while he de- scribes and comments upon the worldly princes. But now, as Sordello beings to speak, the brief glimpse that had been af- forded the reader of the mass of singers, the "Christian com- munity," gives way to a series of close-ups of individuals, viv- idly presented and sharply distinguished. (In Canto VIII [7-24] they will once more melt into anonymity as the singing of their second hymn takes the foreground.)

Sordello's presentation of the princes is not the only instance in which a group of individuals are presented by name to the

CANTO vil / 7 7

reader: one thinks immediately of the roll call of the great shades in Limbo (Inf. IV); one may also remember Canto V of the Inferno when the souls of the Lustful appear and Virgil identifies "more than a thousand" of the "knights and ladies of ancient times." If one compares the three cases in the order Inf. V, Inf. IV (where it is Virgil, the pagan, who introduces the damned souls), and Purg. VII (where Sordello, the Christian, presents the late-repentant Princes), one will note an increase in vividness of presentation. In Inf. V we are offered nothing more than a listing of names accompanied (perhaps) by com- ments; the reader does not feel that he actually "sees" Semiramis or Helen as the flock of the Lustful fly by in the dim air above. In Limbo, some visualization is allowed: against a great blaze of light the Pilgrim makes out four figures walking toward him, and sees Homer "with sword in hand / leading the three as if he were their master." He sees on the lustrous green "the Latian King, / with Lavinia, his daughter, by his side." He sees Caesar, "falcon-eyed and fully armed." But in Sordello's picture every one of the thirteen figures is somehow made to stand out: as he calls the name of each individual, and com- ments, Sordello points out some physical feature, or facial ex- pression, or posture, or, at least, the place he occupies among his fellows.

94. Rudolf: Rudolf of Hapsburg (1218-91), first emperor of the House of Austria, gave priority to the internal affairs of Germany and neglected Italy, allowing it to remain outside the unifying influence of the empire. It is evidently his awareness of this neglect that is revealed in his expression as described by Sordello (92-93): "... who looks / as if he left undone what was to do." His son, Albert of Hapsburg (the "German Albert," still alive and already excoriated by Dante the Poet in Purg. VI, 97-1 17), would be guilty of the same neglect.

The son of Albert IV, Count of Hapsburg, Rudolf I was elected emperor in 1273. However, Ottokar, the king of Bohemia, feeling that he himself should have been elected, op- posed him. Rudolf, with the help of his allies, was able to de- feat Ottokar and force him to surrender Austria, Styria, Carin- thia, and Carniola. Later, however, Ottokar again rebelled, to be defeated and killed in 1278 near Vienna.

100. Ottokar: In a spirit of reconciliation, Ottokar II, king of

78 / CANTO VII

Bohemia from 1253 to 1278, a valiant warrior, comforts Rudolf of Hapsburg, formerly his bitterest enemy.

101. Wenceslaus: Wenceslaus IV (1270- 1305) succeeded his father, Ottokar II, as king of Bohemia in 1278. Dante will refer to him again in the Paradise (XIX, 125).

103. that snub-nosed figure: Philip III the Bold, king of France (1245-85), called le Camus because of his nose, was defeated by Peter of Aragon in 1285 during the massacre of the French in Sicily. Philip was the son of Louis IX, whom he succeeded, and the nephew of Charles of Anjou. In 1262 he married Isabella, the daughter of James I of Aragon. From this marriage was born his son, Philip, who succeeded him as Philip IV, the Fair, whom Dante dubs "the Plague of France" (109).

104. the kind-looking person: Henry the Fat of Navarre, con- trary to his kindly appearance, was reputed to have a harsh temperament. He died in 1274, suffocated by his fat. Henry was king of Navarre from 1270 to 1274, succeeding Thibaut II, his brother. His daughter Jeanne married Philip the Fair.

105. the lily: The lily ifieur de lis) was the emblem of the kings of France.

109. the Plague of France: Philip IV the Fair, son of Philip III the Bold and son-in-law of Henry the Fat. His reign was char- acterized by tyranny, corruption, and viciousness. Though never mentioned by name, he is the frequent object of Dante's scorn in the Comedy (Purg. XX, 85-96; XXXII, 148-60; XXXIII, 34-45; Par. XIX, 118). Philip died in 1314.

Philip opposed the Papacy and even went so far as to hold Boniface VIII prisoner at Agnani. He persecuted the Order of the Templars with the aim of acquiring their wealth and had their leader burned at the stake in Paris in his presence.

112. That sturdy-looking soul: Peter III of Aragon (1236- 85), the husband of Manfred's daughter, Constance, became King of Sicily in 1282, succeeding Charles of Anjou, after the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers.

1 13. the big-nosed one: Charles I of Anjou (1226-85), cham- pion of the Guelphs in Italy. He defeated Manfred at Bene-

CANTO VII / 79

vento in 1 266 to become king of Sicily and Naples, later losing the throne to Peter III. Though these two were bitter rivals, here they are presented as singing in harmony. Charles married Beatrix, daughter of Count Raymond Berenger IV of Pro- vence, in 1246, thus becoming count of Provence. After Bea- trix's death in 1267, he married Margaret of Burgundy in 1268.

115. that young man: The reference is most likely to Alfonso III of Aragon, who was Peter Ill's eldest son and who reigned less than six years (1285-91).

119. James and Frederick: James II of Aragon and Frederick II of Sicily, the second, and third sons of Peter III of Aragon, were involved in a lengthy dispute over a claim to the kingdom of Sicily.

120. but neither got the better heritage: Neither James nor Frederick inherited the virtue or goodness of their father.

124-26. My words apply: Having said in 119-20 that James and Frederick, unlike their brother mentioned in the preceding tercet, possessed none of the virtues of their father, Peter III, Dante in 124-26 points (again) to Charles I, the figure sitting beside Peter, who shares the same fate with him: his own son, Charles II, was inferior to him — hence the laments of the in- habitants of Provence and Apulia, who passed under the rule of Charles II on his father's death in 1285.

127. this seed's plant is less than he: This seed, the father, is Charles I; his plant, the son, is Charles II. Here we have a recapitulation of what had been hinted at in the lines im- mediately preceding: Charles I, like Peter III, was unfortunate in his progeny.

128-29. just so much more than Margaret and Beatrix: Mar- garet of Burgundy and Beatrix of Provence were both wives of Charles I of Anjou; Constance, daughter of Manfred, was the wife of Peter III of Aragon. Thus, Dante is really saying in verses 127-29 that Charles II is as much inferior to Charles I as Charles I is to Peter III. For thirteen lines Dante has been concerned with the frequent failure of a father to produce a son who is worthy of him. Sayers (p. 124), after working her way through verses 124-29, comments parenthetically, "Not, perhaps, one of Dante's best efforts." But she seems to be

80 / CANTO VII

merely annoyed by the far-fetched terms of the conclusion which Dante has been supposedly leading up to: she does not admit that the conclusion itself, however simply it might have been expressed, has not been prepared for.

130-31. Henry of England sitting there I all by himself: Henry III (1216-72), whose son, Edward I, is credited with an endur- ing reform of English law, is reproached in Sordello's lament for Blacatz (see note to VI, 74) for his sloth and cowardice. His contemporaries frequently referred to his piety.

As for the reason why Henry is sitting alone, some believe it is due to his modesty, others to the fact that his lands formed no part of the Holy Roman Empire. The opinion has also been expressed that his isolation reflects the contrast his life offers to that of all the other figures in the valley; whereas the others were too preoccupied by affairs of state to think of their spiritual welfare, he was too preoccupied by his piety to think of his kingly responsibilities. But this would make of the others models of conscientious rulers, which they hardly were.

134. Marquis William: William VII, surnamed "Longsword," was Marquis of Montferrat from 1254 to 1292. Failing in his attempt to quell a revolt in the city of Alessandria in Piedmont, William was locked in an iron cage by his enemies and put on display until his death in 1292.

CANTO VII / 81

CANTO VIII

As THE PILGRIM looks on, one of the souls in the valley below rises and begins singing the Te lucii ante. The rest of the inhabitants of the valley join in and sing the hymn through to the end, keeping their eyes fixed on the sky. As they continue to stare upward, two angels are seen to descend from Heaven. These angels take up positions on either side of the group of souls, and Sordello explains that they have come to guard the valley against the serpent who will appear at any moment; he then announces that it is time to go down among the great shades of the valley. Having descended only a few steps, Dante recognizes the shade of Nino Visconti. Nino, righteously in- dignant, discusses with Dante the infidelity of widows who re- marry. Virgil is explaining certain stellar phenomena of the Southern Hemisphere, when suddenly Sordello announces the coming of the serpent. No sooner does the beast appear, how- ever, than it is put to flight by the two angel guardians. The Pilgrim then speaks to Conrad Malaspina, lavishly praising the reputation of the Malaspina family, and Conrad prophesies that Dante will one day have cause from his own experience to praise this family.

It was the hour when a sailor's thoughts,

the first day out, turn homeward, and his heart

yearns for the loved ones he has left behind, j

the hour when the novice pilgrim aches with love: the far-off tolling of a bell

now seems to him to mourn the dying day — 6

I was no longer listening to words

but looking at a soul who had stood up,

requesting, with a gesture, to be heard. 9

He raised his hands, joining his palms in prayer, his gaze fixed toward the east, as if to say: "I have no other thought but Thee, dear Lord." 12

Te lucis ante, with such reverence,

and so melodiously, came from his lips,

that I was lost to any sense of self; 0

82 / CANVO VIII

the rest then, reverently, in harmony,

joined in to sing the hymn through to the end, keeping their eyes fixed on the heavenly spheres.

Sharpen your sight, Reader: the truth, this time, is covered by a thinner veil, and so, the meaning should be easy to perceive.

I saw that noble host of souls, who now

in silence kept their eyes raised to the heavens, as if expectant, faces pale and meek,

and then I saw descending from on high

two angels with two flaming swords, and these were broken short and blunted at the end.

Their garments, green as tender new-born leaves unfurling, billowed out behind each one, fanned by the greenness of their streaming wings.

One took his stand above us on our side, and one alighted on the other bank; thus, all the souls were held between the two.

My eyes could see with ease their golden hair, but could not bear the radiance of their faces: light that makes visible can also blind.

"From Mary's bosom both of them descend to guard us from the serpent in the vale," Sordello said. "He'll be here soon, you'll see."

Not knowing from what point he would appear, I turned around and, frozen by my fear, I pressed close to those shoulders I could trust.

Sordello spoke again: "Now it is time for us to join the noble shades below and speak with them — I know they will be pleased."

I only had to take three steps, I think,

before I reached the bottom. I saw a shade peering at me, trying to know my face.

By now, the air had started turning dark, but not so dark that we could not see clear (so close we were) what was concealed before.

CANTO VIII / 83

He made his way toward me, and I toward him — Noble Judge Nino, how I did rejoice

to see that you were not among the Damned! 5 4

No loving words of welcome did we spare;

then he: "How long since you have come across

the boundless waters to the mountain's base?" 57

"Oh," I replied, "I left the realm of grief this morning; I am still in my first life,

but hope to gain the other by this road." 60

When Nino and Sordello heard my words, both of them backed away from me, amazed, unable to believe what they had heard. 63

One turned to Virgil, and the other one turned to a soul nearby. "Corrado, rise!" he cried: "Come here! See what God's grace has willed!" 66

He turned to me: "I beg you in the name

of that grace shown to you by Him who hides

His primal cause too deep for man to delve — 69

when you have crossed the enormous gulf once more, tell my Giovanna she should plead for me, for prayers from guiltless hearts are listened to. 72

I think her mother has stopped loving me, for she has put aside those bands of white which she, poor soul, will soon be longing for. 7}

From her it is not difficult to learn

how long love's flame burns in a woman's heart,

if sight and touch do not rekindle it. 78

The snake that leads the Milanese to war will not provide an emblem for her tomb as splendid as Gallura's cock would be." 81

These were his words, and his whole countenance displayed the signs of righteous zeal, the kind which flares up when it should within the heart. 84

My eyes kept looking at the sky just where the stars move slowest — as, within a wheel, the axle moves more slowly than the rest. 87

84 / CANTO VIII

My guide said: "Son, what are you staring at?" I answered him: "At those three brilliant torches lighting up all the polar region here."

And he to me: "Those four bright stars you saw this morning, now are underneath the mount, and these have risen here to take their place."

But then Sordello clutched his arm and said: "Behold our adversary over there!" — he pointed to the place where we should look.

Along the little valley's open side

a serpent moved — the very one, perhaps, that offered Eve the bitter fruit to eat.

Through grass and flowers slid the vicious streak, stopping from time to time to turn its head and lick its back to make its body sleek.

I did not see, so I cannot describe,

how the two holy falcons took to flight, but I saw clearly both of them fly down.

Hearing those green wings cutting through the air, the serpent fled, the angels wheeled around, flying in perfect time back to their posts.

The shade who had drawn close to Nino's side, when called by him, did not at any time during the skirmish take his eyes from me.

"So may the lamp that lights your upward path find in your will enough sustaining fuel to take you to the enamelled mountaintop,"

he then began, "if you have recent news of Val di Magra or parts thereabout, tell me, for in that land I once was great.

Corrado Malaspina was my name —

but not the elder, though I sprang from him; and here I cleanse the love I bore my own."

"Oh," I replied, "I've never visited

the lands you ruled; the whole of Europe, though, has heard about your glorious domain.

CANTO viii / 8

The fame that honors your great family proclaims resoundingly its lords and lands, even to those who never travelled there. 126

And, as I hope to reach the top, I swear that your great lineage maintains intact

the glorious honor of the purse and sword. ; 25

Habit and virtue have so shaped your race

that while the Wicked Head perverts the world,

they shun the path of evil, they alone." • 32

He said: "Know that the sun will not repose a seventh time on the large bed the Ram spreads over and bestrides with all four feet, ,j 3

before the kind opinion you just gave

shall be nailed hard into your brain with nails

truer than words you may have heard of us — ;.i8

unless God's course of justice be cut short!"

NOTES

1 . It was the hour: The time periphrasis that opens this canto is expressed not in astronomical terms but in terms of senti- ment. As the hour of compline approaches, sailors and pilgrims experience nostalgia for the home they left behind, instead of yearning to reach the goal of their journey. Could this be meant to represent the mood of the princes, who have just finished singing the Salve Regina with its yearning for Heaven? If so, we must understand that the nostalgia of these souls is a blend of longing for this world and longing for Heaven.

7-24

This passage is narrated from the point of view of the Pil- grim as he observes the group below him in the valley. Canto VII ended with him still listening to the words of Sordello; we learn in line 7 that his attention has been attracted away from those words by a movement on the part of the leader of the group below — his sense of hearing giving way to his sense of sight. And that he is deeply absorbed in what he sees is suggested by the sharply etched outline of the figure, who has risen and stands with clasped hands raised toward Heaven in

86 / CANTO VIII

prayer. Then, as the hymn Te lucis ante begins, the Pilgrim be- comes "lost to any sense of self" (15), absorbed in both listen- ing and watching. Finally, after the song has come to an end (and after the Poet's "invitation" to the Reader), the Pilgrim's sense of sight takes over again ("I saw": 22) as he gazes intently upon the expectant faces below him raised toward the sky, then to shift his gaze away to follow the movements of the approach- ing angels.

But it is not only the, sensorium of the Pilgrim that is in- volved, nor is he the only one who is completely absorbed: the group in the valley, too, is spellbound, concentrated upon their desire, which they would communicate to God ("I have no other thought but Thee, dear Lord": 1 2). How heavily the air is charged with tension before the angels come and before the Pilgrim's mood is dispelled by Sordello's words of explanation!

13. Te lucis ante: It is clear from line 17 that Dante expected his reader to have the entire hymn in mind:

Te lucis ante terminum, Before the ending of the day,

Rerum creator, poscimus, Creator of the world, we beg of

Ut tua pro dementia You

Sis praesul et custodia. That You with Your mercy

Be our Guardian and Protector.

Procul recedant somnia May dreams be kept away

Et noctium phantasmata, And the spectors of night;

Hostemque nostrum And Qur enemy repress

comprime, Lest Qur bodies fae po „ uted Ne polluantur corpora.

Help us, Father all-powerful,

Praesta, pater omnipotens, Through our Lord Jesus Christ,

Per Jesum Christum dominum, Who together with the Holy

Qui tecum in perpetuum Spirit

Regnat cum sancto spiritu. Reigns perpetually with you.

Particularly relevant to the subsequent dramatic action of the poem is the line "And our enemy repress," which is a foreshadowing of the putting to flight of the serpent by the angels.

The Te lucis ante, even more than the first hymn, Salve Re- gina, would seem to reflect the daily life of Christians on earth: also sung at compline, it is a prayer for protection from temp- tation, especially in the form of evil dreams. Of course, the princes, like all the other inhabitants of the Antepurgatory, are

CANTO viii / 87

not subject to temptation, nor do they dream (or sleep). It is as if in their interim period in the valley, before they are allowed to begin the all-important process of purgation, which alone will give meaning to their stay in Purgatory, their only role is the vicarious one of "imitating" the attitudes of a living Chris- tian community. Something in the way of a suggestion of a dumbshow is present here.

15. / was lost to any sense of self: This picture of the Pilgrim caught up in ecstasy as he listens to the sweet strains of Te lucis ante may remind us of his mood of rapt attention as he listened to Casella's song (Purg. II, 1 12-17). Now his mood is appro- priate; then it was not.

19. Sharpen your sight, Reader: Here Dante the Poet, ad- dressing the reader, asks him to interpret the literal sense of the narrative in a figurative way. The only other such invitation to the reader, among the dozens of so-called Addresses to the Reader, is to be found in Inf. IX, 61-63 (note that both pas- sages come in the same canto of their respective canticles: since Inf. I serves as Introduction to the whole Comedy, Inf. IX is the eighth canto of the Inferno proper):

O all of you whose intellects are sound,

look now and see the meaning that is hidden beneath the veil that covers my strange verses.

That Dante wishes the reader to remember this passage when he comes to Purg: VIII, 19-21, is indicated by the comparison in our passage: "the truth, this time, / is covered by a thinner veil."

In my note to Inf. IX, 61-63, after comparing the two auc- torial invitations, I suggest, for both cases, the allegorical in- terpretation of the events narrated. Inf. IX, which concerns the coming of the angel to open the gates of Dis, represents the Harrowing of Hell, the culmination of the First Advent of Christ. Our canto, with the two angels coming as protection against the serpent, points to the Second Advent of Christ, ac- cording to the medieval conception of the Triplex Adventus: the intermediary Advent, after Christ's birth and life on earth and Resurrection, and before His final Coming to judge mankind — the daily coming of Christ into the hearts of indi- viduals in order to protect them from temptation and insure their salvation. It is generally recognized that the Third Advent is enacted in Canto XXX when Beatrice comes to judge her

88 / CANTO VIII

lover at the top of the mountain of Purgatory. More on the Second Advent in connection with the Valley of the Princes can be found in Musa (1969), pp. 85-93; see also Heilbronn (1972).

24. as if expectant, faces pale and meek: It is surely not neces- sary to assume, as is often done, that the pallor in question is caused by the community's fear (of the serpent yet to come); it can be fully explained by the high degree of their expectancy as they await the longed-for coming of the angels. They seem spellbound.

This picture of the group looking heavenward with a rapt expression on their faces (which we see through the eyes of the Pilgrim before he looks away from them to the approaching angels) is the last we shall have of the princes as a body after the angels come. Sordello will continue his role as guide, and the Pilgrim will meet Judge Nino and Corrado Malaspina, but the group, the Christian community, has completely dissolved.

26. flaming swords: The flaming swords of the angels recall the flammeum gladium of the Cherubim placed at the entrance to Eden as guardians after the Fall (Gen. 3:24).

27. broken short: Of the many attempts to explain the "broken-off swords," the most frequent interpretation — that they symbolize God's Mercy tempering Justice — is hardly convincing: mercy toward the serpent? See note to 109- 11.

28. green as tender new-born leaves: The green color of the angels is, of course, the symbol of hope.

37. From Mary's bosom both of them descend: I use the word "bosom" for the grembo of the original ("ambo vengon del grembo di Maria"). The primary meaning of this word is "lap," hence, "womb." In the latter sense this would offer a suggestion of the birth of Christ. The reader may remember the line from the first of the two hymns sung in the valley: "... show unto us the blessed fruit of thy womb, Jesus" (cf. note to VII, 82).

39. He'll be here soon, you'll see: Here we have clear evidence of the regular repetition (to which the inhabitants of the valley have become accustomed) of St. Bernard's contest between the angels and the serpent: the "daily coming" of Christ into the hearts of men (" . . . quotidie ad salvandas animas singulorum in

CANTO viii / 89

spiritu venit": Migne, CLXXXIII, 40). See Musa (1969), pp. 89-90.

41. frozen by my fear: Only Dante the Pilgrim is afraid. He is afraid because he does not know from which direction the ser- pent will come; he is reacting "symbolically" as the Christian in this life who knows he must be ever on his guard against temptation — as the Princes in the Valley need not be.

53. Noble Judge Nino: Nino Visconti (died 1296) was the son of Giovanni Visconti and (on his mother's side) the grandson of Count Ugolino della Gherardesca (see Inf. XXXIII). Between the years 1285 and 1288 he shared the office of podesta in Pisa with Count Ugolino. Considerable friction, however, existed between the two, and Nino was eventually betrayed and forced to flee the city, joining the Guelph forces that were warring against the Ghibelline order that was then established at Pisa. In 1293 he was made captain of the Guelph league and later became a citizen of Genova. There is an indirect reference to Nino in Inf. XXII, 81-87 (the bolgia of the Grafters), where the story of Nino's deputy, Fra Gomita, is told.

61-63. When Nino . . , what they had heard: In the fading light of the day, Dante casts no shadow (cf. Purg. VI, 57), and neither Sordello nor the other souls had recognized him as a living man.

71. My Giovanna: Giovanna, born around 12 91, was Nino's daughter by Beatrice d'Este. When she was still five years old, Boniface VIII gave her the guardianship of the town of Vol- terra as a gesture of thanks to her father, a Guelph who favored the church. However, the Ghibellines subsequently deprived her of all her property. After living with her mother at Ferrara and Milan, she married Rizzardo da Camino, Lord of Treviso, but after his death in 1 312 she was reduced to poverty. Finally she received a stipend in Florence in 1323 in consideration of her father's services. The date of her death is unknown.

73. her mother: Beatrice d'Este, daughter of Obizzo II d'Este and sister of Azzo VIII. She was first married to Nino Visconti, by whom she had a daughter, Giovanna. But in June 1300, not long after Nino's death, she removed her widow's white bands to marry Galeazzo Visconti, with whom she lived in Milan. Just two years later, however, the Visconti were expelled from that.

90 / CANTO VIII

city — as Nino here darkly prophesies (75). Galeazzo died in poverty in 1328 and Beatrice returned to Milan as soon as her son, Azzo, regained the lordship there. She died in 1334. Nino's reference to Beatrice as "her mother" and not as "my wife" sets the tone for his reproach that is to follow.

76. From her it is not difficult: On a symbolic level, Beatrice's action can be interpreted in several ways. In classical biblical typology a woman frequently represents the church. Beatrice's infidelity then could be seen as the failure of the church to adhere to her spouse, i.e., Christ. In addition, Nino's widow could symbolize the human soul, as does Cato's widow in Conv. IV, 28, 13 (cf. note to Purg. I, 31-75).

79. The snake: The snake is the coat of arms of the Milanese branch of the Visconti family. In this context, we cannot over- look its inevitable associations with the serpent, who will ap- pear shortly in the valley.

81. Galium' s cock: The cock was the emblem of the Visconti of Pisa, whom Nino's widow abandoned. In addition, the cock is a traditional symbol of Christ and the Resurrection: announc- ing the dawn, he puts to flight the phantoms of the night. Dante's use of the antithetical "snake" and "cock" serves to reinforce the symbolic interpretation of Beatrice's infidelity.

89. those three brilliant torches: The theological virtues, Faith, Hope, and Charity. These virtues supersede the cardinal vir- tues symbolized by the four stars, in the sense that they are necessary to direct human actions toward God, and they are given to men through Christ. Here, near the gates of Purgatory proper, the appearance of the three stars announces a new orientation: the Pilgrim is about to leave the earthbound region of Antepurgatory and begin his ascent of the mountain of God.

94. But then Sordello clutched his arm: Note the concern of Sordello that Virgil know exactly where to look. According to Singleton (1973, p. 170), Sordello's gesture is "expressive of his apprehension on seeing the serpent." But would the experi- enced Sordello turn for aid or comfort to the inexperienced Virgil? (Cf. note to 109-11.)

95. Behold our adversary: The biblical adversary (cf. I Pet. 5:8), the enemy of all mankind.

CANTO viii / 91

99- that offered Eve the bitter fruit to eat: The serpent brings with it a recollection of Eve in the garden of Eden, while the angels recall Mary, the counterpart of Eve (VIII, 37).

100- 108. Through grass and flowers . . . back to their posts: The serpent appears in the artificial setting of the valley, and we are reminded of the beauty representing all the sensual pleasures of this world. This is the locus of temptation — our world. The motion of the serpent is slow, idle, and ineffectual. The angels, on the other hand, are pure movement and energy — the image of grace in action. The confrontation of the angels and the serpent resumes, in concrete, dramatic action, the dualism of light and darkness in the cantos of the valley.

109 - 1 1. The shade . . . did not . . . take his eyes from me: The serpent has been defeated, the drama has come to an end, and no reaction on the part of the spectators is recorded. In fact, we cannot be certain that there were any spectators (apart from the Pilgrim) at this final stage: Corrado's eyes have remained fixed on the Pilgrim during the interval between the serpent's ap- pearance and flight, and there is no clear evidence that any of the other princes bothered to watch the battle.

It would seem that Dante has taken pains to present as abso- lute the princes' indifference to the spectacular events taking place before them. The only one to comment on the appear- ance of the angels and of the serpent is Sordello, and, both times, his reaction merely reflects awareness of his duties as host or guide. In 37-39 he explains to Virgil the heavenly ori- gin of the green-winged creatures and the purpose of their coming, which involves a reference to the serpent: "He'll be here soon, you'll see," he says casually. He continues by suggesting politely that it is time they go to make the acquain- tance of "the noble shades below," who will be delighted to see them (43-45). Later (94-96) he briefly announces the arrival of the serpent, taking care to point out to Virgil exactly where to look (and giving no indication whatever of excitement or fear: see note to 94-96).

As for the first case, it could be said that the two pilgrims are still at the rim of the valley, and, listening to Sordello's words, they are distracted from taking in the effect produced below by the angels' arrival. But when Judge Nino comes toward the Pil- grim a few moments later, he gives no signs of having recently been shaken by some event.

92 / CANTO VIII

The reasons for this "indifference" have already been suggested. On the superficial, the literal, plane, it is natural that the princes' long familiarity with the regularly enacted victory of the angels over the serpent would lead to lack of interest or even to ennui on their part, and, on the allegorical plane, this drama has no direct connection with their fate: they are already saved and need no protection against temptation, against the serpent. (Furthermore, the actors in the drama do not hesitate to reveal — and even play up — their own unconvincingness: the angels with their blunted swords, the serpent stopping to lick itself as a kitten might.) The drama enacted could have rele- vancy only for the living, whose souls are constantly in dan- ger — just as the prayers (or, rather, the second prayer) of the princes had relevancy only for the living. But precisely because the indifference of the princes can be so easily justified (repeti- tion of the irrelevant recognized as such), one must wonder why the poet was inspired to invent the spectacle in question.

Some commentators believe that the serpent is sent to frighten the princes, as a reminder of what had almost hap- pened; others, that the drama was intended as food for spiritual thought: these souls had done too little thinking about spiritual matters in their lifetime. In either case, the indifference of the princes can only mean that the spectacle failed of its purpose, and that, perhaps, is the reason that no critic that I have read points out this indifference — which, after the coming of the angels, is absolute.

Surely the solution is to be found in the contrast between "before" and "after." The group in the valley is first seen, briefly, as they sing Salve Regina. waiting for the arrival of the angels; then, attention is focused on them as they begin their second hymn, and we are made keenly aware of their mood of concentrated attention. The picture of the group in lines 22-24 (the last time they are seen), their faces raised toward Heaven, pale with expectancy (after having sung their prayer so fervently and melodiously that the Pilgrim was spellbound) is unforgettable. For them only one thing mattered: that impor- tant moment of the day when the angels would come as they had come before and would come again — a never-failing sign of God's grace, which means for them a reassuring reminder of their salvation and, here, in the Antepurgatory, they cannot be reminded of it by the suffering of purgation. The coming of the angels was the sign.

CANTO VIII / 93

And if they alone are granted this sign, it is surely because of their exemplary status: they represent all the souls in Antepur- gatory.

112. So may the lamp that lights your upward path: At last Corrado, invited by Nino in verse 66 to come meet the Pil- grim, addresses him. Evidently his delay, his hesitation (as well as his steady gaze), is to be explained by his awe at the miracle of the Pilgrim's presence among the dead. In my comment on this incident (Musa, 1974, pp. 157-58), I add:

And his delay is the last in a small series of postponements that have been introduced into the narrative. Twice Sordello is slow in performing an act which had been prepared for by the context: hav- ing proposed in lines 46-48 of Canto VII to lead the two travellers to join the souls in the valley, he delays this meeting in order to first present the Princes from a distance; the meeting actually takes place in Canto VIII, 46-48 — that is, after an interval of exactly (what might be called) one canto's length. Earlier, Sordello, asked by Vir- gil in Canto VI, 67-68, for directions to climb the Mountain, ig- nores the request in his eagerness to learn more about the two strange travellers, it is only when Virgil repeats his request in the next canto (37-39) that Sordello accedes to it by offering himself as guide. There are two other postponements, and on another plane, where it is the author himself who chooses to hold back from us information that might have come much sooner. The less conspicu- ous involves the slow-motion presentation to view of the souls in the valley singing Salve Regina — the effect being prolonged by Sor- dello's delayed descent into the valley where they are. And of course, there is the dramatic device of "interruption" by which the poet postpones the conclusion of the embrace between Virgil and Sordello. In every case the motivation, psychological or aesthetic, of the postponement is clear.

But, though none of the cases is puzzling in itself, there is a need to explain the frequent recurrence of the same device. 1 suggest that it is intended as a leit-motif reminder of the reason for the presence of the Princes in the Antepurgatory — which is, of course, the rea- son for the presence there of all the rest. Nowhere in the scenes just described is any statement made about the all-important fact that these souls, like the rest, have been excluded from Purgatory proper because of their postponement of repentance (which, in turn entails the postponement of their expiation). And so, Sordello and Conrad are made to "imitate" the action that brought them to the Antepurgatory. Dante the Poet, too, on another plane, has reflected the same tempo of delay. And as for the fact that for each single

94 / CANTO VIII

case it is possible to find a convincing explanation, this is simply the sign of great artistry.

114. enamelled mountaintop: A reference to the Earthly Paradise. The word "enamelled" (smalto) is also used in Inf. IV, 118 (/'/ verde smalto) to describe the beautiful green grass on which the philosophers are seated.

1 18. Corrado Malaspina: Corrado II was the son of Federigo I, Marquis of Villafranca, and the grandson of Corrado I, "the elder" (119). He was a Ghibelline, according to Boccaccio, who mentions him and his daughter, Spina, in The Decameron (II, 6). Corrado died around 1294.

122-32

The house of Malaspina is honored throughout Europe. They practice the virtues of justice, generosity, and chivalry in the midst of the corrupt Europe that was apostrophized in Canto VI and that is represented by the living rulers enumerated in Canto VII.

130. Habit and virtue have so shaped your race: The habitual good actions of the Malaspina family, which make them an example of human rectitude, are the result of the combination of a natural good disposition given them by God and the con- stant and long practice of virtue. (Cf. Conv. I, ix, 7, where Dante says that habitual virtue cannot be had of a sudden, but must be acquired by long practice.)

131. the Wicked Head: This has been variously identified with Satan, with Rome or the corrupt papacy in general, or spe- cifically with Boniface VIII, the present pope. According to the Anonimo fiorentino, it refers to the bad example given by both the pope and the emperor.

1 3 3. Know that the sun will not repose: This is a prophecy of Dante's exile. The sun will not return to the constellation of Aries (the Ram) seven times — that is, seven years will not pass before Dante experiences personally the merits of the Mala- spina family, which he now knows only by hearsay. And, in- deed, in 1306 Dante, in exile, was the guest of the Malaspina at Lunigiana.

Incidentally, this brief mention of the ram bestriding the bed anticipates the sexual imagery with which the next canto will open, and the erotic dream that the Pilgrim is about to have.

CANTO VIII / 95

CANTO IX

THE PILGRIM FALLS asleep and, near dawn, dreams that he is being snatched up into the sphere of fire by an eagle. The imag- inary heat of his dream wakes him, and he is dazed and terrified until he discovers that Virgil is sitting close by. Virgil explains that they have now come to the gates of Purgatory proper and that while the Pilgrim slept, a lady named Lucia came and bore him up there in her arms. As they draw near the gates, the Pilgrim discerns three steps of different colors leading up to them. The first is white as marble; the second is darker than purple-black, and rough and crumbling; the third is red as flam- ing porphyry. On the threshold of the gate, above this last step, sits a guardian angel with a naked sword, clothed in garments the color of ashes. With the tip of the sword, he traces seven P's on the Pilgrim's forehead and instructs him to be sure to "wash away" these wounds during his stay in the place of pur- gation. The guardian then takes two keys — one gold and one silver — with which he was entrusted by St. Peter, and unlocks the gateway to Purgatory. He warns the Pilgrim that, once in- side, he is not to look back again, or he will be expelled; then, the hinges of the heavy, sacred doors make a strange sound as they swing open. As the Pilgrim passes through, he hears the faint and distant strains of what seems to be the Te Deum laudamus.

Now, pale upon the eastern balcony, appeared the concubine of old Tithonus, arisen now from her sweet lover's arms; j

her brow was glittering with precious stones set in the shape of that cold-blooded beast that strikes and poisons people with its tail; 6

and of the hour-steps that Night ascends,

already, where we were, two had been climbed,

and now the third was folding down its wings, 9

when I, who carried with me Adam's weight,

conquered by sleep, stretched out upon the grass

on which all five of us were sitting then. 12

96 / CANTO IX

At the hour when the swallow, close to dawn, begins to sing her melancholy lays, perhaps remembering her ancient woes,

and when our mind, far straying from the flesh, less tangled in the network of its thoughts, becomes somehow prophetic in its dreams,

dreaming, I seemed to see hovering above, a golden-feathered eagle in the sky, with wings outspread, and ready to swoop down;

I seemed to find myself in that same place

where Ganymede was forced to leave his friends, caught up to serve the conclave of the gods.

I wondered: "Could this be the only place the eagle strikes? Perhaps he does not deign to snatch his prey from anywhere but here."

Dreaming, I saw him circle for a while, then terrible as lightning, he struck down, swooping me up, up to the sphere of fire.

And there it seemed the bird and I both burned; the heat of that imaginary blaze was so intense it woke me from my sleep.

Just as Achilles woke up in a daze,

glancing around himself with startled eyes,

not knowing where he was or whence he came,

when he, asleep, was taken by his mother,

borne in her arms, from Chiron's care to Skyros from where the Greeks would lure him finally —

so I was dazed, when sleep had fled my face; I turned the deathly color of a man feeling the freezing grip of fright on him.

Beside me was my Comfort, all alone. Now it was day, the sun two hours high, and what I saw before me was the sea.

"You must not be afraid," my leader said, "take heart, for we are well along our way; do not hold back, push on with all your strength,

CANTO IX /

you have arrived at Purgatory now.

You see the rampart that surrounds it all and, where you see the cleft, that is the gate.

Before the break of day, while your soul slept within your body, still at rest below upon the flowers of that painted glen,

a lady came. She said 'I am Lucia.

Come, let me take this man who lies asleep; I wish to speed him on his journey up.'

Sordello and the other shades remained. She took you in her arms at break of day and brought you here. I followed after her.

Before she set you down, her lovely eyes showed me the open entrance; then she left, and as she went, she took away your sleep."

As one who, first perplexed, is reassured, and feels his fear replaced by confidence, once what is true has been revealed to him —

such was the change in me. And when he saw me free of care, my leader made his way up and along the bank with me behind.

Reader, you see how lofty is my theme! You should not be surprised if now I try to match its grandeur with more subtle art.

Close to the top, we reached a point from where I saw a gate (it first appeared to be merely a gap, a break within the wall)

and, leading up to it, there were three steps, each one a different color; and I saw the silent figure of someone on guard.

I slowly raised my eyes: I saw that he was sitting on the highest step, his face too splendid for my eyes — I looked away!

And in his hand he held a naked sword; so dazzling were the rays reflected thence, each time I tried to look I could not see.

98 / CANTO IX

He said to us: "Speak up from where you are. What is it that you want? Where is your guide? Beware,, you may regret your coming here."

"A while ago, a lady sent from Heaven

acquainted with such matters," said my guide, "told me: 'Behold the gate. You must go there.'"

"May she continue guiding you to good," the courteous keeper of the gate replied, "and so, come forward now up to our stairs."

We reached the steps. White marble was the first, and polished to the glaze of a looking glass: I saw myself reflected as I was.

The second one was deeper dark than perse, of rough and crumbling, fire-corroded stone, with cracks across its surface — length and breadth.

The third one, lying heavy at the top, appeared to be of flaming porphyry, red as the blood that spurts out from a vein;

upon this step the angel of the Lord rested his feet; he sat upon the sill which seemed to be of adamantine rock.

Up the three steps my master guided me benevolently, saying: "Ask him now, in all humility, to turn the key."

Falling devoutly at his holy feet, in mercy's name I begged to be let in; but, first of all, three times I smote my breast.

Then with his sword he traced upon my brow the scars of seven P's. "Once entered here, be sure you cleanse away these wounds," he said.

Ashes, or earth when it is dug up dry — this was the color of the robes he wore; he reached beneath them and drew out two keys.

One key was silver and the other gold;

first he applied the white one, then the yellow — with that the gate responded to my wish.

canto ix / 99

"Whenever either one of these two keys fails to turn properly inside the lock,"

the angel said, "the road ahead stays closed. uj

One is more precious, but the other needs wisdom and skill before it will unlock,

for it is that one which unties the knot. 126

I hold these keys from Peter, who advised: 'Admit too many, rather than too few, if they but cast themselves before your feet.'" 129

Then, pushing back the portal's holy door, "Enter," he said to us, "but first be warned: to look back means to go back out again." 132

And then the pivots of that sacred gate, fashioned of heavy metal, resonant,

turned slow inside their sockets. The rolling roar ij 5

was louder and more stubborn than Tarpeia's, when it was robbed of vigilant Metellus — its treasury made lean from that time on. ijg

And as the grating pivots rolled, I turned, for I heard chanting: Te Deum laudamus — accompanied by the sweet notes of that door. 141

This harmony of sounds made me recall

just how it seems in church when we attend

to people singing as the organ plays: 144

sometimes the words are heard, and sometimes lost.

NOTES i-9

These three tercets, which offer an elaborately wrought description of the heavens in order to indicate the hour at which the Pilgrim fell asleep, have been variously interpreted. Four theories (one of them based on a variant reading of verse 1: Titanus instead of Tithonus) have been offered, which in- volve, however, only two sidereal phenomena: the solar dawn and the lunar dawn. Those critics who accept the terms con-

100 / CANTO IX

cubine and lover in our passage as equivalent to 'wife' and 'hus- band' respectively, see in lines i -6 a reference to Aurora, god- dess of the (solar) dawn, wife of Tithonus. But only a very few of them believe that the Pilgrim waited till dawn to fall asleep; most of them take the description of 1-6 to refer to what was visible not in Purgatory but farther toward the east ("the east- ern balcony"): we would have been offered a description of dawn in Italy, where the poet was writing; then, in verse 8 would come a shift to Purgatory ("already where we were"). According to this view, it would still be night in Purgatory when the Pilgrim fell asleep. And, obviously, this is also the opinion of those who (whether reading Tithonus or Titanus) believe that the rising of the moon is involved.

Just why scholars should envision a lunar phenomenon here depends on much more than Dante's reference to the goddess in line i as concubine instead of wife: for the readers who may be interested in the many factors involved, I suggest that they read Moore (1903) for a detailed analysis of the "lunar ap- proaches)" and Porena and Sapegno for the counterarguments; also, Orr, pp. 252-54. There are strong arguments for and against each of the two main interpretations.

2. Tithonus: Aurora, daughter of the sun, goddess of the dawn, became enamored of Tithonus, brother of Priam, and married him. She obtained for him from the gods the gift of immortality but neglected to ask for that of eternal youth. As a result he grew increasingly decrepit and shrivelled until Aurora mercifully changed him into a cicada. In classical mythology no mention is made of Tithonus's concubine, or, so far as I know, of any "goddess of the lunar dawn." Those critics who posit such a figure and such a relationship are assuming that Dante has invented an extension of the classical myth of Tithonus.

5. that cold-blooded beast: Given the details of the description of the "beast" in question, this phrase is most probably a refer- ence to the constellation Scorpio, rather than to Pisces, as a number of scholars believe. As for the difficulty of associating Scorpio in the west with Aurora in the east, see the attempts of Torraca and Porena to explain this.

7. the hour-steps that Night ascends: By my translation "hour-steps" for the original passi, "steps," I indicate the choice I have made of the three possible interpretations of passi: not

CANTO IX / 101

the signs of the Zodiac, not the "watches" of the night, but the twelve hours that intervene between sunset and dawn. Thus, two hours having passed since sunset, and the third being well on its way toward completion, it must have been between 8:30 and 9:00 at night when the Pilgrim fell asleep. This seems to be the generally accepted opinion of scholars today — except for the few who believe in the first of the four theories mentioned: that the Pilgrim fell asleep when it was dawn in Purgatory.

9. wings: the "wings" of the third hour anticipate the morn- ing swallow ( 1 3) and the eagle that will appear in the Pilgrim's dream.

12. all five of us: The five are the Pilgrim, Virgil, Sordello, Nino, and Corrado.

13-18

With no transition, the narrative passes from evening to the hour just before dawn. This is the second time-periphrasis in the canto and, like the first ( 1 -6), it is coupled with a pagan mythological tale with strong sensual overtones. In this case, it is the legend of Philomela and Procne, the main source for which is Ovid's Metamorphoses (VI, 423-674). King Tereus of Thrace had married Procne, whose sister, Philomela, he sub- sequently raped, cutting out her tongue afterwards lest she be- tray him. However, Philomela managed to communicate the entire story to her sister by weaving it into a tapestry. In re- venge, Procne killed her infant son and, with the help of Philomela, served up the cooked flesh of the boy to his father. Learning that he had fed upon his son, Tereus pursued the two sisters with an ax, but before he could slay them, the gods changed all three into birds. Ovid tells us that Tereus became a hoopoe, but does not specify further the fate of the two sisters. According to the generally accepted version, Philomela be- comes a nightingale, and Procne a swallow; Dante, however, presents Philomela here as a swallow (later, he will refer to Procne as a nightingale: XVII, 19-21). For a discussion of the sensual overtones to this and other images in this canto and their connection to the Pilgrim's first dream, see Musa (1981).

1 3. At the hour: According to ancient and medieval popular tradition, the dreams that occur in the early morning hours, just before daybreak, are likely to be prophetic (cf. Inf. XXVI,

102 / CANTO IX

7). As we shall see, this is cenainly the case with the Pilgrim's dream here.

19-33

The dream at the end of the first night in Purgatory at once brings to an end the Pilgrim's stay in the Antepurgatory, represents the transmutation of an event that he is actually ex- periencing while dreaming, and anticipates experiences that await him on his journey up the mountain.

The Pilgrim's mind has absorbed all the sensuousness and aimlessness of the Antepurgatory — consequently he translates his ascent to the gates of Purgatory in St. Lucy's arms (52-57), an act of which he himself was incapable, into the pagan tale of the beautiful, young boy whom Jove, disguised as an eagle, and burning with desire, snatched up from the top of Mount Ida. Lucy's gesture, a redeeming act of illuminating grace, is per- ceived by the naive and earthbound Pilgrim as an act of sexual violence. It is through this unconscious perception of his that the Pilgrim is shown to be still at a most inadequate and imper- fect stage in his spiritual development, still much in need of purification.

The sensual, pagan nature of the Pilgrim's dream is prepared for by the two time-periphrases which opened this canto, in- volving the stories of Tithonus and Philomela: in both, the voice of the poet hints at the dark, ugly side of the violent indulgence of the senses. (Incidentally, the Te lucis ante, the prayer recited in the last canto, asks specifically for defense against just such dreams!)

And certainly the Pilgrim is in no condition to understand or interpret the dream that his own childish unconscious has pro- duced. Not until Virgil explains what has happened does he begin to grasp the dream's significance.

The fire that seems to consume the Pilgrim, and so wakes him, anticipates the purifying sufferings that he will see everywhere in Purgatory, and more particularly, the wall of fire through which he, like every other penitent soul, must pass to reach the Earthly Paradise. When he confronts the actual fire (Canto XXVII) he will react in fear, just as he does now in the dream and in his first few waking moments.

23. Ganymede: Son of Tros, the mythical founder of Troy, Ganymede was reported to be the most beautiful of all mortals.

canto ix / 103

While hunting on Mount Ida, he was snatched up by Jove dis- guised as an eagle, to become the cup-bearer to the gods.

According to the Homeric hymn to Eos (Aurora), the god- dess of the dawn, smitten with love for Tithonus, abducted him before marrying him. This would offer a parallel to the story of Ganymede: in both cases there is the sudden translation of a mortal to heavenly regions, as the result of a violent erotic impulse.

24. conclave: the term used by Dante (consistoro) is ecclesiasti- cal and serves to associate Jove with the Christian God.

34 _ 39 Just as Achilles: In this simile the bewilderment of the boy Achilles upon waking up in a place different from the one in which he went to sleep is compared to the Pilgrim's own confusion on waking from his dream not in the lush, enamelled Valley of the Princes, where he fell asleep, but at the distant gates of Purgatory. In the first book of the Achilleid, Statius tells how Thetis, to keep her young son out of the Trojan War, carried him, still asleep, from (the charge of his tutor, Chiron, in) Thessaly to the island of Skyros. There, dressed as a girl, Achilles grew up among the women in the palace of King Lycomedes, until Ulysses and Diomede, anxious to recruit him for the war, tricked him into revealing his sex. According to Virgil, this is one of the three crimes for which the two Greeks are burning in Hell (Inf. XXVI, 61 -63).

In this, the fourth reference in our canto to pagan mythol- ogy, no element of violence or sensuality is present; rather the childishness of the Pilgrim is given prominence; in comparing the bewilderment of the newly awakened Pilgrim to the bewil- derment of the newly awakened Achilles, Dante is also remind- ing the reader of what has preceded in each case: that is, the Pilgrim is compared not to the heroic Achilles about to go into battle but to a boy being carried, asleep in his mother's arms, to safety.

55. Lucia: According to legend, St. Lucy of Syracuse plucked out her beautiful eyes when they were admired by an importunate suitor. For this incomparable act of chastity she was rewarded with even more beautiful eyes and became the patroness of those suffering from impaired vision. Note that it is precisely with her eyes that St. Lucy "talks to" Virgil in verse 61.

104 / CANTO IX

70-72. Reader, you see how lofty is my theme: In chis Address to the Reader, the poet attempts to prepare his reader for the symbolism of the three steps he is about to climb. Or perhaps he wishes to point even further ahead to the elaborate terrace and ritual structure of Purgatory proper. Spitzer distinguishes between the different types of Addresses to the Reader in the Comedy, which, according to him, come to a total of nineteen. See also Auerbach.

78-84. the silent figure of someone on guard: The guardian holds a naked sword, the symbol of divine authority. The sword brilliantly reflects the rays of the sun, which is the sym- bol of God. The guardian angel may recall the cherubim with their flaming sword who were set to guard the entrance to the Garden of Eden after the Fall and expulsion of Adam and Eve. And, indeed, it might be said that this angel, too, is set at the entrance to Eden, for the Earthly Paradise is located inside the gate of Purgatory at the top of the mountain.

86. Where is your guide?: Some scholars deduce from the angel's question that all of the Late Repentant, when their sentence in Antepurgatory is completed, must be accompanied by an angel to the gate. It must be admitted that this question echoes Cato's words to the pilgrim pair in Purg. I, 43: "Who guided you?"; and we know, of course, that all the souls who arrive on the shores of Purgatory (all the Saved) must have a guide: the angel pilot who has brought them from the Tiber. But we know this (we come to learn it) as a fact; it is not a deduction. And I should hesitate to deduce, on this unprece- dented occasion, anything about the conditions obtaining in Antepurgatory from the angel's question here.

94-102. We reached the steps: The three steps are generally taken to represent the three stages of repentance: the first step, which is white and mirrorlikey stands for self-examination; the second, black, rough step stands for sorrow for sin, or contri- tion; the third, flaming-red step signifies satisfaction of the sin- ner's debt, or penance. The color also suggests ardent love and the shedding of Christ's blood, which provided satisfaction for the sins of the world. But see also Grandgent (p. 389) and Car- roll (pp. 141-44).

103-105. upon this step the angel of the Lord: This guardian angel represents ecclesiastical authority and is seated on

canto ix / 105

adamantine rock to indicate the firm foundation upon which that authority rests: "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I shall build my church" (Matt. 16:18). And that the angel here is associated with St. Peter is clear from verse 127, where he re- veals that it is from Peter that he received the keys to the gate: "And I will give thee the keys to the kingdom of Heaven; and whatever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven and whatever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in Heaven" (Matt. 16:19).

in. three times I smote my breast: The traditional gesture of repentance and sorrow for one's sins. It is accompanied by the well-known words "mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa."

113. the scars of seven Fj: The letter P stands for the Latin peccatum, "sin." The seven P's carved on the Pilgrim's forehead represent the stains of the seven Capital Sins that the Penitents must purge by their suffering on the mountain of Purgatory before their souls are ready to enter the Kingdom of Heaven. That each of the penitent souls entering the gate must go through the same symbolical ceremony is not necessary to assume.

1 1 5- 17. Ashes: The angel, ecclesiastical authority, is here presented in his role as confessor. He wears the ashen-grey garments of penitence, and his keys symbolize the divinely del- egated power of the confessor to grant and withold absolution.

124-26. One is more precious: On the two keys that represent the power of the confessor, Porena comments: "The gold key symbolizes the authority to absolve, which comes from God, and is therefore, by nature, superior but inherent, so to speak, in the sacerdotal quality in the abstract. The silver key sym- bolizes the concrete act of absolution (it disentangles, that is, unties the knot of sin); and it requires great psychological ca- pacity [wisdom and skill] on the part of the priest, in under- standing whether the sinner has really repented and merits absolution."

132. to look back: The "looking back" topos is common in both biblical and classical literature. We recall that God saved Lot and his family from the destruction of Sodom and Gomor- rah on the condition that they not turn and look back as they fled the city. Lot's wife, ignoring this injunction, was turned

106 / CANTO IX

into a pillar of sale. And in classical legend, chere is Orpheus, who was given permission to lead Eurydice out of Hell only if he refrained from looking behind him as they escaped. They started off, with Orpheus in the lead; then he turned around to see how Eurydice was faring, and she vanished. In the context of Purgatory, as in that of the Old Testament story, "looking back" would demonstrate a lack of resolve and an imperfect desire to attain the ultimate good.

135-38. The rolling roar: Metellus the tribune attempted in vain to prevent Julius Caesar, after the crossing of the Rubicon in 49 B.C., from entering the temple of Saturn at the foot of the Tarpelan rock, where the treasury was located. Lucan describes the loud grating sound that echoed in the rock when the doors to the vault were opened (Phars. Ill, 153-57, 167-68).

146. Te Deum laudamus: "We praise Thee, O God." This fa- mous Ambrosian hymn of gratitude to God here appears to be sung somewhat mysteriously, on the occasion of the gates' opening to admit the Pilgrim into Purgatory. Especially appro- priate in this context would be the words: Tu, devicto mortis aculeo, aperuisti credentibus regna cae/orum ("When Thou hadst overcome the sting of death, Thou didst open to believers the Kingdom of Heaven").

141. accompanied by the sweet notes of that door: The harsh sound of the door turning on its hinges as it opens is sweet to the Pilgrim because of the invitation it offers, and in the verses that follow the sound is compared to the deep notes of an organ accompanying (and from time to time drowning out) the words of a hymn being sung.

I must admit that in the original, verse 141 contains no ref- erence to the door: . . . in voce mista al dolce suono, "the words blending with the sweet sound"; and there are some scholars who insist that dolce suono could not possibly refer to the door: a sound first presented as strident and grating could not be re- ferred to later as "sweet." I consider this reasoning naive, and the variant that attempts to identify the "sweet sound" (cf. Chimenz) unconvincing.

CANTO IX / 107

CANTO X

VIRGIL AND THE Pilgrim pass through the gate, and it shuts resoundingly behind them as they make their way along a nar- row path through a rocky cleft. They finally emerge from this "needle's eye" to find themselves on a deserted ledge. The wall of the cliff that rises to one side of the ledge is adorned with carvings in white marble, all of them offering examples of the virtue of humility. The first example is the scene of the An- nunciation. The second carving represents David, who has put aside his kingly splendor to dance in humility before the Lord. The third shows the Emperor Trajan halting his mighty array of warriors on horseback to listen to a poor widow's plea for jus- tice. As the Pilgrim stands marvelling at these august humilities, Virgil directs his attention to a group of souls that is moving toward them. These are the Proud, who, beating their breasts, make their way around the ledge under the crushing weight of tremendous slabs of stone that they carry on their backs.

When we had passed the threshold of the gate forever closed to souls whose loves are bad and make the crooked road seem like the straight, 3

I heard it close again, resoundingly;

if I had turned to look back at the gate,

how could I have explained this fault of mine? 6

Then we were climbing through a narrow cleft along a path that zigzagged through the rock the way a wave swells up and then pulls back. 9

"Now, we are at the point," my guide began,

"where we must use our wits: when the path bends,

we keep close to the far side of the curve." 12

This forced us into taking smaller steps, so that the waning moon had made its way to rest already in its bed, before 15

we finally squeezed through that needle's eye.

When we were free, once more out on the mount,

where this recedes enough to form a ledge, is

108 / canto x

we stopped there on the level space that stretched lonelier than a desert path — I, tired, and both of us uncertain of the way.

From the plain's edge, verging on empty space, to where the cliff-face soars again, was room for three men's bodies laid out end to end;

as far as I could take in with my eyes, measuring carefully from left to right, this terrace did not vary in its width.

And standing there, before we took a step, I realized that all the inner cliff, which, rising sheer, offered no means to climb,

was pure white marble; on its flawless face were carvings that would surely put to shame not only Polyclete but Nature too.

The angel who came down to announce on earth the peace longed for by weeping centuries, which broke the ancient ban and opened Heaven,

appeared before our eyes: a shape alive, carved in an attitude of marble grace, an effigy that could have spoken words.

One would have sworn that he was saying "Ave!" for she who turned the key, opening for us the Highest Love, was also figured there;

the outlines of her image carved the words Ecce ancilla Dei, as clearly cut as is the imprint of a seal on wax.

"Why don't you look at other parts as well?" my gentle master said, the while I stood close by his side, the side that holds the heart.

And so I turned my eyes and looked ahead past Mary's figure to that point where he who prompted me now stood, and there I saw

another story cut into the stone;

crossing in front of Virgil, I drew near, so that my eyes could take in all of it.

canto x / 1

Carved in the spread of marble there, I saw the cart and oxen with the holy Ark: a warning not to exceed one's competence.

Ahead of it moved seven separate choirs testing my senses: one of these said, "No," the other one said, "Yes, they truly sing!"

With equal art, the smoke which censers poured was traced so faithfully that eyes and nose could not decide between a "yes" or "no."

Ahead, and far beyond the sacred Ark,

his robes girt up, the humble Psalmist danced, showing himself both more and less than king.

Depicted on the other side was Michal, as from a palace window she looked on, her face revealed her sadness and her scorn.

I moved away from that place to observe at closer range another story told in whiteness just beyond the face of Michal.

Here was retold the magnanimity of that great Prince of Rome whose excellence moved Gregory to win his greatest fight:

there rode the noble Trajan, Emperor, and clinging to his bridle as she wept a wretched widow, carved in lines of grief.

The trampled space surrounding him was packed with knights on horseback — eagles, flying high, threaded in gold of banners in the wind.

That poor widow amid the mass of shapes seemed to be saying: "Lord, avenge my son who has been killed; my heart is cut with grief.

He seemed to answer: "You will have to wait for my return." And she, like one impelled by frantic grief: "But, oh, my lord, if you

should not teturn?" And he: "Who takes my place will do it for me." She: "How can you let another's virtue take the place of yours?"

110/ canto x

Then he: "Take comfort, for I see I must perform my duty, now, before I leave: Justice so wills, and pity holds me here."

That One for Whom no new thing can exist fashioned this art of visible speech — so strange to us who do not know it here on earth.

As I stood there delighting in the sight of these august humilities displayed, dear to behold for their own Craftsman's sake,

"See, over there, how slowly they approach, that crowd of souls," the Poet whispered to me, "they will direct us to the lofty stairs."

My eyes, intent on their admiring,

were, nonetheless, not slow to turn toward him, for they are always eager for new sights.

But, Reader, when I tell you how God wills His penitents should pay their debts, do not abandon your intention to repent.

You must not think about the punishment, think but of what will come of it — at worst it cannot last beyond the Final Day.

"Master, what I see moving toward us there," I said, "do not seem to be shades at all; I don't know what they are, my sight's confused."

"The grievous nature of their punishment,"

he answered, "bends their bodies toward the ground my own eyes were not sure of what they saw.

Try hard to disentangle all the parts

of what you see moving beneath those stones. Can you see now how each one beats his breast?"

O haughty Christians, wretched, sluggish souls, all you whose inner vision is diseased, putting your trust in things that pull you back,

do you not understand that we are worms, each born to form the angelic butterfly, that flies defenseless to the Final Judge?

canto x / 1 1 1

Why do your souls' pretensions rise so high, since you are but defective insects still, worms as yet imperfectly evolved? 129

Sometimes one sees a corbel, holding the weight of roof or ceiling, carved in human shape with chest pressed tightly down against its knees, 132

so that this unreality gives real

anguish to one who sees it — this is how

these souls appeared, and how they made me feel. 135

True, some of them were more compressed, some less, as more or less weight pressed on each one's back, but even the most patient of them all 13a

seemed through his tears to say: "I can't go on!"

NOTES

2. whose loves are bad: Love, in Dante's view, is the force be- hind all human action. Just as good works are an extension of love rightly directed, so sin is an extension of love disordered, of love perverted for the sake of evil. The belief that love is the central ordering principle of the universe goes back to Aris- totle; he posited that the force of love, which manifested itself in each object's search for its "right" or natural position, was what kept the planets in regular motion and motivated tem- poral and seasonal progressions. Hence love would be synony- mous with physical order, and, by extension, with what is "right" or natural spiritually, or what is good. The belief that love was the supreme ordering force in the universe continued and developed into the Middle Ages. A prayer ascribed to St. Francis of Assisi reads, "Set love in order, Thou that lovest me." What the souls in Purgatory must do is redirect their love and, through purgation, set it in order with divine love. (See Virgil's discourse, Purg. XVII, 103 ff.)

5. if I had turned: The pilgrim seems to be learning his lesson: not to look back and to concentrate on his forward progress.

112/ canto x

7-l6

The general critical consensus is that the path "that pitched from side to side" is, quite simply, a zigzag path. However, as far back as Pietro di Dante and Benvenuto da Imola, commen- tators have admitted the possibility that the path itself is actu- ally pitching from side to side. This latter interpretation is not as patently absurd as it would first appear to be. On a symbolic level, it would certainly reinforce the idea that the beginning of the journey of purgation that leads to God is indeed difficult, laborious, and tortuous. And furthermore, Sayers (p. 341) ob- serves that "The negotiation of a moving barrier or 'pass peril- ous' of a similar sort is a commonplace of Other- World Jour- neys, both in Classical and romantic folk-lore, the most famous instances being the Clashing Rocks through which the Ar- gonauts have to steer, and the falling portcullis past which Owain has to leap both in the Celtic and French versions of the story."

7. a narrow cleft: The narrow passageway through which the Pilgrim and Virgil must pass suggests the difficult road to Heaven: "How narrow the gate and close the way that leads to life! And few there are who find it" (Matt. 7:14). The gate of Purgatory* and this narrow path stand out in marked contrast to the entrance to the Inferno, where the gate is very wide.

16. needle's eye: Cf. Matt. 19:24: "It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven."

20. lonelier than a desert path: The loneliness, the desertlike quality, of the ledge along which the Proud must slowly move will be referred to again in the following canto (XI, 1 5).

31-32. on its flawless face I were carvings: The carvings here illustrate examples of the virtue of Humility; they will be fol- lowed two cantos later by "carved examples" of the vice of Pride. Thus, on the first cornice, Dante has chosen to represent the relevant pair of contrasts on the visual plane, imagining il- lustrative scenes carved with consummate art. For some pos- sible visual sources of Dante's literary pictorialism here on the Terrace of Pride, see Fiero.

33. Polyclete: Polycletus was a celebrated Greek sculptor (ca. 452-412 B.C.) and a contemporary of Phidias. Just as Phidias

CANTO X / 1 1 3

was thought to be unsurpassed in carving images of the gods, so Polycletus was thought to execute perfect carvings of men. One of his works, a carving of a bodyguard of the king of Persia, came to be called, because of its perfection, "the rule." He is acclaimed by Aristotle, Cicero, Pliny, Quintilian, and others.

34-45

As will always be the case, the first example of the virtue illustrated is taken from the life of the Virgin Mary; here, the scene of the Annunciation is chosen to represent humility on Mary's part. When the angel Gabriel appeared to Mary and explained to her that she, though still a virgin, would bear the son of God, she acquiesced completely to God's will, replying, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord [Ecce ancilla Dei], let it be done unto me according to Thy will" (Luke 1:38).

36. which broke the ancient ban and opened Heaven: From the time of Original Sin until the death of Christ, Heaven had been closed to mankind (the "weeping centuries" of verse 35), and all the souls destined for Heaven during this period went to Limbo (see Inf. IV, 52-63). With the coming of the Redeemer (the Annunciation alluded to in verse 34), the "ancient ban" was lifted and Heaven was opened to mankind.

41 . for she who turned the key: The Virgin Mary in conceiving Christ "unlocked" for mankind the love of God.

48. the side that holds the heart: The Pilgrim is now standing to the left of Virgil.

55-69

The second exemplum of the virtue opposed to the vice of Pride is a carving depicting King David dancing in humility be- fore the Ark of the Covenant as it is being brought, to Jerusalem. After his victory over the Philistines, David reas- sembled his troops and prepared to bring the Ark to Jerusalem from the house of Abinadab. Uzzah and Ahio, sons of Abinadab, led the cart bearing the Ark as they travelled. When the oxen pulling the cart stumbled, Uzzah reached out to steady the Ark and touched it, whereupon God struck him dead for his presumption. David, frightened and displeased, decided to leave the Ark at the house of the Hittite Obede-

114 / CANTO x

dom. While it was there, Obededom prospered, and David de- cided once again to bring the Ark to Jerusalem. As the Ark entered the city, David could be seen dancing before it in wor- ship and humility (II Sam. 6:1-17). By dancing, David hum- bled himself before God and his people, thus showing himself to be "both more and less than king." The carving depicts only this incident from the second stage of the Ark's journey, but Dante reminds the reader beforehand (57) of Uzzah's sacrile- gious act.

57. a warning not to exceed one's competence: This is a reference to the presumptuous act of Uzzah, who accompanied the Ark during the first stage of its journey (see note to 55-69).

In a letter to the Italian cardinals (Epist. XI, 9, 12) Dante denies a comparison made between himself and Uzzah for his allegedly unwarranted interference in church affairs: while Uzzah touched the sacred Ark, Dante says, he only wishes to guide the oxen who have strayed from the right path.

59-60. one of these said, "No": This is his sense of hearing, which says, "No," while his sense of sight tells him, "Yes, they truly sing." In the next tercet (61-63) 't >s the senses of sight and smell ("eyes and nose" [62]) that cannot agree.

66. both more and less than king: By dancing reverently be- fore the Ark, David humbles himself before God, thus showing himself to be both "more and less than king" — more than a king in the eyes of God and less than a king in the eyes of his fellow man.

67. Michal: David's first wife, Michal, daughter of King Saul, who observed with disdain and reproach her husband's humble dance of joy. For her arrogant attitude she was punished with sterility (cf. II Kings 6:23).

73-93

The third example is taken from the life of Trajan, Roman emperor from A.D. 98 to 1 1 7. In the carving, he is seen pausing on the way to battle to listen to the grievances of a poor widow who clings to his bridle. He displays humility by recognizing his obligation to the widow and halting his army to put himself at her service. This story was extremely popular in the Middle Ages and is recounted in the Fiore di filosofi, as well as in John

canto x / 1 15

the Deacon's ninth-century life of St. Gregory (Sancti G regorii Magni Vita, II, 44).

7 5. moved Gregory to win his greatest fight: St. Gregory I, "the Great," born at Rome ca.540; pope from 590 to 604. In the Middle Ages it was widely believed that through the interces- sion of Gregory, the soul of the emperor Trajan was called back from Hell and allowed to return to life that he might repent and secure salvation. Dante will place the soul of Trajan in Paradise (Par. XX, 44-45).

94. That One: God is the artist (cf. Inf. XV, 11)'. Dante's presentation of God as artist prepares the reader for the ap- pearance of Cimabue and Giotto in the next canto.

95. this art of visible speech: God is the One for whom no new thing can exist. Dante likens His carvings to "visible speech" because their vividness and presence are such that the figures represented in them seem to speak, to enact the scenes in which they are depicted. In the scene of David dancing be- fore the people, the Pilgrim hears the people singing (and smells the incense); in that between the Archangel and Mary he is able to make out a few words ("Ave"; "Ecce ancilla Dei"); as for the last scene between Trajan and the widow, the Pilgrim, inspired by the dramatic sculpture, is able to reconstruct the entire dialogue. These carvings that seemingly speak to him as he watches are unlike anything that he has seen on earth. See Baldassaro, p. 273.

103-105. My eyes: Dante's eyes were more than content to marvel at the works of art, but not for idle pleasure. Quickly, eagerly, he turns away upon being summoned by Virgil.

121-29

Dante the Poet addresses all those "haughty Christians" clinging to the world, who ignore and abuse their capacity for being transformed into perfected souls. The image of the changing of caterpillar into angelic butterfly, one of transfor- mation and flight, is central to the action of the Purgatory. Per- fection, the requisite for ascent into Paradise, is symbolically represented by weightlessness, which may become wingedness. Since on earth the Proud go stiff-necked, with head held high, they are weighted down in Purgatory by huge stones pressing them into the ground. When the penance for Pride is com-

116/ canto x

pleted, the soul is freed of its weight and is brought closer to the weightlessness of perfection needed to ascend into Paradise. Also, as the soul exchanges pride for humility, its love is changed from disorder to order, and a transformation takes place in the soul as it begins to assume the purity that is its "right" or natural state.

125-26: each born to form the angelic butterfly: This reference to the ultimate destiny of man has at times been treated in too sentimental a fashion. It is a grim reminder that man was born to die; while he is alive his body is only a grub, intended to release his soul at death; when he dies his soul, "the angelic butterfly," is immediately destined to face his Maker naked ("defenseless") and to receive God's justice. I do not believe that we are invited to think here in terms of upward, winged flight, of the purified soul mounting toward God to receive the reward of Heaven, as is clearly the case in the sad lines 95-96 of Canto XII: "O race of man born to fly heavenward, / how can a breath of wind make you fall back?"

CANTO X / 1 1 7

CANTO XI

THE CANTO OPENS with the prayer of the Proud — an ex- panded version of the Lord's Prayer. Virgil then asks the peni- tents to tell him the quickest way up the mountain, and one of the souls replies that he will show them an opening through which they may ascend. This is the soul of Omberto Aldobran- desco, who acknowledges that the sin of pride in family has ruined not only himself but his entire house. The Pilgrim is then recognized by another soul, Oderisi of Gubbio, who pro- claims against the empty glory of human talent. And Oderisi points to still another of the souls of the Proud — Provenzan Salvani, the presumptuous dictator of Siena.

"Our Father Who in Heaven dost abide,

not there constrained but dwelling there because

Thou lovest more Thy lofty first effects, j

hallowed be Thy name, hallowed Thy Power, by Thy creatures as it behooves us all

to render thanks for Thy sweet effluence. 6

Thy kingdom come to us with all its peace; if it come not, we of ourselves cannot

attain to it, no matter how we strive. 9

And as Thine angels offer up their wills to Thee in sacrifice, singing Hosannah, let all men offer up to Thee their own. 12

Give us this day our daily manna, Lord: without it, those most eager to advance go backwards through this wild wasteland of ours. 15

As we forgive our trespassers, do Thou, forgive our trespasses, merciful Lord,

look not upon our undeserving worth. 18

Our strength is only weakness, lead us not into temptation by our ancient foe:

deliver us from him who urges evil. 21

118/ CANTO XI

This last request, beloved Lord, we make

not for ourselves, who know we have no need, but for those souls who still remain behind."

Thus, praying for their welfare and for ours,

those souls moved slowly bent beneath their weights the slowness that oppresses us in dreams —

unequally tormented by their loads,

making their tired way on the First Round, purging away the filth of worldliness.

If they, up there, pray always for our good, think of what we down here can do for them, when praying hearts are rooted in good will!

We ought, indeed, to help them wash away

the stains they bring from earth, that they may rise, weightless and pure, into the wheeling stars.

"Ah, so may justice joined with pity free

you from your load, that you may spread your wings and fly up to the goal of your desire,

show us how we may find the shortest way to reach the stairs; if there are many paths, direct us to the one least steep to climb:

this man who comes here with me bears a weight; he is invested still with Adam's flesh, and so, against his will, is slow to climb."

Some words then came in answer to the ones that had been spoken by my leader, but it was not clear to me from whom they came;

someone, however, said: "Follow this bank along the right with us, and you will find the road a living man can surely climb.

If I were not prevented by this stone

that curbs the movement of my haughty neck, and makes me keep my face bent to the ground,

I would look up to see if I might know

this unnamed living man, and hope to move him to compassion for my burdened back.

canto xi / 119

I was Italian, born of a great Tuscan: Guglielmo Aldobrandesco was my sire. Perhaps you never heard the name before.

My ancient lineage, the gallant deeds of my forebears had made me arrogant: forgetful of our common Mother Earth,

I held all men in such superb disdain, I died for it, as all Siena knows and every child in Compagnatico.

I am Omberto. And the sin of Pride

has ruined not only me but all my house, dragging them with it to calamity.

This weight which I refused while I still lived, I now am forced to bear among the dead, until the day that God is satisfied."

I had my head bent low, to hear his words,

and someone — not the one who spoke just now — twisted around beneath his punishment,

and saw my face, and knew me, and called out, straining to keep his eyes on me, as I moved with those souls, keeping my body bent.

"Oh!" I said, "you must be that Oderisi, honor of Gubbio, honor of the art which men in Paris call 'Illuminating.'"

"The pages Franco Bolognese paints,"

he said, "my brother, smile more radiantly; his is the honor now — mine is far less.

Less courteous would I have been to him, I must admit, while I was still alive and my desire was only to excel.

For pride like that the price is paid up here; I would not even be here, were it not that, while I srill could sin, I turned to God.

Oh, empty glory of all human power! How soon the green fades from the topmost bough, unless the following season shows no growth!

120 / CANTO XI

Once Cimabue thought to hold the field as painter; Giotto now is all the rage,

dimming the lustre of the other's fame. 96

So, one Guido takes from the other one poetic glory; and, already born,

perhaps, is he who'll drive both from fame's nest. 99

Your earthly fame is but a gust of wind

that blows about, shifting this way and that,

and as it changes quarter, changes name. 102

Were you to reach the ripe old age of death, instead of dying prattling in your crib,

would you have more fame in a thousand years? ;oj

What are ten centuries to eternity? Less than the blinking of an eye compared to the turning of the slowest of the spheres. 108

You see that soul ahead crawling along? All Tuscany resounded with his name;

now hardly is it whispered in Siena, m

where once he ruled, and managed to destroy the mad attack of Florence — once, so proud but, now, become as venal as a whore. 114

Your earthly fame is like the green in grass: it comes and goes, and He who makes it grow green from the earth will make it fade again." in

And I to him: "Your words of truth have humbled my heart; they have reduced my swollen pride. But who is he you spoke about just now?" 120

"That's Provenzan Salvani," he replied, "and he is here because presumptuously he sought to gain control of all Siena. 123

So he crawls on, and has crawled since he died, knowing no rest. And such coin is paid here by those who were presumptuous down there." 126

And I: "If it is true that any soul who has delayed repentance till the last must wait down there before he can ascend, 129

canto xi / 121

the same amount of time he lived on earth (unless he's helped by efficacious prayer) — then how has he arrived so fast up here?" 132

He said: "While at the apex of his glory, in Siena's marketplace, of his free will,

putting aside all shame, he took his stand, ijs

and there, to ransom from his suffering

a friend who was immured in Charles's jail,

he brought himself to do what chilled his veins! 1 3 8

(I say no more. My words, I know, are vague, but your own neighbors not too long from now will help you to interpret what I've said.)

It was this deed of his that sped him here."

NOTES 1-21

The first seven tercets of the canto constitute an expanded paraphrase of the Lord's Prayer, recited by the souls on the terrace of the Proud. The parts that have been added to the original text of the prayer consistently and fittingly emphasize humility (as Momigliano [pp. 341-43] shows.) They display a consciousness of human weakness and an attitude of supplica- tion before the Almighty.

4-5. hallowed be Thy name . . . I by Thy creatures: The phrase added to the original "hallowed be Thy name" is reminiscent of the Laudes creatururum of Saint Francis, who was perhaps the greatest example of humility in the Middle Ages (see Contini [i960], pp. 33-34)-

13-15. Give us this day our daily manna: The replacement of the original "daily bread" by a "daily manna," as well as the reference to the desert, recalls the Exodus theme of the Ante- purgatory (in particular see Purg. II, 45). And, indeed, the Exodus figure applies as well to Purgatory proper: here, too, the souls are waiting and wandering on their desert path (X, 21).

122 / CANTO XI

24. those souls who still remain behind: That is, those still liv- ing on earth, who need protection from temptation. The refer- ence could hardly include those "remaining behind" in the Antepurgatory, for the Late Repentant are as secure from temptation as are those within the gate. And the pronoun ours in the following line ("Thus, praying for their welfare and for ours") makes this clear: Dante's use of the first person plural here could only refer to Dante and his kind, that is, living men.

28. unequally tormented by their loads: each soul is tormented according to the gravity and extent of his own sin.

38. that you may spread your wings: Once again, we are re- minded of the theme of flight, the central metaphor for pur- gatorial ascent.

44. Adam's flesh: Dante, too, like the souls of the Proud (28), is "burdened."

49-72

An anonymous voice speaks, which will eventually identify itself as that of Omberto Aldobrandesco (67). The entire speech is dominated by the pronoun "I" (and the possessive "my"), showing a lingering tendency toward pride and self- centeredness. The haughty Omberto defines himself in terms of family and lineage, and in terms of his reputation among others (64-66), but, at the same time, he demonstrates a clear consciousness of his own arrogance and the destruction that it wrought upon him and his entire family (67-79).

59. Gug/ie/mo Aldobrandesco: This name, which occupies al- most the entire verse, seems to echo the grandiose qualities of Omberto's father, the mighty Tuscan.

60. Perhaps you never heard the name before: No irony is in- tended here. Omberto is being sincere, and this line is an index of the spiritual progress toward humility that he has made thus far in Purgatory.

67. Omberto: Second son of Guglielmo Aldobrandesco (59), Count of Santafiora, whose hatred of the Sienese led him to abandon the Ghibelline cause and ally himself with the Guelphs of Florence and Tuscany. Omberto was the lord of a fortified castle at Compagnatico.

canto xi / 123

Two versions of Omberco's death are extant. In the more widely accepted, he was killed in May 1259 during a battle with the Sienese. His castle was besieged, and, although he was greatly outnumbered, he defended himself stoutly, finally charging into the thick of the enemy and causing a number of deaths before he was cut down. His defense against a much larger force and his final charge indicate supreme disdain for those who attacked him.

In the other, less popular, version Omberto was strangled or suffocated in his bed by hired killers of the Sienese. Verses 64-66 would seem to indicate that in this canto Omberto re- fers to the former version of his death.

73-78

The Pilgrim here, head bent low, body stooped, is sharing the purgation of the Proud. On each terrace of the Purgatory he will "participate" to some extent in the suffering and purga- tion of the sin. The participation here is particularly . marked since Dante admits (Purg. XIII, 1 36- 38) that his own besetting sin is Pride.

77. straining to keep his eyes on me: Evidently this soul's punishment is less grave than Omberto's, for he is able to lift his head, although with difficulty, and see the Pilgrim.

79. you must be that Oderisi: Oderisi of Gubbio does not identify himself (as did Omberto), but Dante greets him with intense enthusiasm. Oderisi (ca. 1240-99?) was an illuminator of manuscripts. In his Life of Giotto, Vasari states (pp. 384-85) that Oderisi was employed by Boniface VIII to illuminate some manuscripts in the papal library, and that he was a lesser artist than Franco Bolognese (see verses 82-83). Benvenuto com- ments that Oderisi was vain, and that he boasted that he had no equal in painting. He suggests an intended irony in Dante's calling him "the honor of Gubbio."

82. The pages Franco Bolognese paints: Oderisi replies to Dante with self-effacement. Though his tone differs significant- ly from the pompous and solemn pronouncements of Omberto, Oderisi is not yet totally devoid of pride, for he implies that his pages too, smile; and, although he concedes first place to Franco Bolognese, the old habit of pride still lays claim to some (even though a lesser) glory (84).

124 / CANTO XI

We have no information regarding Franco Bolognese, and (as is the case with Oderisi) no extant works can be attributed to him with any certainty.

91-93. Oh. empty glory: Human fame and glory are transi- tory; they are easily and quickly superseded. Only if a produc- tive age is followed by a decadent and nonproductive one can the fame of that age endure, since nothing (no new glory) has come along to replace the old.

94. Cimabue: Cenni de Pepo, known as Giovanni Cimabue (1240?- 1 302?), was considered in the Florence of his day a great master. He broke from the Byzantine tradition of art to develop a more natural style.

95. Giotto: Giotto of Bondone (1266 or 1267-1337) was a pupil of Cimabue's who went on to surpass his master. Giotto appears to have been a personal friend of Dante's (one or two years his junior), and is most likely responsible for the famous portrait of Dante in the Bargello at Florence.

97 _ 99- one Guido takes from the other one: The first is Guido Cavalcanti (1259-1300), whom Dante in the Vita Nuova calls his "first friend" and to whom that work is dedicated, and the other is Guido Guinizelli (ca. 1230-ca. 1276), a Bolognese poet whom Dante refers to as his "father" and the father of "all those who wrote poetry of love in a sweet and graceful style" (Purg. XXVI, 97-99). Both Guidos were exponents of the so-called dolce stil nuovo. But the poetic glory of Guinizelli, Dante lets Oderisi say, has now been obscured by that of Cavalcanti, and, perhaps, he continues, someone has already been born who will supersede them both.

Does Oderisi have Dante in mind as the one destined to drive both Guidos from the nest? If so, this praise would amount to self-praise on the part of Dante; that is, it would be a sign of his vanity, his pride. And some commentators point ahead to Canto XIII, where the Pilgrim indicates that Pride is his besetting sin. But granted that Dante the Poet would here be boasting through Oderisi of his future triumph over the two Guidos, the overall context would make this boast appear ridiculously empty: for he has also put into Oderisi's mouth words that affirm most vehemently the transitory nature of all fame and, hence, its meaninglessness. It is, of course, not im- possible that Dante, while prompting Oderisi to speak so con-

canto xi / 125

temptuously of fame as a passing phenomenon, might be think- ing that his own case would prove to be an exception to the general law.

105. would you have more fame in a thousand years?: Here, Oderisi's scorn of earthly fame reaches an extreme that is surely unrealistic — as if it were impossible to speak in terms of lasting fame. To take his own field of competency: was not the reputation of Polydetus still a living memory after more than a thousand years?

109. that soul ahead crawling along: In verse 121 he is iden- tified as Provenzan Salvani (ca. 1220-69), Ghibelline chief of Siena. At the council of Empoli following the battle of Mon- taperti in 1260 (1 12-13) he advocated the total destruction of Florence, a plan that was successfully countered by Farinata {Inf. X, 91-93). He died in 1269, beheaded by a certain Cavolino de Tolomei after the defeat of the Sienese by the Florentines at Colle di Val d*Elsa. Provenzan's sins are an example of pride in temporal power.

127. If it is true: Here the Pilgrim asks the question that reveals his deduction based on Belacqua's words (Purg. IV, 1 30-34) about his term of waiting: all the Late Repentant must wait in the Antepurgatory (at least)' the length of time of their life on earth. Thus the Pilgrim is puzzled: it has been only thirty-one years since Provenzan died, and he died at forty- nine.

137. Charles: Probably Charles of Anjou. Charles declared that if he did not receive ten thousand gold florins within a month's time, he would put a friend of Provenzan's, his pris- oner, to death. To raise the money, Provenzan, despite his lofty station, begged alms in the Piazza del Campo in Siena and man- aged to buy his friend's release within the allotted time.

138. he brought himself to do what chilled his veins: This is a most indirect way of saying "he forced himself to beg in the public square."

139. My words, I know, are vague: Here, Oderisi is admitting the obscurity of the words about Provenzan just uttered in verse 138 (see previous note). But he goes on to offer a prophecy about Dante that not only is obscure but also in-

126 / CANTO XI

volves a logical inconsistency: granted that Dante's neighbors, the Florentines, will, by exiling him, make him understand (if chiosar can mean "understand") the humiliation of "begging," how can they make him understand the precise reference of verse 138?

142. // was this deed of his that sped him here: By my transla- tion I suggest that Provenzan was allowed to come to Purgatory proper immediately, not simply that his waiting period was shortened somewhat. This should be the meaning of the origi- nal: Quest' opera li tolse quei confini ("this deed relieved him of those confinements").

canto xi / 127

CANTO XII

AS THEY LEAVE the souls of the Proud, Virgil calls the Pil- grim's attention to a series of carvings in the bed of rock be- neath their feet. These are the examples of the vice of Pride, of the haughty who have been brought low. Depicted in the carv- ings are Satan, the giant Briareus, Nimrod, Niobe, Saul, Arachne, Rehoboam, the slaying of Eriphyle by her son Alc- meon, Sennacherib's murder by his sons, the slaughter of Cyrus by Tomyris, the destruction of Holofernes and the rout of the Assyrians, and finally the fall of Troy. As they continue circling the ledge, Virgil admonishes the Pilgrim to lift his head in an- ticipation of the angel of Humility. With a brush of his wings, the angel removes the first P from the Pilgrim's forehead, and, as the two poets make their way through the pass to the next terrace, they hear a sweetly resounding song — the beatitude "Blessed are the Poor in Spirit." The Pilgrim now feels himself to be lighter, since one of the P's has been removed, and is able to climb with considerably less effort.

Like oxen keeping step beneath their yoke, we moved along, that burdened soul and I, as long as my kind teacher would allow; j

but when he said: "Now leave him and move on, for each one here must drive his boat ahead with sail and oar, and all the might he has," 6

I stood up straight to walk the way man should, but, though my body was erect, my thoughts were bowed and shrunken to humility. 9

Now I was moving, happily following the footsteps of my master, both of us

showing how light of foot we had become, , 2

when, "Now look down," he said. "You will be pleased, and it will make your journey easier,

to see this bed of stone beneath your feet." j 5

As tombs set in a church floor often bear carved indications of the dead man's life, in preservation of his memory ,8

128 / CANTO XII

(pierced by such recollection of the dead, a man is very often brought to tears — though only those with piety are moved):

just so, I saw — but far more true to life,

being divinely wrought — stone carvings there covering the path that juts out from the mount.

I saw, on one side, him who was supposed to be the noblest creature of creation, plunge swift as lightning from the height of Heaven.

I saw Briareus on the other side,

pierced through by the celestial thunderbolt, heavy upon the ground, frozen in death.

I saw Thymbraeus, saw Pallas and Mars

still armed, close to their father, looking down at severed, scattered members of the giants.

I saw the mighty Nimrod by his tower,

standing there stunned and gazing at the men who shared at Shinar his bold fantasy.

O Niobe, I saw your grieving eyes:

they wept from your carved image on the road, between your seven and seven children slain.

O Saul, transfixed by your own sword, how dead you seemed to lie on Mount Gilboa's plain — which since that time has known no rain or dew.

O mad Arachne, I could see you there, half-turned to spider, sad above the shreds of your own work of art that sentenced you.

O Rehoboam, the image of you here no longer threatens: in a chariot, it flees fear-stricken, though no man pursues.

Depicted, too, in that hard pavement stone was Alcmeon, who made his mother pay so dearly for the accursed ornament.

Depicted were Sennacherib's own sons assaulting him at prayer within the temple, and their departure, as he lay there dead.

CANTO xii / 1 29

Depicted was Tomyris with the ruin and slaughter that she wrought, her words to Cyrus: "Blood you have thirsted for — now, drink your own

Depicted was the rout of the Assyrians who fled at Holof ernes' death — it showed the remnants of his mutilated corpse.

I saw Troy gaping from its ashes there: O Ilium, how you were fallen low, depicted on the sculptured road of stone.

What master artist with his brush or pen

could reproduce these shapes and shadings here? Such art must overwhelm the subtlest mind!

The dead seemed dead, the living seemed alive; no witness to the scene itself saw better than I who trod upon it, head bent low.

Be proud, then! Onward, haughty heads held high, you sons of Eve! Yes, never bow your head to see how evil is the road you tread!

We had, by now, gone farther round the rnoun',

and much more of the sun's course had been traced, than I, preoccupied, could have conceived —

when he who always kept a watchful eye

as he moved on said: "Raise your head up now, you have spent time enough lost in your thoughts.

Look over there, and see. The angel comes! And, see — the sixth handmaiden has returned already from her service to the day.

Show reverence in your face and attitude, so that he will be glad to. help us up; think that this day will never dawn again!"

I was well used to his admonishments not to waste time, so, anything he said to that effect could never be obscure.

Still closer to us, clothed in white, he came, the radiantly fair creature, and his face was shining like a trembling star at dawn.

130 / CANTO XII

He spread his arms out wide, and then his wings. He said: "Come, now, the steps are very close; henceforth, the climbing will be easier." 9J

To such an invitation few respond:

0 race of men, born to fly heavenward,

how can a breath of wind make you fall back? 96

He led us straight to where the rock was cleft.

Once there, he brushed his wings against my brow,

then he assured me of a safe ascent. 99

As, on the way up to the mountaintop

crowned by the church, beyond the Rubaconte,

set high, above that so well-governed town, 102

the steepness of the bold ascent is cut

on the right hand by steps carved in the rock

in times when one could trust ledgers and staves — ;oj

so here, the bank that from the second round falls steep has been made easier with steps though, on both sides, the high rock presses close. ;og

While we were walking toward those steps, the song Beati pauperes spiritu! rang out

more sweetly than could ever be described. ui

How different are these passageways from those of Hell! One enters here to music — there, below, to sounds of violent laments. 114

As we were climbing up the sacred steps,

1 seemed to feel myself much lighter now

than I had been before on level ground. j/7

"Master," I said, "tell me, what heavy thing has been removed from me? I feel as if to keep on climbing would be effortless." 120

He answered: "When the P's that still remain (though they have almost faded) on your brow shall be erased completely like the first, 123

then will your feet be light with good desire; they will no longer feel the heavy road but will rejoice as they are urged to climb." 126

CANTO XII / 131

Then I did something anyone might do,

made conscious by the way men looked at him

that he must have some strange thing on his head: 119

his hand will try hard to investigate, feeling around to find, fulfilling thus

the duty that the eyes cannot perform; 132

so, my right hand with fingers spread found just six of the seven letters that were carved upon my brow by him who keeps the keys. jj5

Observing this, my master smiled at me.

NOTES

2. that burdened soul: Oderisi.

3. kind teacher: In the original the word for "teacher" is pedagogo, or a preceptor for small boys. The humility likewise comes through in the metaphor of the oxen and the yoke (1), which suggests patient submission.

5. for each one here must drive his boat ahead: Dante's journey is once again seen as a "voyage" (cf. Purg. I, 1). Furthermore, the ship imagery recalls Ulysses (/»/. XXVI) and his voyage, undertaken in pride and presumption and consequently doomed to failure and destruction. In contrast, Dante's voyage, for which humility is an absolute essential, will be successful.

13-24

It is significant that the examples illustrating the vice of Pride are cut into the floor: they are to be viewed with head bent low, in humility. And from a practical point of view, we must remember that many of the souls on this terrace, like Omberto, crushed beneath the weight of the stones, are incap- able of raising their heads and eyes.

16. As tombs set in a church floor: In the three tercets ( 16-24) in which the carvings on a tomb are compared to the carvings the Pilgrim is about to see (and which are much more carefully wrought) the only point to be deduced about the second group of carvings is that, like the first, they were intended to preserve the memory of the figures delineated. The tercet 19-21 has

132 / CANTO XII

been placed within parentheses since its relevance within the simile is doubtful.

17. carved indications of the dead man's life: This could refer to a family coat of arms or, perhaps, the manner in which the figure is clothed (which might reveal his profession or station in life). Or the verse might simply mean "how the dead man looked [physical features] when he was alive."

25-63

The reliefs cut into the floor present thirteen examples of the sin of Pride and the disastrous consequences that it entails. The first twelve tercets (in Italian) begin respectively with the letters UUUU. 0000. MMMM. forming an acrostic, which is resumed in the three lines of the thirteenth tercet: uom (the Italian word for "man"). Dante's obvious message here is that Pride is a sin so common and so basic as to be practically sy- nonymous with man. The thirteen examples, beginning with Lucifer's fall, cover a wide range of material taken (almost) alternately from a biblical and a classical source. The final climactic example, the fall of Troy, represents the destruction of not merely a powerful individual but a powerful state, a civilization.

28. Briareus: One of the giants (Inf. XXXI, 98), who chal- lenged Jupiter; he was slain by a thunderbolt and buried be- neath Mt. Etna.

31. Thymbraeus: Another name for Apollo. The term is de- rived from Thymbra, the location of a temple dedicated to Apollo. Dante would be familiar with the derivative "Thym- braeus" from its use by Statius in the Thebaid (I, 643, 699; III, 513, 638; IV, 515) and from Virgil (Georg. IV, 323; Aen. Ill, 85).

33. the giants: Armed with boulders and tree trunks, -the. giants presumed to attack Mt. Olympus, home of the gods, only to be destroyed.

34. Nimrod: The giant who built the Tower of Babel on the plain of Shinar (Gen. 10:10). (Cf. Inf. XXXI, 77-78; Par. XXVI, 126.)

37. Niobe: The daughter of Tantalus and Dione, and the wife of Amphion, King of Thebes. Proud of her seven sons and

CANTO XII / 13 3

seven daughters, Niobe boasted her superiority over Latona, who had but two, Apollo and Diana. Apollo then killed the seven sons with his bow. Diana killed the seven daughters, and Niobe was turned to stone, though tears continued to fall from her marble cheeks. Dante's version of the story comes from Ovid (Metam. VI, 182-312).

40. Saul: Son of Kish of the tribe of Benjamin and first king of Israel. He was deposed by Samuel for having disobeyed God's command by sparing a life and allowing booty to be taken (I Sam. 15:3-11). Defeated by the Philistines on Mount Gilboa, Saul killed himself with his own sword to avoid capture (I Sam. 31:4-5).

43. Arachne: The daughter of Idmon of Colophon, who chal- lenged Minerva to a weaving contest. She produced a beautiful cloth on which the love-adventures of the gods were woven, and Minerva, unable to find fault with it, ripped it to shreds. Arachne hanged herself, but Minerva loosened the rope, turn- ing it into a web and Arachne herself into a spider (Ovid, Metam. VI, 1-145).

46. Rehoboam: The son of Solomon, who succeeded his father as king of Israel. He refused to lighten the taxes imposed on his people and sent Adoram to collect them. Ten of the tribes revolted, Adoram was stoned to death, and Rehoboam fled to Jerusalem (I Kings 12:18).

50. Alcmeon: The son of Amphiaraus the Soothsayer and Eriphyle. Foreseeing that he would die during the expedition against Thebes, Amphiaraus concealed himself. But Polynices bribed Eriphyle with the golden necklace of Harmonia to re- veal her husband's hiding place, and Amphiaraus was con- strained to go to war, where he met his fate. Before he went, however, he asked his son for revenge, and Alcmeon accord- ingly slew his mother for her betrayal (for Amphiaraus see Inf. XX, 34).

52. Sennacherib: King of Assyria from 705 to 681 B.C., Sen- nacherib arrogantly made war upon King Hezekiah of Judah and the Israelites. Although outnumbered, the Israelites, with the intervention of an angel of the Lord, annihilated the Assyr- ian host. Sennacherib escaped the debacle but was later mur-

134 / CANTO XII

dered by his two sons while praying to his false gods. (See II Kings 19:36-37 and Isa. 37:37-38.)

55-56. Tomyris . . . Cyrus: Tomyris (or Thamyris), the queen of the Massagetae (a Scythian people), sought revenge for the treacherous murder of her son at the hands of Cyrus (560-529 B.C.), emperor of the Persians. She defeated his army and Cyrus was killed in battle. Not satisfied, however, she decapi- tated him and threw his head into a vessel of human blood, urging him to drink his fill!

59. Holofernes: The general of the armies of Nebuchadnez- zar, king of the Assyrians. He attacked Bethulia, a city of the Israelites, and proudly mocked their God. Judith, a beautiful widow, delivered the Israelites by going to Holofernes' tent at night under the pretense of sleeping with him. Instead, with grim resolve, she cut off his head. The Assyrians, seeing the head of their general mounted on the wall in the morning, fled in terror.

70-72. Be proud then: The Poet speaks sarcastically to man- kind, the sons of Eve (the "common mother" of Purg. XI, 63). The tone and the subject matter here take up once more the polemic of Purg. X, 121-29.

75. /. preoccupied: Absorbed in the contemplation of the floor carvings, the Pilgrim does not notice the passage of time. (On such results of the absorption of the mind see Purg. IV, 1 — 12.)

77-84

The Pilgrim, completely absorbed by the admiration he feels for the artistry of the carvings he has just seen, is brought back to reality by the voice of Virgil, who wishes to prepare him for the coming of the angel. Twice he admonishes him ("Look over there . . ."; "Show reverence"), and each time he follows his admonition with a reminder of the passage of time: "the sixth handmaiden has returned . . ."; "think that this day will never dawn again." Virgil's constant concern with the pas- sage of time, and with the need to employ well every moment, is well known to the Pilgrim — as the following tercet reveals.

80. the sixth handmaiden: The sixth handmaiden is the sixth hour of the day, or noon. Note here that even the passage of

CANTO xii / 1 35

time is seen in terms of "service," that is, of submission, of humility. And "handmaiden" (ancilla) was precisely the word used to designate Mary, the first and foremost example of humility in Purg. X, 44.

93. henceforth, the climbing will be easier: Once the Pilgrim has been purged of the first and heaviest of the Seven Capital Sins, the root of all evil, which is Pride, the ascent will, of course, become easier. In fact, when the P of Pride is removed from the Pilgrim's brow, the remaining six P's become dimmer (see 121-23).

95. 0 race of men: Once again the Poet rebukes mankind, but without the harshness and the sarcasm that pervade Purg. X, 121-29 and XII, 70-72. His tone has mellowed to that of deep regret; he is filled with sadness that so many of those born to fly heavenward fall back before a breath of wind.

I am taking it for granted, as the punctuation shows, that in the tercet 94-96 we are meant to hear the voice of Dante the Poet; the tercet does not represent a continuation of the angel's words, as some scholars believe. For a treatment of the various arguments presented, see Poletta, pp. 286-87.

98. brushed his wings: With this gesture the angel removes the first P. which stands for the sin of Pride, from the Pilgrim's forehead.

102. that so well-governed town: A reference to Florence, and of course, a bitterly ironic one in view of the incidents alluded to in verse 105. The church on the mountaintop is San Miniato al Monte, located on the Monte alle Croci, overlooking Flor- ence, the river Arno, and the bridge which crosses it, the Rubaconte (today Ponte alle Grazie).

105. in times when one could trust ledgers and staves: This line refers to two relatively contemporary scandals in Dante's Flor- ence: the first incident, that of the ledger, involved a Florentine Guelph, Niccola Acciaiuoli, who, along with Baldo d'Agu- glione, a Ghibelline judge {Par. XVI, 56), destroyed a sheet of the city's public records to cover up a fraudulent transaction. The sheet contained a written confession by the former corrupt podesta, Messer Monfiorito della Marca Trivigiana, who admit- ted to a false and prejudicial judgment for not having con- demned Acciaiuoli. The second incident, that of the stave, in-

136/ CANTO XII

volved Durante de' Chiaramontesi, who was overseer of the salt custom's office at Florence. In his distribution of the salt he would keep a stave of every bushel for himself. His cheating was discovered, and he was beheaded. His descendants, from an ancient and honored family, were disgraced (cf. Par. XVI, 105).

110. Beati pauperes spiritu: "Blessed are the poor in spirit." Before leaving each of the seven terraces, Virgil and the Pil- grim will hear an angel utter a beatitude. This one, the first of those of the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3), praises the vir- tue of Humility, which is essential to the overcoming of Pride.

118. "Master," I said, "tell me. what heavy thing": The Pil- grim, not knowing that the angel has erased a P from his forehead, must learn of it from his teacher. With his addressing Virgil as his "master," we are reminded of the beginning of the canto, where Virgil was referred to as a child's preceptor (3). Once again, with his question and in what follows (121-35), the Pilgrim is presented as the humble, bewildered child.

130-32. his hand will try: This image of a man who cannot see, putting his hand up to feel, prepares us for Canto XIII, concerned with the Envious, whose penance involves blindness.

CANTO XII / 137

CANTO XIII

The PILGRIM AND Virgil reach the second cornice, which is the livid color of stone. Since there are no souls in sight of whom to ask directions, Virgil turns to the sun for guidance. When he and Dante have walked about a mile along the ledge, they hear a disembodied voice crying out the examples of Generosity, the virtue opposed to the vice of Envy. The first of the virtuous examples that it cites is the Virgin Mary's so- licitude at the wedding feast of Cana when she tells her son, "They have no wine." The second is the attempt of Pylades to save the life of his friend by claiming, "I am Orestes," and the third is the commandment from the gospels "Love your enemy." Virgil explains that on this terrace, the sin of Envy is punished, and he indicates the souls of the Envious sitting huddled together against the face of the cliff. They can be heard reciting the Litany of the Saints, and as the Pilgrim ap- proaches them he remarks their piteous condition. They are dressed in the coarsest of haircloth, and their eyelids have been stitched shut with iron thread. The Pilgrim has a long conver- sation with Sapia of Siena, who confesses that she rejoiced in the defeat of her own townsmen at the battle of Colle.

Now we are standing on the highest step, where, for a second time, we saw a ledge cut in the mount that heals all those who climb. j

This terrace stretches all around the hill, exactly like the one below, although

the arc of this one makes a sharper curve. 6

No sign of any souls or carvings here. The cliff face is all bare, the roadway bare — save for the livid color of the stone. 9

"If we wait here until somebody comes

to give directions," said the Poet, "our choice,

I am afraid, will be too long delayed." 12

Then, looking up, and staring at the sun, he made of his right side a pivot point, bringing the left side of his body round. 15

138/ CANTO XIII

"O cherished light in whom I place my trust, please guide us on this unfamiliar road," he said, "for in this place guidance we need.

You warm the world; you shed your light on it; unless there be some reason that opposes, your radiant light should always show the way."

.We had already gone along that ledge

as far as what is called a mile on earth — and quickly, too, because of our good will —

when spirits, who could not be seen, were heard, as they came flying towards us, speaking words of courteous invitation to love's board.

The first voice that came flying past us sang

out loud and clear the words Vinum non habent; then we could hear them echoing behind.

Before the notes had faded quietly into distance, another voice cried out: "I am Orestes!" And that voice too swept by.

"Oh," I said, "Father, what voices are these?" And just as I was asking this, a third said, passing by: "Love those who do you harm!"

Then my good master said: "The Envious this circle scourges — that is why the whip used here is fashioned from the cords of love.

The curb must sound the opposite of love; you will most likely hear it, I should think, before the pass of pardon has been reached.

Now look in front of you, look carefully and you will see some people over there, all of them with their backs against the cliff."

I looked ahead of me, straining my eyes: I saw a mass of spirits wrapped in cloaks the color of the stone they leaned against.

And then as we came closer to these souls, I heard the cry: "O Mary, pray for us"; then "Michael, Peter, and All Saints," they cried.

canto xiii / 1

I do not think there is a man on earth

with heart so hard that it would not be pierced with pity if he saw what I saw then:

when I had come up close enough to see the nature of the penance they endured, the sight squeezed bitter tears out of my eyes.

Their cloaks seemed to be made of coarsest cloth, and one's head on another's shoulder lay, the inner cliff supporting all of them.

They brought to mind blind beggars at church doors during Indulgences begging their bread: the one leaning his head Upon the next

to stir up pity in their fellow man,

not only by the sound of begging cries,

but by the looks that plead no less than words.

Just as the blind cannot enjoy the sun, so, to the shades I saw before me here, the light of Heaven denies its radiance:

the eyelids of these shades had been sewn shut with iron threads, like falcons newly caught, whose eyes we stitch to tame their restlessness.

I felt that I was doing something wrong, walking along, staring at people who could not stare back. I turned to my wise guide,

who knew quite well what his mute ward would ask, and waiting not for me to speak, said, "Yes, but let your words be brief and to the point."

Virgil was walking on one side of me, along the terrace edge where one could fall (for there was no protective parapet),

while on the other side of me were massed

those supplicating souls whose cheeks were wet with tears that seeped out through the horrid seams.

I turned to them and said: "O souls assured that someday you will see the light of Heaven which is the only goal that you desire,

140 / CANTO XIII

so may God's grace soon wash away the film clouding your consciousness, and thus allow the stream of memory to flow through pure,

please let me know — I would be very grateful — is someone here, perhaps, Italian? I could be very helpful if he were."

"My brother, all of us are citizens of one true city. You mean is there a soul who was a pilgrim once in Italy?"

This answer to my question seemed to come from somewhere up ahead, so I moved on to where those souls could clearly hear my words.

Among them I discerned one shade that looked expectant. How could I tell? The chin was raised — that searching gesture of the blind. I said:

"O soul, learning to dominate yourself for the ascent — if it was you who spoke — tell me your name, or where you lived." She said:

"I was a Sienese; here with the rest I mend my evil life with tears and beg of Him that He reveal Himself to us.

Though named Sapia, sapient I was not: I always reveled in another's grief, enjoying that more than my own welfare.

If you do not believe me, listen now and you will see how far my folly went. In the declining arc of my long years,

it happened that my townsmen were engaged in battle just outside of Colle; I prayed God for what already He had willed.

Our men were scattered on the plain and forced to take the bitter course of flight. I watched the chase, seized with a surge of joy so fierce

I raised my shameless face to God and cried "I have lost all my fear of Thee!" I was the blackbird when the sun comes out awhile.

CANTO XIII / 141

I did not seek my peace with God, not till my final hour came — and even then,

penance would not yet have reduced my debt 126

had it not been for one Pier Pettinaio, who, moved by charity to grieve for me, remembered me in all his holy prayers. 129

But who are you, so eager to inquire

about us here — you with your eyes unsewn,

so I would guess, and breathing out your words?" i J2

"My sight one day shall be sewn up," I said, "but not for long; my eyes have seldom sinned in casting envious looks on other folk. /j5

It is a greater fear that shakes my soul: that of the penance done below — already I feel on me the weight those souls must bear." jjs

And she: "Then who has led you here to us, if you count on returning down below?" And I: "This man with me who does not speak. 141

I am alive. And if you want me to, O chosen soul, I would be glad to move my mortal feet on earth on your behalf." 144

"Oh, what a miracle this is!" she said.

"What evidence of God's great love for you!

Yes, help me with a prayer from time to time. 147

By what you hold most dear, I beg of you, if ever you set foot on Tuscan soil,

restore my name among my kinsfolk there. 150

They live with those who dream of Talamone,

whose foolish hopes will make them lose much more

than they lost looking for Diana's bed — i 5 j

but, still, the admirals will lose the most."

NOTES

6. the arc 0/ this one makes a sharper curve: This circle, being further up the mountain, is smaller.

142 / CAN'l o XIII

8. bare . . . bare: The reader is invited to note that there are no reliefs carved into the stone here, as there were on the ter- race below.

1 1 . our choice: The "choice" Virgil refers to is one of direc- tion: whether he and the Pilgrim should turn left or right in proceeding along this new terrace.

14. be made of his right side a pivot point: An elaborate peri- phrasis of a turn to the right. In view of what follows (Virgil addresses the Light of Natural Reason), such a mechanical- rational analysis of a simple movement to the right might have some aesthetic justification.

16-21. 0 cherished light in whom I place my trust: Virgil ad- dresses the sun. He and the Pilgrim will for a time be guided directly by the sun since so far they have found no one to show them the way. We must in this instance be careful not to con- strue the sun as an emblem of God or of the assistance of di- vine grace. That this interpretation would be erroneous is made clear in verse 20: if the sun were God, then it would be utterly impossible for reasons to exist that might oppose its guidance. Rather, we should see the sun as an emblem of Natural Rea- son, which should always guide us, unless some higher power (God's grace) takes precedence.

25. spirits: We have already seen in verse 8 that the walls here are bare of any carvings illustrating the virtue of Charity; instead, the exempla here are rendered audibly, by means of disembodied voices.

29. Vinum non habent: "They have no wine." This is the first example of charitable concern for others, and, being the first, it is taken from the life of the Virgin Mary. The incident here alluded to is the wedding feast at Cana (John 2:1-10), where Mary, acting out of concern for the happiness of others, lov- ingly solicits her son's first miracle: the changing of water into wine.

33. "/ am Orestes": The second example of the virtue op- posed to Envy is from antiquity; it is an illustration of generos- ity and friendship. Orestes was condemned to death for having avenged the murder of his father, Agamemnon; Pylades pre- tended to be Orestes in order to save his friend's life. Orestes,

CANTO xiii / 143

who would not allow his friend to make such a sacrifice, then came forward asserting his identity. There followed an argu- ment, in which each, out of concern for the safety of the other, declared, "I am Orestes." Dante may have learned of the inci- dent from Cicero's De Amicitia, VII, 24.

36. said, passing by: "Love those who do you harm!": The third voice expresses an evangelical precept taken from the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:44). Whereas the words of the first two exempla were uttered in loud, ringing voices, here the simple verb say is used. Perhaps the tone is quieter, more reverent, because the words are those of Christ.

38. — that is why the whip: Here, on the Terrace of the Envious, the images of the whip and the curb (40) appear for the first and only time, in reference to the exempla, respec- tively, of the virtue to be emulated and the vice to be avoided. The first exempla, which have just been presented, should serve as a "whip" to incite the souls guilty of Envy to emulate the virtue of Charity; hence the whip is "fashioned from the cords of love." The second exempla, which will be presented only in Purg. XIV, 130-41, should serve as a rein, a "curb" on the vice, and thus "must sound the opposite of love": they should arouse hatred of the vice of Envy.

The reader may wonder whether with my translations scourges and whip (both in verse 38) I have not falsely given to under- stand that a whip here serves two different functions: the punishment of the Envious and the (nonpunitive) stimulation of their souls to emulate the examples of Charity. Actually, mine is a faithful reproduction of the original: the verb that I trans- late as "scourge" is sferzare; the noun "whip" is ferza. It would have been better if Dante, when speaking of this circle, this terrace as a whole, had used a more general term to convey the idea of "punishment" instead of suggesting prematurely the image of a whip — which can only be punitive. Surely the specific exempla of Charity that he next alludes to could not "punish." Dante is saying: "the sin that is being purged here is that of Envy; that is why the 'whip' to emulation of the opposed virtue must serve as an incentive to Charity."

42. the pass of pardon: This pass is at the entrance to the next terrace, at which point the angel will remove the second P of

144 / CANTO XIII

Envy from the Pilgrim's brow and admit him to the Third Terrace.

50-51. "0 Mary, pray for us"; I then "Michael": The souls are reciting the Litany of the Saints.

53. with heart so hard that it would not be pierced: Just how apposite the word pierced (Ital. punto) is, at this point, the reader will see in verses 70-72.

57. the sight squeezed bitter tears out of my eyes: Not until verse 70 will the reader be allowed to see this "sight."

62. during Indulgences begging their bread: On certain days of the year special Pardons or Indulgences were given to the Faithful; these ceremonies were attended in large numbers.

63. the one leaning his head upon the next: The penitent Envi- ous, who once wished the worst for their neighbors, are now, like so many blind beggars, sustaining and supporting each other.

70. the eyelids of these shades had been sewn shut: This image is taken from falconry: the eyes of these birds, which were cap- tured when they were no longer fledglings, were sewn shut (with waxed silk thread, however, not with iron wire) to facilitate domestication and training.

Now at last the hideous spectacle of the contrapasso suffered by the Envious is revealed: since their eyes could not bear to look upon the good fortune of others, they have here been sewn shut. At first we had a description only of the cloaks in which they were bundled, drab of color (48), made of haircloth (58); then their helpless, but mutually sustaining posture (59); then their resemblance to beggars (61: to blind beggars!); then the nature of their "blindness." And now it is clear why the exempla of Charity were not represented on the visual plane. See notes to Purg. XIII, 8 and 25.

84. with tears that seeped out through the horrid seams: This description of the tears seeping out through seams recalls Dante's own reaction upon first seeing the punishment of the Envious: "the sight squeezed bitter tears out of my eyes" (57); it could be taken as an instance of the Pilgrim's "participation" in the punishment of the Envious.

CANTO xiii / 145

94~95- citizens I of one true city: The Pilgrim learns a lesson, that the earthly orientation of the Antepurgatory (cf. note to V, 134) no longer prevails: there is no Malaspina here, eager to learn news "of Valdimagra or parts thereabout" (Purg. VIII, 1 16). Here all are citizens of the one true city, the Heavenly Jerusalem, and are little concerned about earthly attachments.

101. The chin was raised: We have already noted (70) the slowness with which the poet proceeds to the description of the faces of these souls on the Terrace of Envy. Part of the delay was dictated by realistic reasons: when first aware of the pres- ence of the Envious, the Pilgrim could make out only a hud- dled mass of figures, the color of their garments blending with the color of the rock against which they were leaning. Only when he is closer to them could he see their faces; even so, he does not allow us to share the sight that "squeezed bitter tears out of my eyes" (57) but makes us wait twelve lines more (70-72). Then, however, he lets us look into their faces three times. First, the punishment of their eyes, then the cheeks wet with the tears seeping out slowly through the seams (83-84), and finally the upraised chin of verse 101: the head thrown back as if the eyes were straining blindly into space. With these three descriptions we are made aware not only of the souls' blindness but also of the Pilgrim's acute vision, a vision capable of taking in every detail.

That the Pilgrim himself was aware of the contrast between the blindness of the souls about him and his own power of sight is indeed indicated by the Pilgrim's confession of guilt in verses 73-75: "I felt that I was doing something wrong. . . ." This immediately follows the reference to the eyelids sewn together.

106. / was a Sienese: The speaker, we shall learn, is a woman. In the Inferno, only one of the Damned who speak is a woman, Francesca da Rimini (Canto V); in the Purgatory, two of the Penitents who speak are women: la Pia (Canto V), and now Sapia.

109. Sapia: Sapia of Siena was the paternal aunt of Proven- zan Salvani (Purg. XI) and the wife of Ghinibaldo Saracini. She hated her fellow Sienese and resented her nephew's rise to power. It is entirely possible that she witnessed the battle in which Salvani and the Sienese were defeated by the Florentines at Colle in the Val d'Elsa in 1269 (there was a family castle at

146 / CANTO XIII

Castiglioncello near the plain on which the battle took place). The dates of her birth and death are not known, though accord- ing to documentation she was alive in 1274 — and she must have died before 1289, the year of Pier Pettinaio's death (see Sanesi).

116. Colle: The present Colle di Val d'Elsa in Tuscany, where, in 1269, the Sienese Ghibellines, under Provenzan Sal- vani and Count Guido Novello, were defeated in battle by the Florentine Guelphs, aided by the French troops of Charles D'Anjou.

120. seized with a surge of joy so fierce: This verse, together with 1 10- 1 1 ("I always reveled . . .") indicates that Envy may involve not only resentment of the good fortune of others but positive enjoyment of their misfortunes.

123. the blackbird: The early commentator Buti notes that in Italy, the blackbird is reputed to be terrified of cold, bad weather, and thus goes into hiding when winter comes. But upon the first signs of fair weather, at the least provocation from the sun, the blackbird reemerges and makes fun of all the other birds — even goes so far as proclaiming "I do not fear you, Lord, for winter's over."

127. Pier Pettinaio: "Peter the Combseller." He was, sup- posedly, a member of the Franciscan order who dwelt close to Siena, where he was in the comb business. He was known for his piety, the miracles he performed, and his honesty (he re- fused to sell a defective comb). He died in December 1289, and documents suggest that he was 109 years old. In 1 328 the Sienese senate decreed an annual festival in his honor.

1 38. / feel on me the weight those souls must bear: Here Dante is confessing that his besetting sin is that of Pride, which is purged on the terrace below. He expects to spend very little time on this terrace with his eyes sewn up like Sapia's (133- 35).

147. Yes, help me with a prayer: In the Antepurgatory a number of souls had asked of the Pilgrim that when he re- turned to earth he solicit prayers for them from their loved ones. This is probably what Dante had in mind when he offered to "move his mortal feet" on Sapia's behalf. But she, impressed

CANTO XIII / 147

by the signs of extraordinary grace that the Pilgrim was enjoy- ing, asks for prayers from the Pilgrim himself. This was prob- ably also the hope of la Pia in the Antepurgatory (Purg. V, I33)i who asks that the Pilgrim, when he has returned to earth (and after he has rested from his journey) remember her. The critics seem to believe that la Pia had left behind no one on whom she could depend for prayers; could the same be true of Sapia?

Two more souls in Purgatory (Marco Lombardo in Purg. XVI and Guido Guinizelli in Purg. XXVI) will ask the Pilgrim for his personal prayers.

151. Talamone: In 1 303 the Sienese purchased from the abbot of San Salvatore for 8,000 gold florins the small seaport of Talamone, located on a promontory at the southwestern end of the Sienese Maremma; they hoped to build a harbor equal to that of Genova or Pisa, which could accommodate a sizeable fleet. The expensive venture failed completely because the port filled up with silt as fast as it was dredged, and because the marshy surroundings were infested with malaria.

153. Diana's bed: Siena often had problems with the water supply, and hence the Sienese invested large sums of money and considerable time and effort in the search for an alleged underground river — christened the Diana. Later, they were to succeed, but at the time of Dante, this project, too, had re- sulted in failure.

1 54. the admirals will lose the most: This line must refer to the first project of the Sienese, the construction of an adequate harbor. Though some early commentators take the word am- miragli to refer to the contractors or supervisors engaged in the construction, it is quite possible that it is used in the sense of 'admirals' or at least 'sea captains.' In this case the verse would invoke ambitious people hoping to be admirals of a fleet that will never exist. This image is preferable because more ironical — if we sense in Sapia's words a continuing tendency to gloat over the misfortunes of her neighbors.

Whatever underlying significance is to be sought in Sapia's words, it must refer to her attitude at the moment and hers alone, and it should not be interpreted as merely a typical Florentine gibe at the overambitious Sienese, which Dante the Poet has put into the mouth of this sinner.

148 / can ro xiii

CANTO XIV

The CANTO OPENS with the gossip of two blind souls ex- cited by their awareness of the unprecedented presence before them of a man who is still alive; they finally ask the Pilgrim who he is and where he is from. Dante's reference to his place of origin — the valley of the Arno — touches off a lengthy outburst of anti-Tuscan sentiment from one of his interlocutors. The Pil- grim then asks their names; the speaker identifies himself as Guido del Duca and his fellow shade as Rinier da Calboli — and immediately launches into another invective, this time against the recent degeneracy of Romagna. As the Pilgrim and Virgil are leaving the souls of the Envious, they hear the sharp crack of voices — screaming out exempla of Envy. The first voice is that of Cain, and the second, that of the Athenian princess Ag- lauros, who was turned to stone because she envied her sister, who was loved by the god Mercury.

"Who is this roaming round our mountainside before his soul is given wings by Death — opening his eyes and closing them at will?" i

"Who knows? All I know is he's not alone. Why don't you ask him, you are nearer him; speak nicely to him so he'll answer you." 6

There to my right, I overheard two souls talking about me, huddled head to head; they raised their faces then, as if to speak. y

And one said: "O soul, living prisoner

within the flesh, but moving up to Heaven,

console us in the name of love: please tell 12

where you are from and who you are. The grace that God has given you fills us with awe, for this is something never seen before." '5

And I said: "Through the heart of Tuscany a little river, born in Falterona,

winds in its course more than a hundred miles, /«

canto xiv / 149

and from its banks I bring this body here; there is no point in telling you my name, for I have not as yet won fame on earth."

"If I have clearly understood the gist

of what you have just said," replied the shade, "it is the Arno you are speaking of."

The other said to him: "Why would he want to keep the real name of that river hid, as if it were too horrible to say?"

The shade who had been questioned answered back: "I don't know why, but it could only be a blessing for that valley's name to die.

For from its source, where the steep mountain chain from which Pelorus is cut off is rich with waters that no other place can claim,

down to the very point where it restores that which the sky has taken from the sea, thereby supplying rivers with their flow —

virtue is loathed. Men run away from it as from a snake! Either the place is cursed, or else it's old corruption guiding them.

The dwellers in that miserable vale

have let their nature be transformed — it is as if they lived on food from Circe's sty.

Past hoggish brutes who should be eating acorns rather than food prepared for human use, this river first directs its puny course;

it keeps on dropping down, to run among

packs of small curs who snarl more than they bite; disdainfully, it turns away its snout:

Still farther down it falls; the more this damned and God-forsaken sewer-ditch expands the more the dogs give way to wolves; and then,

through many deep-cut gorges it descends to run among those foxes steeped in fraud, who fear no trap contrived by human skill.

150 / CANTO XIV

I will not stop, though this man hears my words; in fact, it would be good for him to know what inspiration has revealed to me:

I see your grandson now leading the chase,

hunting down wolves, the ones that pack the banks of that wild stream — they live in terror there.

He sells their flesh while they are still alive, and then, like worn-out cattle, slaughters them. Himself he robs of honor, them of life.

He comes forth bloody from the wretched woods, which even in a thousand years from now could not re-wood itself as once it was."

As at the news of some impending doom

the face that listens shows the shock received, no matter from what side the danger looms —

just so that shade, intent on listening, revealed his consternation and his grief, as he took in the meaning of those words.

The words of one of them, the others face, made me so curious to know the pair, I asked them, begged them, to reveal their names.

At this the shade who spoke to me at first replied: "And you want me to bring myself to do what you refused to do for me?

But since God wills His grace to shine in you so generously, stingy I shall not be: Guido del Duca used to be my name.

Envy was quick to fire up my blood: whenever I would see someone rejoice, you'd see me turning livid at his joy.

I sowed this envy, now I reap this straw! O human race, why do you place your hopes where partnership must always be denied?

This is Rinier; this is the pride and joy of Calboli — a house without an heir who might inherit any of his worth.

canto xiv / 15 1

From Po to mountains, Reno to the sea,

their house is not the only one stripped bare of all that's good in life and chivalry;

for all the land within these boundaries

is choked by poisonous weeds which would resist all efforts to prepare the soil for seeds.

Where is Mainardi? Where is the good Lizio? Pier Traversaro? Guido di Carpigna? O Romagnols, bastard descendents, false!

When in Bologna will there grow again a Fabbro? When, a Fosco in Faenza, that noble scion of a lowly plant?

O Tuscan, I must weep when I recall Ugolin d'Azzo, Guido da Prata, too, who lived among us once. And what about

Federigo di Tignoso and his friends, the Traversaro clan, the Anastagi, both families without an heir? And those

ladies and knights, those feats, that courtly play which love and courtesy did once inspire in that domain where all hearts now grow vile?

O, Bretinoro, why don't you disappear! Your noble families and others, too, have fled from the corruption in your midst!

Bagnacaval does well to have no sons; and Castrocaro's wrong, and Conio more, in bothering to breed such counts as theirs.

When the Pagani's demon finally

drops dead, they will be better off — although the record of their evil deeds remains.

O Ugolin de' Fantolin, your name

is safe — since there's no chance it will be stained by the degeneracy of future heirs.

But now, go, Tuscan, I would rather weep, much rather weep, than say another word — our discourse has so wrung my sorrowing mind."

152 / CANTO XIV

We knew those good souls heard us move away; thus, by their silence we could be assured of having taken the right path to climb. 129

As we were walking on our lonely road

there came, like lightning ripping through the air,

a voice, shot out at us from up ahead: 132

"I shall be slain by all who find me!" — Then it rolled past us like thunder dying down after the sudden bursting of a cloud. 135

Our ears had just begun recovering,

when came the rumbling of a second voice —

one clap of thunder thundering on the other: ijs

"I am Aglauros, who was turned to stone!" With that, instead of going on, I moved a little closer to my Poet. By now mi

the air around us was serene once more. Then' Virgil said: "That was the iron curb devised to keep a man within due bounds. 144

But you men take the bait, swallow the hook, and let the Adversary reel you in —

and neither rein nor spur avails for you. 147

The heavens wheeling round you call to you, revealing their eternal beauties — yet,

you keep your eyes fixed on the ground alone, 150 and He, the All-Discerning, strikes you down."

NOTES

1. Who is this: This dramatic opening is a dialogue between two unknown speakers concerning a person standing before them whom they cannot see. Their voices break upon us, un- expectedly, without any kind of introduction. The first 126 verses of this canto are devoted to conversation, except for a minimal amount of narrative necessary to set up the conversa- tion, and the canto opens without even this minimal amount. The two speakers will remain unidentified until the second half of the canto. The first speaker will give his name in verse 81 as

canto xiv / 153

Guido del Duca and that of his companion in verse 88 as Rinieri da Calboli.

8. talking about me, huddled head to head: Note the reference to the "huddled" position of the two souls, recalling the de- scription of the group in Canto XIII. In the next line they will raise their faces, as Sapia did in the same canto. But these two bits of descriptive detail are offered only after the dialogue has ended; the words come to the reader from two shades whom he cannot see (and who themselves, as he knows, cannot see).

1 7. a little river: Not infrequently Dante refers to a river in order to indicate the territory through which it runs, and sev- eral times before such a reference has served to indicate the speaker's birthplace. But there are two striking details to be noted in verses 17-19. First, the total length of the river's course is suggested: more than a hundred miles beyond the point where it arises as a rivulet; second, the river is left nameless!

2 1 . for I have not as yet won fame on earth: The reason the Pilgrim gives for maintaining his anonymity is, at best, a half- hearted attempt at humility: "not as yet won fame."

25-26. "Why would he want I to keep the real name": It has already been pointed out (note to 17) that the Pilgrim, in his vague indication of his birthplace, failed to give the name of the river near which he was born. Whatever may have been the Pilgrim's reason (connected perhaps with his "modest" with- holding of his own name), his omission serves a most dramatic effect: it makes possible Rinieri's puzzled question and Guido's highly emotional reaction to it, which in turn leads to the overwhelming description of the Arno's journey southward through Tuscany.

31. For from its source: The river Arno has its source on Monte Falterona (17) in the Apennines ("the steep mountain chain") and empties into the sea just below Pisa. Pelorus (32) is a mountain at the northeastern extreme of Sicily, believed to have once belonged to the range of the Apennines, before the waters came to form the Strait of Messina and thereby "cut off" the mountain from the range. And with verse 3 1 begins a six- line description of the course of the river Arno from its source to its termination, offering a somewhat more elaborate treat-

154 / CANTO XIV

ment of the Pilgrim's reference to the length of its course ("more than a hundred miles": 18).

32-33. is rich I with waters: It is with this phrase that I have translated the pregno ("pregnant") of the original. Two other in- terpretations of this word have been offered: "high" (hardly convincing semantically) and "massy" (so many single moun- tains closely joined together). Only the last interpretation is justified by geographical facts, but many critics believe that as regards the first two interpretations, Dante may have over- evaluated this important mountain range.

37. virtue is loathed: Immediately after the two tercets (31-36) that give the limits of the Arno's course comes a warn- ing that all the territory through which this river passes is in- habited by vicious brutes. Then, in verse 43, the river will ac- tually begin its journey downward, flowing between various types of animals.

42. Circe: Daughter of Helios, god of the sun, Circe was an enchantress who had the power of turning men into beasts.

43. Past hoggish brutes: As Guido traces the course of the Arno through Tuscany, he points with disgust and contempt to the inhabitants of its miserable valley, designating them as var- ious species of contemptible animals: the "hoggish brutes" (43) are the inhabitants of Casentino; the "small curs" (47) are those of Arezzo; the "wolves" (51) are the Florentines; and finally the Pisans are represented as foxes (53). So fierce is Guido's con- tempt for the bestial Tuscans who live along the Arno that he is led to characterize the river itself as bestial: "it turns away its snout" (48).

55. though this man hears my words: When the speaker here, Guido del Duca (whose name is withheld until verse 81), says the words "this man," he is referring to the other penitent soul sitting beside him, who is Rinieri da Calboli (whose name is not revealed until verses 89-90).

57. what inspiration has revealed to me: It is well known that the souls in the Afterlife have foreknowledge of events to come; thus, we are not surprised that Guido is able to prophesy the future evil activities of Rinieri's grandson. But why should not Rinieri be possessed of the same powers of divination?

CANTO XIV / 155

Perhaps we are meant to assume, as has been suggested by some, that prophetic visions come in snatches, now to one soul, now to another.

58. your grandson: Rinieri's grandson, Fulcieri da Calboli, in- famously cruel and a perpetrator of atrocities against the White Guelphs (Dante's party) as well as the Ghibellines, was podesta of Florence in 1303.

60. that wild stream: The "little river" born in Falterona be- came a fierce stream in the course of its downward flow be- cause of the many tributaries pouring their waters into it. But perhaps the epithet "wild" is intended also to reflect the nature of the various beasts of the territory through which it flowed.

68. the face that listens: Here, again, we are invited to look straight into the face of one of the shades on the Terrace of the Envious. But we are reminded neither of the blinded eyes nor of the typical gesture of the uplifted head. It is simply the human face we see, its features revealing consternation and grief.

81. Guido del Duca: Of him little is known. Possibly he was the son of Giovanni del Duca of the Onesti family of Ravenna, who settled in Bertinoro. His name appears in a document dated May 4, 11 99, which states that he was a judge to the podesta of Rimini. In 1218 he, along with Pier Traversaro (98), was driven from Bertinoro and forced to flee to Ravenna. He witnessed a deed at Ravenna in 1229; this signature is the last record we have of his name.

87. where partnership must always be denied: In the next canto Dante asks for an explanation of these words (Purg. XV, 44-45), and a good part of the canto centers on Virgil's expla- nation of the difference between earthly and heavenly posses- sions. Earthly goods cannot be shared without being di- minished, but divine love, which is a heavenly possession and different in nature, only increases the more it is shared.

88. Rinier: Rinieri de' Paolucci da Calboli, a Guelph from the city of Forli, was podesta of Faenza (1247), Parma (1252), and Ravenna (1265). He was defeated by Guido da Montefel- tro in 1276 and died at Forli in 1296.

156 / CANTO XIV

91. From Po . . . : The region here included is Romagna, bounded by the Po to the north, the Apennines to the south, the Adriatic Sea to the east, and the River Reno to the west. Both Guido and Rinieri are Romagnols.

97-m

There follows a long list of good and honorable men of Romagna, to contrast with the previous list of despicable and wicked ones along the Arno. Unfortunately all these good men are dead, and this glance backwards is filled with regret. Here is an example of the Ubi sunt topos, well known in medieval lit- erature. For details about the lives of these virtuous Roma- gnols, see Toynbee (1968).

97. Mainardi . . . good Lizio: Little is known about Mainardi, other than that he was a contemporary of Guido del Duca and Pier Traversaro and was taken prisoner with the latter by the Faentines in 1170. He was reputed to be a virtuous man with knightly qualities.

Lizio da Valbona was born in the first half of the thirteenth century, a nobleman of Romagna and a contemporary of Rinieri. Boccaccio mentions him in Decam. V, 4.

98. Pier Traversaro? Guido di Carpigna?: Pier (ca. 1145- 1225) belonged to the powerful Traversaro family of Ravenna. He was a staunch supporter of the Ghibellines and a close friend of the Emperor Frederick II. Several times he was made podesta of Ravenna, as were a number of other members of the Traversari family during his lifetime.

Guido di Carpigna's family seems to have been established in the district of Montefeltro in Ravenna as early as the tenth cen- tury. Dante is probably alluding to Guido the younger, who was podesta of Ravenna 1251. He was dead before 1283.

1 01. a Fabbro . . . a Fosco: Fabbro de' Lambertazzi was a Ghibelline leader of Bologna, whose family was said to have descended from the dukes of Ravenna in the twelfth century. In 1230 Fabbro was podesta in Faenza, and he held this office in other cities in northern Italy as well. He died in 1259.

Bernardo di Fosco was reputed by early commentators to have been of humble origin, but through his own merits, he distinguished himself to the point of being accepted by the nobility of his city of Faenza on their own level. He was

canto xiv / 157

podesta of Siena in 1249 and perhaps of Pisa in 1248, and in 1240 he played an important part in defending his native city against the Emperor Frederick II.

104. Ugolin d'Azzo, Guido da Prata, too: Ugolino of A220 was a member of the powerful Ubaldini family, composed of such distinguished men as Ubaldino della Pila (Purg. XXIV, 29), Cardinal Ottaviano degli Ubaldini (/»/. X, 120), and the Archbishop Ruggieri degli Ubaldini (Inf. XXXIII, 14). He married Beatrice Lancia, who was the daughter of Provenzan Salvani, and by her he had three sons. He seems to have been a wealthy landholder who was well known in Romagna; he died in January of 1293.

Guido da Prata, who is mentioned in documents in the years 1222, 1225, 1228, also appears to have been a landholder of some importance in the vicinity of Ravenna. He died before 1245.

106. Federigo di Tignoso: A nobleman of Rimini, he was noted for his wealth and hospitality. He is believed to have lived in the first half of the thirteenth century, though there is no mention of him in any documents of the times.

107. the Traversaro clan, the Anastagi: The Traversaro clan was a powerful Ghibelline house of Ravenna, whose most dis- tinguished member was Pier Traversaro (see note to XIV, 98).

The Anastagi were another powerful Ghibelline family in Ravenna, who were most active in politics and antagonistic toward the church. After 1258 the family declined, and by 1 300 there was no longer any mention of them in Ravenna.

1 1 2. Eretinoro: A small town in Romagna (now Bertinoro), located between Forli and Cesena. Initially controlled by the Malatesta family of Ravenna, it came under the lordship of the Ordelaffi of Forli toward the end of the thirteenth century. Ac- cording to the Ottimo Commento, the town was noted for the hospitality of its nobles.

1 1 5. Bagnacaval: The town of Bagnacavallo in Romagna was a stronghold of the Malvicini, a Ghibelline family that expelled Guido da Polenta and the Guelphs from Ravenna in 1249. By 1300 the Malvicini, counts of Bagnacavallo, were becoming extinct.

158/ CANTO xiv

1 1 6. and Castrocaro's wrong, and Conio more: Castrocaro, now a village, was once a castle in Romagna belonging to the counts of Castrocaro, who, though Ghibellines, submitted to the church in 1282. Around 1300 the Ordelaffi of Forli took pos- session of the castle. Benvenuto comments that in his day the counts of Castrocaro were no longer in existence.

The castle of Cunio in Romagna (near Imola), once owned by the counts of Conio, who were for the most part Guelphs, was totally destroyed soon after 1295.

1 1 8. The Pagani's demon: The Pagani were a noble Ghibel- line family of Faenza and Imola. The "demon" among them was Maghinardo Pagano da Susinana, who ruled Faenza (1290), Forli (1291), and Imola (1296) and died at Imola in 1302. Guido da Montefeltro refers to him {Inf. XXVII, 50) as "the lion of the white lair" (his coat of arms).

121-23. Ugolin de' Fantolin: Ugolino de' Fantolini, a Guelph, was podesta of Faenza (1253); he died in 1278. His sons died soon after — Ottaviano in 1282 at Forli in a battle against Guido da Montefeltro; Fantolino, before 1291. Both died without heirs.

126. our discourse has so wrung my sorrowing mind: These are the last words of Guido del Duca, the most eloquent, impas- sioned speaker so far encountered in Purgatory. How deeply did his words impress the Pilgrim? The only reference in this canto to the Pilgrim's reaction occurs in verse 73, just after Guido has finished his dire prophecy to Rinieri about the latter's grandson. Later, however, it will become evident that Guido gave the Pilgrim food for thought on two other topics (XV, 44-45; XVI, 53).

131. there came, like lightning: Like the examples of Charity (the virtue opposed to Envy) in the previous canto, here the two examples of "Envy punished" will be offered by disem- bodied voices in the air.

133. "/ shall be slain": The first voice i's that of Cain, who, facing the punishment that God has visited upon him, cries out "I shall be a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will kill me" (Gen. 4:13-14).

canto xiv / 159

1 39. / am Agiauros: The second example of Envy is Ag- lauros, daughter of Cecrops, king of Athens. Out of jealousy she tried to prevent a rendezvous between her sister and Mer- cury and was, in consequence, turned to stone. Ovid tells the story in Metam. II, 737-832.

143. That was the iron curb: In the previous canto (XIII, 37-41), when the exempla of Charity had come to an end (Charity being the virtue directly opposed to the vice of Envy), Virgil had introduced the images of the whip and the curb. In that situation only the part played by the whip could be in question; as for the curb, Virgil told the Pilgrim that he would hear it soon. In verse 143, at the end of the illustrations of Envy punished, Virgil is reminding the Pilgrim of his prophecy as he applies the term curb to these exempla.

145. But you men take the bait: This tercet is devoted to Vir- gil's reproachful description of the blindness of mankind: though their experience is constantly offering "reins" or "curbs" in the form of deterrent examples, they will not learn from it; they swallow the hook with the bait and are reeled in. The tercet ends with a recapitulative reference to the "rein" and a shift to a new idea ("call"), which will be continued in the following tercet: the heavens revealing their beauty are con- stantly calling to men, who, however, insist on keeping their eyes fixed on the ground.. Thus, they are punished, since they are neither deterred by the vices they see around them nor inspired by the beauty of the heavens calling them.

The "call" referred to in verse 1 48 is, in the original, a term of falconry (richiamo): the cry or whistle with which the fal- coner calls back his falcon. The technical implications of this image are surely not developed in the following tercet, but we cannot forget that they have been suggested, and it is surely not impossible to think of God as the falconer calling back His creature. In fact, it is precisely this image that will be presented five cantos later (Purg. XIX, 61-63). And is it not true that His penitents here on this Terrace of the Envious are like newly caught falcons whose eyes are stitched tight with iron thread to tame their restlessness? See the preceding canto, es- pecially verses 70-72.

160 / CANTO XIV

CANTO XV

The Pilgrim IS stunned by the light emanating from the Angel of Generosity, and Virgil explains that soon such a sight will not be a burden to his eyes but a great joy. As they climb past the angel, they hear from below the singing of the beatitude "Blessed are the Merciful." At the Pilgrim's prompt- ing, Virgil delivers a discourse on the difference between earthly and heavenly possessions. When he has finished, the two poets find themselves on the Third Terrace. Here, the exempla of Meekness, the opposite of the sin of Wrath, present themselves in the form of ecstatic visions. The first vision is of the Virgin meekly questioning the Christ child as to why he has remained behind in the temple, causing his parents so much distress. The second vision is of Pisistratus, who, despite the imprecations of his wife, refused to take revenge on the young man who had embraced his daughter. The final example of Meekness is taken from the life of St. Stephen, the first martyr. The canto ends ominously with the menacing appearance of a thick black cloud of smoke, which envelops the Pilgrim and his guide.

The same amount of time it takes that sphere (which, like a child at play, is never still) to go from break of day to the third hour, 3

was left now for the sun to run its course toward night: mid-afternoon it was up there (and midnight here, where I am writing this). 6

Now, its late rays struck full upon our faces, for we had gone so far around the mount that we were walking due west toward the sun. 9

But suddenly I felt my brow forced down by light far brighter than I sensed before; my mind was stunned by what it did not know. 12

I placed both of my hands above my eyes and used them as a visor for my face

to temper the intensity of light. 15

canto xv / 161

A ray leaps back from water or from glass, reflecting back the other way as it ascends in the same way it first came down,

forming an angle with the plummet-line exactly equal to the incidence — as theory and experiment both show;

in just this way it seemed I had been struck by light reflected just in front of me: and that is why I quickly looked aside.

"Dear father, what is this? There is no way for me to shield my eyes from such bright light; it's moving toward us, isn't it?" I asked.

"Don't be surprised if you can still be dazed by members of the Heavenly Court," he said. "This is our invitation to ascend.

Not long from now, a sight like this will prove to be no burden, but a joy as great as Nature has prepared your soul to feel."

Before the blessed angel now we stood. He joyfully announced: "Enter this way to stairs less steep by far than those below."

Past him we went, already climbing when Beati misericordes from behind came ringing, and "Conqueror, rejoice."

And while my guide and I in solitude were moving upward, I, hoping to learn from his wise words with every step we took,

turned toward him and began to question him: "What did that spirit from Romagna mean who spoke of 'partnership' and of 'denial'?"

"Knowing the price he pays for his worst fault," he answered, "naturally he censures it, hoping that others will have less to bear.

Because you make things of this world your goal, which are diminished as each shares in them, Envy pumps hard the bellows for your sighs.

162 / CANTO xv

But if your love were for the lofty sphere, your cravings would aspire for the heights, and fear of loss would not oppress your heart;

the more there are up there who speak of 'ours,' the more each one possesses and the more Charity burns intensely in that realm."

"I hunger more for satisfaction now,"

I said, "than when I held my tongue before, and new perplexities come to my mind.

How can one good that's shared by many souls make all those who possess it wealthier than if it were possessed by just a few?"

And he: "Since you insist on limiting

your mind to thoughts of worldly things alone, from the true light you reap only the dark.

That infinite, ineffable true Good

that dwells in Heaven speeds instantly to love, as light rays to a shining surface would;

just as much ardor as it finds, it gives: the greater the proportion of our love, the more eternal goodness we receive;

the more souls there above who are in love

the more there are worth loving; love grows more, each soul a mirror mutually mirroring.

And if my words have not appeased your thirst, when you see Beatrice you will see all of your longings truly satisfied.

Strive hard for the quick disappearance now of the five wounds that suffering will heal, just as the other two have left no trace."

I was about to say "I'm satisfied,"

but seeing that we had reached the next round, my eager eyes forgot about my tongue.

And, there, it seemed to me that suddenly I was caught up in an ecstatic trance: a temple filled with people I could see;

canto xv / 163

a lady at the entrance whispering,

tenderly as a mother would, "My son,

why hast Thou dealt with us this way? You see,

Thy father and I, both of us in tears,

have searched for Thee." Silence. The vision then, quick to appear, as quickly disappeared.

And then, another lady I could see: her cheeks were streaked with tears distilled by grief — a grief born from the spirit of revenge.

She spoke: "If you are master of this town whose naming caused such strife among the gods, and which shines as the source of all the arts,

take vengeance on those wanton arms that dared embrace our daughter, O Pisistratus!" And then, it seemed, that lord replied to her,

his face serene, his words gentle and calm: "What shall we do to those who wish us harm if we condemn the ones who show us love?"

And then I saw a mob, raging with hate, stoning a boy to death, as all of them kept screaming to each other, "Kill him, kill!"

1 saw him sinking slowly to his knees,

the weight of death forcing him to the earth; but still his eyes were open gates to Heaven,

while he, in agony, prayed to his Lord for the forgiveness of his murderers, his face showing compassion for them all.

When finally my soul became aware of the reality that lay beyond, I recognized my error and its truth.

My leader, who saw I was in the plight

of someone trying hard to wake from sleep, said: "What is wrong? Have you lost all control?

You have been walking for a good half -league

like someone half-asleep or drunk on wine: / your eyes about to close, unsteady legs."

1 64 / CANTO xv

"O my sweet father, listen: I will tell you all of the things that did appear to me while I could scarcely move my legs," I said. 126

And he: "Were you to put a hundred masks upon your face, still you could never hide from me the slightest thought that comes to you. 129

The things you saw were shown that you might learn to let your heart be flooded by the peace that flows eternally from that High Fount. 1)2

I did not ask, 'What's wrong?' as one who looks with eyes that have no gift of insight might, eyes doomed to blindness once the body dies; 05

I asked you this to give strength to your limbs; so must the lazy man be spurred to put the time of his reawakening to best use."

We walked along, with evening coming on, into the splendor of the setting sun,

looking ahead as far as we could see. 141

Then gradually a cloud of smoke took shape; slowly it drifted toward us, dark as night; we were not able to escape its grip: , 4A

it took away our sight, and the pure air.

NOTES 1-6

This canto opens with an obscure time periphrasis: liter- ally, the poet is telling us that it is 3:00 P.M. (mid-afternoon) in Purgatory and midnight in Italy ("here, where I am writing"). But the postmeridian time of Purgatory is expressed in terms of a reversal of corresponding antemeridian time: that is, the course remaining to the sun from the present moment until sunset is equal to the course that the sun has completed, that morning, from dawn until the third hour. Schematically ex- pressed, the interval between the third hour and sunrise (figur- ing backwards) is equal to the interval between the present moment and sunset (figuring forward). In each case it is a ques-

canto xv / 165

tion of three hours. Therefore, it is three hours before sunset in Purgatory.

Dante here is doing more than just telling time; he is intro- ducing the important figure of the "mirror image." Evening time expressed as the "reverse image" of morning time serves to introduce the imagery of "reflection," which will dominate this canto. The "communication of goods" is expressed in terms of reflected light, in terms of angles of incidence and reflection. And light symbolizes the love of God, which can be shared — or "reflected" — by many, without being diminished.

Midnight (Italy)

i. The same amount of time it takes that sphere: There has been much debate about the exact reference of the word spera in the original, which I have translated "sphere." But there can be no doubt that, in the opening lines, the sun's movement is seen from two points of view: the main concern is with the daily movement from dawn to. sunset, but, in verse 2 ("which, like a child at play, is never still"), there must be a reference to the larger movement completed only in a year's time, allowing for the seasonal variation of the sun's position in the sky.

But why should this be compared to the movements of a frisky child? The seasonal changes of position are rigidly de-

166 / CANTO xv

termined, with nothing of the spontaneity and abandon of a child at play. And to compare the glory and grandeur of the sun, the vastness of its course, to a mere child in its play- ground! Is this another glorification of innocent childhood (cf. the anima semplicetta of Purg. XVI, 87), and is Dante also suggesting in verse 2 that the sun is having fun? See Nardi (i953) for a reading of this canto.

9. due west toward the sun: This phrase prepares us for the coming of evening and for the Pilgrim's next dream.

1 1, light far brighter than I sensed be/ore: For the third time in Purgatory proper the Pilgrim is dazzled by the radiance of an ange*. This time the light is far brighter than before — and much more startling for the Pilgrim, who has not yet seen the angel, the source of this light.

16. A ray leaps back from water: The poet describes, in the erudite terms of optics, the phenomenon of the reflection of a ray of light. The ray, striking a horizontal surface (water or glass) will be reflected from it at precisely the same angle at which it struck: the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Just how this highly technical description of a com- monplace phenomenon serves to explain the Pilgrim's excep- tional experience is none too clear.

34. Before the blessed angel: After his shattering experience, the Pilgrim sees the prescribed pattern renewing itself: the "blessed angel" welcoming him to the stairs leading to the next Terrace: that of the Wrathful.

38. Beati misericordes: "Blessed are the Merciful." Having passed beyond the Terrace of the Envious, the Pilgrim hears from behind the beatitude praising the opposing virtue of Mercy or Generosity. This is from the fifth beatitude (see Matt. 5:7): "Beati misericordes, quoniam ipsi misericordiam conse- quentur." Since none of the beatitudes refers to Charity, the virtue that best opposes Envy (see Thomas Aquinas, Summa theol. II -II, q. 36, a. 3, ad 3: "Unde invidia misericordiae op- ponitur et charitati ["so that envy is contrary to pity and chari- ty"]), Dante the Poet selects the one that speaks of mercy or compassion for others.

39. "Conqueror, rejoice": There is no exact biblical or liturgi- cal source for these words, although some commentators see in

canto xv / 167

them a reflection of the conclusion of all the beatitudes (Matt. 5:12): 'Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven." See Singleton (1973), p. 322.

44. spirit from Romagna: The Pilgrim is referring to the words of Guido del Duca (Purg. XIV, 86-87), who reproached mankind for placing its hopes "where partnership must always be denied." Here we have the first of the two indications men- tioned earlier (Purg. XIV, 126) that the Pilgrim's interest has been stirred by certain words of Guido del Duca, to which he did not react at the time.

49. Because you make: The "you" here is plural — Virgil is speaking of all mankind. Men desire worldly goods, those goods which are diminished when shared. The discourse that follows will point out the difference between earthly goods and heavenly possessions.

52. But if your love were for the lofty sphere: Here Virgil states the essential characteristic of heavenly love: the more the love of God is shared, the more each one of those who share pos- sesses. The sharing in no way diminishes the quantity of love but actually increases it. Such a concept is frequently found in medieval Christian writers: cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei XV, 15; Gregory the Great, Moral. IV, 31.

61. How can one good that's shared by many souls: The Pil- grim's question is intended to reveal not only his great perplexity but also the magnitude of the problem. How many readers would have asked themselves the question, if the Pil- grim had not?

69. as light rays to a shining surface would: This verse cannot fail to remind the reader of the earlier passage (16-21) describ- ing the reflection of light. But what was Dante's purpose in reminding us? Here we have to do not with the reflection of light but with, supposedly, the attraction of light. Moreover, the phenomenon mentioned in verse 69 is hardly demonstrable by "theory and experiment": it is surely not true that a shining body attracts light. We have to do with a very loose application of the idea of "affinity": like attracts like. In verse 75, however ("each soul a mirror, mutually mirroring"), there is, very prob- ably, a reference to the reflection of light — the light of love. This is an important concept in the Paradiso.

168 / canto xv

76. your thirst: This corresponds to Dante's earlier reference to his own hunger for knowledge (58).

79-81. Strive hard for the quick disappearance: We are in- formed that the Pilgrim has now had the second of the P's re- moved from his forehead (those which represent Pride and Envy), and that five remain to be purged. We were not, how- ever, told about the removal of the second P at the time it actually occurred.

86-87. / was caught up in an ecstatic trance: Here is offered the first member of the third pair of exempla appropriate to the Terrace of the Wrathful (the virtue of Meekness). On the Ter- race of the Proud, the pair took the form of sculptures, appeal- ing to the sense of vision; on the Terrace of the Envious, the exempla were represented by means of disembodied voices, appealing to the sense of hearing. Now, on the Terrace of the Wrathful, they take the form of an inner vision experienced by the Pilgrim (and by the Penitents as well?).

89-90. "My son, I why hast Thou dealt with us this way?": The first example of Meekness, the virtue opposed to the vice of Wrath (taken, as always, from the life of Mary) is the episode in which Mary and Joseph, having left Jerusalem and travelled an entire day, discover that the boy Jesus is not in their com- pany. Upon returning to Jerusalem they find him in the temple with the teachers and the learned men, listening to them and asking them questions. Mary's meekness is apparent in her first words to her son, whose absence indeed must have caused her considerable consternation and anxiety. But despite the distress that she must have suffered, she speaks to Jesus gently, without a trace of anger. See Luke 2:40-48.

97. "// you are master of this town": The allusion here is, of course, to Athens. Legend has it that both Neptune and Athena desired to give their name to this newly founded capital. A contest ensued, and from it the city came to be called Athens. The nature of the contest, which was presided over by the gods, was to see which of the two contestants could present the gift most useful to mankind. Neptune, striking the ground with his trident, brought forth water. Athena, however, planted an olive tree, which the gods decided tcr be the more useful. See Ovid, Metam. VI, 70-82, and Augustine, De civ. Dei XVIII, 9.

canto xv / 169

I03- his face serene, his words gentle and calm: The second example of Meekness is Pisistratus v the benevolent tyrant of Athens from 560-527 B.C.; he was famous for his ability to turn away wrath with a soft answer. Valerius Maximus (Facta et Dicta V, i) relates how Pisistratus cooled the wrath of his wife, who had become angered at seeing her daughter embraced in public by a suitor who had not won parental approval. To his wife's vengeful imprecations Pisistratus calmly replied, "If we slay those who love us, what shall we do with those who hate us?"

106-14. AW then I saw a mob: The third example of Meek- ness is from the life of St. Stephen, the first Christian martyr. Stephen was stoned to death by an angry crowd, but, even in his final agony, he asked the Lord to forgive his persecutors (Acts 7:54-60).

117. my error and its truth: What the Pilgrim had seen was not objectively present, but it was not false either. The truth of the visions resides in their inner, subjective reality and their exemplary moral value as God-given lessons.

131. to let your heart be flooded: These peaceful waters that flow from the eternal High Fount of God are such as to quench any tendency toward Wrath, the sin being punished on this ter- race. With these waters there flowed into the Pilgrim's heart the three exempla of Meekness forming his three visions.

1 34. eyes that have no gift of insight: Virgil's reference to his "eyes" should be seen in connection with the preceding two tercets: he has understood that the Pilgrim's sleepy attitude was due to the visions he had been experiencing. He knows what the Pilgrim has seen and why he was allowed to see them. But now that the visions have come to an end, he must urge the Pilgrim to resume his journey with zeal. For an entirely differ- ent interpretation of this passage, see Singleton (1973, p. 339), who quotes Torraca (1921).

142. Then gradually: The canto ends with the unexpected introduction of a new element, which leaves the reader in suspense.

170 / CANTO xv

CANTO XVI

THE PILGRIM IS blinded by the smoke and clings tena- ciously to his guide. He hears the voices of the Wrathful sing- ing the Agnus Dei in perfect concord. One of the souls, Marco the Lombard, comes forward to speak with the Pilgrim and, at his invitation, accompanies him (and Virgil) to the end of the smoke-filled space, discussing the problems connected with the present-day corruption of society. He belittles the influence of the stars on human affairs, affirms the existence of Free Will, and laments the lack of good leadership in church and state.

The gloom of Hell or of a night bereft of all its planets, under barren skies,

and totally obscured by dark, dense clouds, j

never had wrapped my face within a veil

so thick, made of such harsh and stinging stuff,

as was that smoke that poured around us there. 6

It was too much for open eyes to bear,

and so my wise and faithful guide drew near,

offering me his shoulder for support. 9

Just as the blind man walks close to his guide in order not to stray, or to collide

with something that could hurt or even kill him, 12

so I moved through that foul and acrid air, hearing my guide keep telling me: "Watch out! Be very careful not to lose me here." 13

I could hear voices, which all seemed to pray the Lamb of God Who takes away our sins that He be merciful and grant them peace. is

Each prayer they sang began with Agnus Dei; the same words, sung in unison, produced an atmosphere of perfect harmony. 21

"Master, those voices — are they shades I hear?" I asked. And he to me, "Yes, you are right, and they are loosening the knot of Wrath." 24

canto xvi / 171

"And who are you whose body cleaves our smoke? You speak of us as though you still belonged with those who measure time by calendars."

I heard a voice, somewhere, that spoke these words. My master said: "Answer his question, first, then ask him if this is the right way up."

And I: "O creature, you who cleanse your soul to give it back, made beautiful, to God, you will hear wonders if you come with me."

"I'll come as far as I'm allowed," he said, "and if we cannot see each other's face, we can at least hear one another's words."

Then I began: "Still wrapped in mortal bonds that death has yet to loose, 1 climb to Heaven; and through the pains of Hell I have come here.

Since God has given me the special grace of His desire that I should see His court by means unknown to men of our own day,

please tell me who you were before you died, and tell me, too: is this the way to reach the passage up? Your words shall be our guide."

"I was a Lombard, Marco was my name; I knew about the world, I loved that good at which men now no longer aim their bows.

The path you're on will lead you to the stairs." Thus he replied, then added: "Now, I pray that you will pray for me when you're above."

"I promise you to do what you have asked," I said. "But there's a problem haunting me: I can no longer keep it to myself.

I first was made aware of it below,

and now it plagues my mind a second time, for your words second what I first heard there:

the world, indeed, as you have just declared, is destitute of every virtue known, swarming with evils, ever breeding more.

172 / CANTO XVI

What is the cause of this? Please make it clear that I may teach the truth to other men; some see it in the stars, some on the earth."

A deep sigh, wrung by grief into "Alas!"

came first, and then: "The world, brother, is blind, and obviously the world is where you're from!"

You men on earth attribute everything to the spheres' influence alone, as if with some predestined plan they moved all things.

If this were true, then our Free Will would be annihilated: it would not be just to render bliss for good or pain for evil.

The spheres initiate your tendencies: not all of them — but even if they did, you have the light that shows you right from wrong,

and your Free Will, which, though it may grow faint in its first struggles with the heavens, can still surmount all obstacles if nurtured well.

You are free subjects of a greater power, a nobler nature that creates your mind, and over this the spheres have no control.

So, if the world today has gone astray,

the cause lies in yourselves and only there! Now I shall carefully explain that cause.

From the fond hands of God, Who loves her even before He gives her being, there issues forth just like a child, all smiles and tears at play,

the simple soul, pure in its ignorance,

which, having sprung from her Creator's joy, will turn to anything it likes. At first

she is attracted to a trivial toy,

and though beguiled, she will run after it, if guide or curb do not divert her love.

Men, therefore, needed the restraint of laws, needed a ruler able to at least discern the towers of the True city. True,

canto xvi / 17 3

the laws there are, but who enforces them? No one. The shepherd who is leading you can chew the cud but lacks the cloven hoof. 99

And so the flock, that see their shepherd's greed for the same worldly goods that they have craved, are quite content to feed on what he feeds. ,02

As you can see, bad leadership has caused the present state of evil in the world,

not Nature that has grown corrupt in you. ;oj

On Rome, that brought the world to know the good, once shone two suns that lighted up two ways: the road of this world and the road of God. ;o8

The one sun has put out the other's light;

the sword is now one with the crook — and fused together thus, must bring about misrule, ,,,

since joined, now neither fears the other one. If you still doubt, think of the grain when ripe — each plant is judged according to its seed. n 4

The region of the Po and Adige

flowed with true worth, with honest courtesy,

until the time of Frederick's campaign; 117

but now, the kind of man who is ashamed to talk with, even meet with, honest folk, may travel there completely reassured! - 120

There, three old men still live in whom the past rebukes the present. How those three must yearn for God to call them to a better life! — 123

Currado da Palazzo, good Gherardo,

and Guido da Castel — who's better named

'the simple Lombard,' as the French would say. 126

Tell the world this: The church of Rome, which fused two powers into one, has sunk in muck, defiling both herself and her true role." 129

"Well argued, my dear Marco," I replied, "and now I understand why Levi's sons were not permitted to inherit wealth. t} 2

174 / CANTO XVI

But who is this Gherardo whom you give as an example of a race extinct,

whose life rebukes this barbarous age of ours?" ;jj

"Your words are meant to trick me or to test me!" he said. "How can you speak the Tuscan tongue and not know who the good Gherardo is? 138

I know him by no other name than this, unless he's known as Gaia's father, too. God be with you! And now I must go back: 14;

see how the rays of light through the thick smoke grow brighter now? The angel's near, and I must leave before he sees me." And he turned, M4

not giving me a chance to ask him more.

NOTES

9. offering me his shoulder for support: Evidently Virgil is of- fering his shoulder as a support for the Pilgrim's hand. The Pilgrim, then, would be walking behind his master.

1 5. Be very careful not to lose me here: Virgil, evidently, can "see" in the smoke. He is here acting out his symbolic role of Reason, guiding the Pilgrim. The smoke on this terrace, the Terrace of the Wrathful, symbolizes the bitter, smoky passion of Wrath, which blinds the mind to reason.

19. Agnus Dei: Lamb of God. This prayer is taken from the canon of the Mass. It is significant that the Wrathful are singing to the Lamb of God, to Jesus, the meek One.

20-21. in unison . . . I perfect harmony: Such harmony is in- deed surprising among the Wrathful!

22. "Master, those voices — are they shades I hear?": I think we are meant to be startled by the Pilgrim's words to Virgil: he seems not quite sure that the voices he has heard in prayer are those of the Penitent. But earlier he had heard two other groups chanting the prayer of their respective terraces, and whom else would he expect to find on the mountain of Purga- tory? Perhaps the Pilgrim has been so unnerved by his experi- ence of walking blindly, clutching Virgil's shoulder, in the ac-

CANTO xvi / 175

rid, stinging smoke that, for a moment, he is not quite sure where he is (he had been reminded of the darkness of Hell: verse i)! And perhaps Virgil knows this and that is why he gives him such encouraging corroboration that he has guessed the truth: "Yes, you are right."

25. And who are you: Canto XV had opened with a question, "Who is this man?" spoken by a shade still hidden to the reader; here, we have the question "and who are you?" spoken by a shade invisible to the Pilgrim himself. It is fitting that in the presentation of the two most important speakers so far encountered in the Purgatory, dramatic stress should be laid upon their voices. It is also fitting that both questions show an interest in the Pilgrim, since it is he whom the two speakers take it upon themselves to teach.

27. calendars: Calends is the first day of the month, accord- ing to the ancient Roman calendar. The voice, in saying, "you speak as though you reckon time by earthly measurements," is saying, "... as though you were still alive." And if we wonder why Marco chooses precisely "measurement of time" as char- acteristic of those still living on earth, it could indeed be that such measurements are completely meaningless to the Peni- tents. It is not in months and years that the term of their pur- gation can be measured but in the intensity of their penance.

46. / was a Lombard, Marco was my name: Though we know nothing certain regarding Marco (not even his exact name), it is speculated that he was a Knight of Venice and may have been a member of the Venetian Lombardi family; that he was from Lower Lombardy (specifically the March of Treviso) and was on cordial terms with the noblemen of Lombardy, for whom he arranged treaties, pacts, etc.; and that he frequented Paris. He waS reputed to have had a stubborn temperament, but also to have been very generous. On his identity, see Maggini. Zac- cagnini cites a document of the Archivio di Stato di Bologna, dated January 5, 1267, which mentions a "dominus Marchus Lombardus."

47. / knew about the world: That the world is no longer dis- posed toward virtue, we remember from the vituperative words of Guido del Duca (Purg. XVI). The figure of speech that Marco will use here, that of the slackened bow, is appropriate

176 / CANTO XVI

for the world's degeneracy: no one is "aiming" at valor any longer.

5 1 . pray for me: Once more the Pilgrim is an instrument of grace for the souls in Purgatory. Marco Lombardo is the second spirit in Purgatory proper (after Sapia in XIII, 147) who asks Dante to pray for him. He, however, wants the Pilgrim not to wait until his return to earth but to pray for him when he reaches Heaven.

53-63

Here we have the second belated indication (see note to Purg. XIV, 1 26) of the effect on the Pilgrim of Guido's preachments — an effect that has just been increased by the words of Marco, to whom the Pilgrim now turns for an expla- nation. That he is deeply concerned, and sorely perplexed, is clear.

It is interesting to look back a few tercets to see precisely what leads to Marco's ensuing words. The Pilgrim has asked Marco two questions: "Who are you?" and "Is this the right way up?" (43-45). Marco answers the first question in verse 46 and the second in 49; between the two answers he inserts a passing reference to present-day corruption (47-48) and con- cludes with a request for the Pilgrim's prayers. The reader gets the impression that Marco has said everything he had on his mind: his words are far removed from suggesting the introduc- tion to a "speech." But, because of his brief allusion in verses 47-48, which inspires the Pilgrim's plea for instruction (52- 63), he will end up delivering a discourse of sixty-six uninter- rupted lines (64-129).

63. Some see it in the stars, some on the earth: Some people say that the influence of the stars causes corruption; others say that the cause is to be found in men themselves (on earth).

64. A deep sigh, wrung by grief into "Alas!": Is grief alone expressed in Marco's following words, or does he give way to impatience with the Pilgrim's blindness, as in verse 66? See also verse 97.

71. /'/ would not be just: The idea that the concept of j ustice, the meaning of reward and punishment, depends on the exis- tence of Free Will had been brilliantly discussed by Boethius (Consol. philos. V, 2:1-127).

CANTO xvi / 177

73- The spheres initiate your tendencies: Marco destroys the idea that the stars are the cause of corruption. The heavens or spheres initiate (some of) men's movements, but men are re- sponsible, because they have Free Will and an understanding of good and evil. Thomas Aquinas explains how the heavens may have an indirect effect on man's actions \aSumma tbeol. I -II, q. 9, a. 5, resp., and II— II, q. 95, a. 5, resp.

85. From the fond hands of God: Following the doctrinal ex- position of Free Will and leading up to the discourse on the necessity of laws and leadership comes this exquisitely lyrical passage with its famous description of the new-born soul. Ac- tually, the passage 85-93 forms a most important link between the two parts of Marco's discourse. The first part ended with the statement that, if the world has gone astray, the cause is to be found not in the stars but in man (83). Then, lest the reader misunderstand him, lest he attribute the cause of present evils to the depravity of human nature, he insists (tenderly) that the soul is born innocent — innocent but in great need of guidance. And it is due to the lack of such guidance that the present state of evil has come about — "not Nature that has grown corrupt in you" (105). But the "bad leaders" (who were born innocent) may have had bad leaders — what is the ultimate cause?

98-99. shepherd . . . cud . . . hoof: Jewish dietary law states, in Lev. 1 1:3: "Any animal that has hoofs you may eat, provided it is cloven footed and chews the cud." Medieval biblical schol- arship, interpreting this verse allegorically as referring to the "just man," took "chewing the cud" to mean meditation and understanding, while the "cloven foot" symbolized the powers of judgement and discrimination. In these verses Dante is voic- ing (through Marco Lombardo) a critique of papal power in terms of this traditional biblical image: the shepherd, of course, is the present pope, Boniface VIII (whom Dante despised; cf. Inf. XIX, 53). When Dante says that he can "chew the cud," he probably means that he has a knowledge and understanding of the law and his high position, but, lacking the cloven hoof, he is unable to discriminate either between good and evil or, more likely, between temporal and spiritual power. The result, of course, is defective leadership, which Dante goes on to discuss further in the next tercet.

178 / CANTO XVI

I07- two suns: The emperor and the pope were once two suns, that is, two independent and equal authorities. Here Marco is expressing an ideal peculiar to Dante, which he treats in De monorchia, III, iv. Most of Dante's contemporaries had presented the papacy and the empire as symbolized by the sun and the moon respectively. Dante objected to the idea that the empire could receive no light of its own but only that reflected by the papacy. Hence, the unusual concept of "two suns." See Kantorowicz, p. 231.

112. since joined, now neither fears the other one: With these words Marco brings to an end the second of his two main top- ics. Though he has had occasion in his discourse to the Pilgrim to deal with human sinfulness and with the role of the church, nothing that he says shows any concern for theological values or problems. Nothing is said about Original Sin or about the need of grace or about the salvation of the soul. It is above all a picture of social disorder that he offers.

115. The region of the Po and Adige: This phrase loosely des- ignates a region, as Marco goes on to say, that is characterized by the degeneracy of its inhabitants — as were, according to Guido del Duca, the lands of Tuscany and Romagna.

1 16. with true worth, with honest courtesy: This verse echoes the nostalgic note with which Guido del Duca had ended his "Ubi sunt" lament: "which love and courtesy did once inspire" (Purg. XIV, no).

117. until the time of Frederick's campaign: Emperor Frederick II, last of the emperors, according to Dante's view, was in- volved in successive conflicts with the papacy: he met resistance from Popes Honorius III, Gregory IX, and Innocent IV.

124. Currado da Palazzo, good Gherardo: Currado was a Guelph from Brescia and acted as vicar to Charles of Anjou in Florence in 1276; he was podesta of Piacenza in 1288. Ben- venuto reports that Currado, who was standard-bearer in a battle, had both hands hacked off, yet kept the standard waving by hugging the staff with the stumps of his arms.

Gherardo da Camino, son of Biaquino da Camino and India da Camposampiero, born ca. 1 240, was the captain-general of Treviso from 1283 to 1306, the year he died. Dante cites Gherardo as an example of true nobility in Conv. IV, xiv, 12.

canto xvi / 179

125- Guidoda Castel: A nobleman ofReggio Emilia, born in 1235 and still living in 131 5. He is cited for his nobility by Dante in Conv. IV, xvi, 6. Guido was a vernacular poet and was one of Dante's hosts during the latter's exile.

1 26. 'the simple Lombard,' as the French would say: All scholars are agreed that the epithet simple is used in a highly laudatory sense, but two reasons are offered for the creation of Marco's French nickname. Some believe it originated in appreciation of the great generosity he showed to French travellers whom he entertained; others see in it a witticism, a contradiction in terms: since all Italians were called "Lombards" by the French and all were considered to be shrewd and unscrupulous, this honorable man would be seen as an exception to the rule. This latter interpretation seems dubious to me, since it is put into the mouth of Marco, a self-declared Lombard.

131. Levi's sons: The Levites, members of the tribe of Levi, were designated to serve the Temple, and, in order to prevent corruption and distraction in the performance of their sacred function, Jewish law prohibited them from owning property.

140. Gala's father: Gaia was Gherardo's daughter by his sec- ond wife, Chiara della Torre of Milan. She married Tolberto da Camino, a relative, and she died in 131 1. Although the Anonimo fiorentino states that she was noted for her beauty and virtue, Benvenuto affirms that she was notoriously promis- cuous and even offered to procure beautiful girls for her brother, Rizzardo, if he would return the favor with young suitors for her. Perhaps Marco, who has just reproached the Pilgrim for not knowing more about "the good Gherardo," is pretending, in verse 140, to be equally ignorant — in order to suggest that the notoriety of the wanton daughter was more extensive than the good reputation of her father. Finally, the mention of the notorious Gaia introduces the theme of wanton women, which will be developed in later cantos.

143. The angel's near: This is the angel of Meekness, who will erase the third P from the Pilgrim's brow and pronounce the appropriate beatitude.

180 / CANTO xvi

CANTO XVII

As the Pilgrim emerges from the cloud of smoke that surrounds the Wrathful, the sun is about to set. He experiences three more visions that offer exempla of Wrath. They center on the stories of Procne, Haman, and Amata, the wife of King Latinus. The angel of Meekness then appears and points to the way by which the two poets may continue their ascent. As they move toward the indicated stairway, they hear the words of the beatitude "Blessed are the Peacemakers." Upon reaching the Fourth Terrace, the Pilgrim feels that all strength has left his limbs, and both he and his guide rest from their journey: they have reached the Terrace of the Slothful, and night is about to fall. Virgil takes advantage of this pause to discourse on the nature of love, showing that all the sins purged in Purgatory spring from one of three perversions of love. His words bring the canto to a