← Volver a la ficha del textoA Practical Grammar of the
Pali Language
by Charles Duroiselle
Fourth Edition, revision 3 (or "Version 4.3"), October 2007.
PUBLICATION DATA: This book was first published in 1906 at the "Rangoon College" of British-
occupied Burma; the second edition followed in 1915. An electronic text released into the public
domain constituted the 3rd edition in 1997. The present edition of the electronic text has been
extensively re-formatted to display the Pali text with Unicode compliant characters, and should not
require any special fonts to display properly on a contemporary computer. I have made corrections
to typographical errors, and have made aesthetic changes to the layout and sequence of the tables,
but I have refrained from substantially revising or editing the text.
Eisel Mazard, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, P.R.C., 2007
Table of Contents
PREFACES
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER I THE ALPHABET
Vowels short and long (§2-5) The letters classified (§6)
Pronunciation (§10-11) Conjunct consonants (§12-13)
CHAPTER II SANDHI EUPHONY
Introductory (§14-16) Vowel sandhi (§17-27)
Consonantal Insertions (§28) Consonantal sandhi (§29-36)
Niggahita Sandhi (§37-46) Interchange of letters (§47)
Signs (§48- 50)
CHAPTER III ASSIMILATION
Introductory (§51-52) Kinds of Assimilation (§53)
General Rules (§54- 66) Assimilation of Nasals (§67-69)
Assimilation Ofy (§70-79) Assimilation of r (§80-84)
Assimilation of s (§85-95) Assimilation of h (§96-102)
CHAPTER IV : STRENGTHENING
Strengthening [Guna] (§103) Metathesis (§111)
Epenthesis (§113) Dropping of Syllables (§113)
CHAPTER V : DECLENSION OF NOMINAL BASES
Stem or Base (§116, b)
The Cases (§116, f)
General case endings (§118)
Masculines in a, deva (§122)
Declension of nouns in a (§125)
Gender (§116, c, d)
Divisions of Declension (§117)
Vowel declension, stems in a (§119-121)
Neuters in a, rupa (§123-124)
Feminines in a kanna (§126-127)
Pg - 1
Masculines in a, sa (§128)
Masculines in i, kapi (§130-131)
Neuters in i, vari (§134)
Masculines in f, dandi (§136-137)
Declension of nouns in u. (§140)
Feminines in u, dhenu (§142-143)
Declension of nouns in u (§146)
Feminines in u, vadhu (§148)
Special nouns, go, sakha (§150 -15l)
[Paradigm:] atta (§154)
[Paradigm:] raja (§156)
Stems in s, mano (§159-160)
Stems in r, sattha (§163)
Stems in at, vat, mat, bhavarj (§166)
Declension of nouns in i, (§129)
Feminines in i, Tratti (§132-133)
Declension of nouns in T (§135)
Feminines in f, nadi (§138-139)
Masculines in u, bhikkhu (§141)
Neuters in u, cakkhu (§144-145)
Masculines in u, sayambhu (§147)
Diphthongal stems (§149)
Consonantal Declension (§152)
[Paradigm:] brahma (§155)
[Paradigm:] puma (§157)
[Paradigm:] ayu (§161)
[Paradigm:] mata, pita (§164)
[Paradigm:] arahag (§167)
CHAPTER VI : FORMATION OF FEMININE BASES
Feminine Suffixes (§181) Feminine bases of substantives (§182-192)
Feminine bases of adjectives (§193-195)
CHAPTER VII : ADJECTIVES
Adjectives in a (§197-201)
Adjectives in i (§205-210)
Adjectives In u (§215-218)
[Paradigm:] maha (§226)
[Paradigm:] gunava (§230)
Negative Adjectives (§236- 237)
Irregular Adjectives (§247)
Adjectives in i (§202-204)
Adjectives in u (§211-214)
Adjectives with consonantal bases (§220-224)
[Paradigm:] dhima (§228)
Adjectives in vi (§231-235)
Comparison (§238-247)
CHAPTER VIII NUMERALS
Table of Cardinals and Ordinals (§251) Cardinals (§252-272)
Ordinals (§273 -278) Adverbial Derivatives from numerals (§279-287)
CHAPTER IX ; PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES AND
PRONOMINAL DERIVATIVES
Personal (§288-296) Demonstratives (§297-311)
Relatives (§312-314) Interrogative (§315-318)
Indefinite (§319-327) Other pronouns (§328-335)
Pronominal derivatives (§336-352) Adjectives declined pronominally (§353)
CHAPTER X : VERBS
Introductory (§354-369) Primitive Verbs (§369)
First Conjugation (§370-371) Rules of reduplication (§372)
Second Conjugation (§373) Third Conjugation (§374-375)
Fourth Conjugation (§376) Fifth Conjugation (§377)
Sixth Conjugation (§378) Seventh Conjugation (§379)
Conjugation of the Present (§381-403) Irregular verbs (§404)
Aorist (§405-426) System of the Perfect (§427- 430)
Future System (§431-438) Participles : Present (§439-448)
Future (§449)
Perfect Participle Active (§465)
Gerund (§470-472)
Passive Voice (§481-490)
Denominative Verbs (§498-502)
Intensive Verbs (§508-509)
[The verb as. !> to be" (510)]
[The verb kar, "to do/make" (512)]
Verbal prefixes (§514-522)
{Paradigm:} coreti (§524-527)
Passive Perfect Participle (§450-464)
Future Passive Participle (§466-469)
Infinitive (§473-477)
Causative Verbs (§491-497)
Desiderative Verbs (§503-507)
Defective anomalous verbs (§510-513)
[The verb hu, "to be" (51l)]
[The verb da, "to give" (513)]
{Paradigm:} pacati (§523)
Table of the changes occurring in the root (§528)
CHAPTER XI : INDECLINABLES
Derivative Adverbs (§531) Case-form Adverbs (§532)
Pure Adverbs (§532) Prepositions (§533-537)
Conjunctions (§538)
CHAPTER XIE COMPOUNDS
Introductory (§539-541) dvanda (§542 -544)
tappurisa (§545) kammadharaya (§546)
Nouns in apposition (§547) digu (§548)
Adverbial Compounds (§549) Relative Compounds (§550-551)
Upapada Compounds (§552) Anomalous Compounds (§553)
Complex Compounds (§554) Changes in certain words in Compounds (§555)
Verbal Compounds (§556-557)
CHAPTER XIII : DERIVATION
Introductory (§558-574) Primary derivatives, kita (§575-578)
Secondary derivation, taddhita (§579-581) kvi suffixes (§582-584)
CHAPTER XIV SYNTAX
Karaka (§587)
Article (§589)
Nominative (§594)
Dative (§597)
Instrumentive (§599)
Locative (§601)
Genitive and Locative Absolute (§603)
of Pronouns (§605-609)
...of Verbs (§611-618)
...of Indeclinables (§623)
Interrogation and Negation (§625)
Order of Sentences (§588)
Concord (§590-592)
Genitive (§595)
Accusative (§598)
Ablative (§600)
Vocative (§602)
of Adjectives (§604)
Repetition (§610)
...of Participles (§619-622)
Direct and Indirect Narration (§624)
CHAPTER XV ; PROSODY
Introductory (§626-627) Feet (§628-629)
Short and long syllables (§630) Varieties of Metres (§63l)
Sama class (§632) Addhasama class (§634)
Visama class (§635) Vatta (§636)
Kinds of vatta (§638) Jati (§639-641)
Vetaliya (§642)
Pg- 2
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
In 1906, Duroiselle was writing during a brief period of frenetic English-language
scholarship on the Pali language in general, and its classical grammar in particular. This
was spurred by the research conducted by James D'Alwis in the 1850s and published in
1863 as An Introduction to Kachchayana's Grammar of the Pali Language. We might say that the
period of scholarship set in motion by D'Alwis's pioneering work ended at about the time
of the First World War. Although I would not attempt a complete list of European language
publications on Pali grammar in the period, we may name some of the major works as
follows: D'Alwis (1863), Mason (1868), Senart (1871), Gray (1883), Tha Do Oung (1899), Tilby
(1899), Vidyabhusana (1901), Franke (1902), Duroiselle (1906), and DeSilva (1915). Each of
the authors named in this sequence was aware of the earlier (and sometimes
simultaneous) work of the others; however, a large number of journal articles and works of
early lexicography are omitted from this short list. This was followed by a century of
relative abeyance in English-language studies in this field.
I found a copy of the seminal work by James D'Alwis (now very rare) work in January of
2006 while looking through the many editions that the Rhys-Davids family had bequeathed
to the Peradeniya University, Sri Lanka (then the National University of Ceylon). These had
all the marks of ex libris editions, ranging from scholarly marginalia to sentimental
personal effects folded into the pages (and in some cases, evidently, these had not been
disturbed by any readers before myself). I recall in particular a clipping from a newspaper
that was pasted into one of these old (and rotting) tomes, preserving a "letter to a the
editor" that C.A.F. Rhys-Davids had written, requesting a correction to her husband's
obituary: apparently the newpaper had mistakenly stated that the scholar was survived by
his son —but the latter had already died in the First World War.
Everything about D'Alwis's Introduction... reflected the tone of frontier scholarship in its
day. It is a patchwork of hastily made observations, notes, and "hearsay" about texts that
were, in some cases, not even correctly identified. However, it served its purpose well:
what had been an utterly obscure area of scholarship became the subject of several articles
in major journals (e.g., that of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal) and a number of
researchers took up the challenge. Francis Mason had already been investigating Pali
grammar from his remote garret in Burma, and his (much more instructive) study of the
subject followed in 1868. The frenetic pace of the work was partly inspired by the fear that
whatever texts could not be secured in short order might soon cease to be extant, and, in
Pali grammar in particular, both D'Alwis and Mason thought that they were racing against
the clock to find some of the last Kaccayana manuscripts, or else the work would be lost
forever:
[D'Alwis] drew attention to some of the Pali works formerly extant in Ceylon, and amongst
them, to Kaccayana 's grammar, which he then regarded as extinct.
[Mason, op cit., p. i, cf. D'Alwis, op cit., p. ii]
Were these fears well founded? They were founded in the observed brutality of European
colonialism, with its "Scorched Earth Policy", the looting and burning of temples, and the
indifferent destruction of all things "native" in the tides of rebellion and repression that
swept over the Theravada colonies in that generation. It is indeed remarkable that a text as
common as the Kaccayana Vyakarana could be considered endangered in the mid-19th
century, but the real danger to all "native" culture and literature had been demonstrated
all too often in living memory. The abominable murder of thousands of Sinhalese, and the
reduction of their material culture to ashes, in the repression of the 1817-8 Uva Rebellion,
was re-enacted in smaller scale in the Matale rebellion of 1848 (an uprising punctuated
with the British execution of a Buddhist monk). We need not rehearse the timeline of the
three Anglo-Burmese wars that defined this same period on the mainland; in these wars,
Buddhist texts were not only looted by the British, but also burned in pyres to break the
spirit of native resistance.
Thus, in looking back on a period of extraordinary European scholarly activity, we must be
aware that it was also a period of all-too-ordinary European brutality. The expectation of
some of these scholars was that they were studying a culture that would soon be dead, viz.,
one that they had a hand in killing. This is most infamously the case with Max Muller, and
was also true of the less-renowned F. Mason.
All of this suffices to say that the present work by Duroiselle was not written in the
rarefied atmospohere of an obscure study, but, in fact, in the context of much more lively
competition in this field than there is at present. As it has been my excruciating duty to
become familiar with much of the scholarship from that era, and to sift several volumes of
it for errata, I should here draw attention to several distinctive features of Duroiselle's
work:
• Duroiselle made extensive use of the Jatakas and post-canonical Pali literature in
forming his idea of the "correct" use of the language. Thus, e.g., he lists many
forms of declension and conjugation that are not included in the tables of other
authors. This can be very useful as a scholar's reference, but it can also be more
confusing (or even slightly deceptive) for a beginner.
• Although most of Duroiselle's grammatical observations are based on the close
reading of classical sources, he took some very modern liberties in assigning
(English) grammatical terms and in changing the order of the cases. The latter is
especially confusing as the traditional names of the Pali cases are ordinal numbers
(thus, any change in their order throws the traditional terminology into confusion).
• Duroiselle sometimes conflates Sanskrit and Pali roots (and rules), although, to give
due credit, he also makes some keen observations as to how the languages differ,
and tries to explain irregularities in Pali with reference to Vedic, etc., to an extent
that was certainly impressive in its day. The obverse of this is that it is likely to
cause a great deal of confusion, as Duroiselle seems to make references back and
forth between Sanskritic and Pali concepts (and roots) with the assumption that his
reader will be able to readily distinguish and interpret them separately.
I have prepared this edition largely as a labour of re-formatting, re-aligning, and
introducing minor corrections to the third edition (primarily at the behest of the Reverend
Nyanatusita, the Rector of the Forest Hermitage, currently serving as the editor of the BPS,
in Kandy). In less than ten years, encodings and digital file formats have changed so much
that this was indeed a necessary labour. It may well be complained that the tables are
utilitarian to the point of being rather ugly, however this fourth edition is well suited to
one purpose at least: the rapid search and reference that a digital format allows.
Fully one hundred years after its first publication, Duroiselle's Practical Grammar remains a
highly useful resource, and there are (as of yet) quite possibly no publications that can
rival its compendious treatment of the subject matter, or that demonstrate a comparable
level of conversance with the classical grammatical literature. This is a lasting testament to
its assiduous author, and, perhaps, reflects the neglect of this area of study in the
generations that followed after him.
Eisel Mazard, Vientiane, Lao P.D.R., 2006
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
Most introductory Pali grammar books consist of lessons that teach the elements of the
language in stages, but because of that they are also very difficult to use as a reference
when you need to look up a noun's declension, or a verb's conjugation. This book because
of its practical and comprehensive coverage of the elements of the Pali language in
complete chapters is a very useful reference. This book was also not written for linguistics
experts, but for students with little experience studying Pali grammar. For these reasons I
have found it extremely useful and I recommend it to people who have already completed
one of the many books that have graduated exercises intended to introduce the basics of
Pali grammar. After you have completed one of those preliminary books and move on to
really read Pali texts you will find this book to be a really good friend.
Unfortunately, this book having been out of print for many years few people know of its
existence and the copies that people who know about it are using are mainly photocopied
versions like mine. So I thought that entering the text into a computer would be useful
for both myself and also for other people interested in studying the Pali language.
In producing this edition I have made some corrections and changes to the original. I have
kept most of the archaic english spelling and usage. This is because it has a certain charm
to it and is itself a lesson in language. Pali has not changed in the last 80 years, but the
reader will soon see how much English has changed. The corrections I made where mainly
to errors in layout editing and punctuation that existed in the original book. Still, I have
;-3
probably left a few and made some new ones for the editors of the fourth edition to correct
when they update the English used.
I would like to thank Sayadaw U. Jotika who originally showed me the book and Miss Goh
Poay Hoon who made a photocopy of it for me. Also Sean Doyle who generously let me use
his scanner and optical character recognition software to scan the original in and then
create a rough text to be edited; Gary Dellora who initially did the first editing of the
scanned text; and Aniek Ley who donated the computer on which this text was edited.
May any merit made by all concerned be a condition for our attainment of Nibbana
U. Dhamminda, 1997, Mawlamyine.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This grammar was written at a time when it was urgently needed for schools and colleges,
and as a consequence was conceived, written and seen through the press within the short
space of a little over three months. Not- withstanding a few errors which had crept in - and
which have now been corrected - the favour with which this work was received and
reviewed in Europe, exceeded the author's expectations, if indeed he had any. Such
favourable criticism it did not find in India:* its great defect in the opinion of some Indian
gentlemen being twofold; it does not enough adhere to the very ancient Hindu system of
grammatical exposition; this venerable system was, it is readily recognized by every
scholar, the most suitable - in fact the only suitable system for the method of imparting
knowledge current in the times in which the earliest Sanskrit grammars and, modelled on
them, the first Pali grammars were composed. But, other times, other methods; and I am
not alone in thinking that the old Hindu system, whatever its undeniable merits, could not
be with success adapted to the clearer, more rapid and rational western methods of
teaching. But the more unpardonable departure from the beaten track is, that the author
has not thought it necessary constantly to refer to the Sanskrit forms and with them
compare and from them deduce the Pali ones. It must be remembered that this
comparative method, however excellent and useful to persons already acquainted with
Sanskrit who desire to take up the study of Pali, does not answer in a practical manner to
the needs of the class of students for whom this book has been written; that is, young
students totally ignorant of the first principles of Sanskrit, and who do not, for the most
part, in the least intend taking up such study. Moreover, to those who may later on, take
up such a course, the close relation between the two languages will become easily
apparent.
*[ ^ote: the disapproving remarks alluded to here are, apparently, those found in the
introduction to H.T. De Silva's 1915 edition of the Balavataro:
The work by Prof. Duroiselle is considered an irregular edition... and has in many places
gone contrary to the principles of the Original Pali Grammars, [p. vi]
The latter text was prepared in Colombo and Galle, Sri Lanka (viz., not in India, as stated in
Duroiselle's riposte) but it was published in Pegu, Burma, where Duroiselle was sure to take
notice or hear of it while it was going through the presses. — E.M., 2007]
In section §603, mention is made of a so called "Nominative Absolute"; it is explained in a
Pali work called the NiruttidTpanT, printed in Rangoon. M. Monier Williams also mentions
it in the preface to his Sanskrit Grammar.
Much official and literary work in connection with duties did not allow me to see this
second edition through the press. Professor Maung Tin, of the Rangoon College, has most
graciously undertaken this onerous work, and he has read and corrected every single
proof. Persons who have had experience in proof-reading, above all of a book of such a
character as the present one, will readily understand the magnitude of the service done
me by my old pupil, and for which I beg here to thank him most sincerely.
Chas. Duroiselle, 1915, Mandalay.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This grammar was written for my pupils in the Rangoon College, to facilitate their work
and make the study of the Pali language easier for them. There is, to my knowledge no Pali
grammar suited to the requirements of students who do not know even the elements of
Sanskrit, and to place into their hands grammars such as that of Muller of Frankfurter and
of Minayef, which are intended for Sanskrit dilettanti, would serve rather to puzzle, than
to help them; moreover, these grammars are not quite complete, consisting merely of the
inflections of nouns and verbs. Mr James Gray's grammar, which was written with the
same purpose as the one now presented to the public has long been out of stock; it had two
drawbacks; the Pali was all in Burmese characters, and it was too elementary to help the
student in acquiring a thorough mastery of the language.
It is, I think, the first time, that Derivation has been treated systematically and fully in a
European work; the chapter on Syntax, too, though not quite exhaustive (to make it so
would require a special volume) is a novel feature, considering that Syntax has never as yet
been treated of, except in one single instance (Pali Grammar by H. H. Tilby, Rangoon
Baptist College, 1899.), and very briefly and with no examples whatever given in
illustration of the rules.
One of the greatest difficulties experienced has been to explain some forms (principally in
Assimilation and Verbs), without the help of Sanskrit; scholars well understand how Pali
forms, thus explained, seem arbitrary, not to say incomprehensible in some cases; so that,
although my avowed object was to write for students who do not know the first elements
of Sanskrit grammar, I have thought it advisable to scatter here and there in the body of
the work, a few explanations bearing on Sanskrit grammar, to make some forms better
understood. But the student is perfectly free to skip them over and to assume the Pali
forms just as they are given; I would, however recommend him to peruse them at a second
reading.
;.4
Each rule, throughout, is profusely illustrated with examples taken from the jatakas and
from other books, and indigenous Pali grammars. The paragraphs have been numbered
and, to facilitate reference in looking up the rules, they are quoted whenever necessary, to
render more easy the study of that part of the grammar which the student is actually
reading.
Grammatical discoveries are not to be expected, but scholars will find in the work now
issued, a few things which have never before appeared in European grammars of Pali.
The following indigenous Pali grammars have been consulted:
SaddanTti, Maharupasiddhi, Maharupasiddhi-Tika, Akhyatapadamdla, Moggallana,
Kaccdyana, Galon Pyan.
I have availed myself of all the grammars published in Europe to which I could have access.
Chas. Duroiselle, Rangoon, 20th December, 1906.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Masc. = Masculine.
Fem. = Feminine.
Neut. = Neuter.
Sk. = Sanskrit.
P.P.P. = Passive Perfect Participle.
P.P.A. = Perfect Participle Active.
F.P.P. = Future Passive Participle.
V = Root.
Adj. = Adjective.
Nom. = Nominative.
Gen. = Genitive.
Dat. = Dative.
Acc. = Accusative.
Inst. = Instrumentive.
Abl. = Ablative.
Loc. = Locative.
CHAPTER I
THE ALPHABET.
§1. The Pali Alphabet consists of 41 letters; namely: 6 vowels, 2 diphthongs, 32 consonants
and one accessory nasal sound called Niggahlta ( rj ).
§2. The vowels are divided into short and long; the short vowels are: a, i, u; the long vowels
are a, i,u.
§3. The value of a long vowel is about twice that of a short one, so that it takes twice as
much time to pronounce a long vowel as to pronounce a short one.
§4. The sign of a long vowel is a dash placed over it. Besides the above three long vowels,
all short vowels are prosodically long that come before a conjunct or double consonant: for
instance in bhikkhu, rattha and puppha, the -i before kkh the -a, before tth and the -u, before
pph are said to be long.
Long also are a, i, u when followed by rj (niggahlta), as in: pupphay, a flower; cakkhurj, eye;
kapirj, monkey.
§5. The two diphthongs are e and o, which are always long. They are diphthongs only
grammatically, because they are supposed to be the product of the meeting and
contraction of two vowels (a + i = e; and a + u = o). In reality and practically they are simple
vowels.
§6. The consonants are divided into: 25 mutes, 5 semi-vowels, one sibilant and one spirant.
The 25 mutes are divided, according to the place of their formation and utterance, into 5
groups of 5 letters each. The following table shows at a glance the classification of all the
letters [note: the lower set of four charts showing the South-East Asian scripts now used
for Pali are my own, later addition to the text — E.M.]:
:■ 5
Gutterals
Palatals
Linguals
Dentals
Labials
Surds
Unaspirate
k
c
t
t
P
Aspirate
kh
ch
th
th
ph
Sonants*
Unaspirate
9
j
d
d
b
Aspirate
gh
jh
dh
dh
bh
Nasals
Ji
n
n
n
m
Liquids
y
r]
V
Spirant
h
Sibilant
s
Vowels
ad
i T
u u
e
0
* And "g" (the niggahita) is classified as a sonant
Sinhalese Script Romanized Transliteration
23
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P
ph
b
bh
m
d e
yr
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U
Khmer ("Cambodian") Script
Mon/Burmese Script
55
3
55
555
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oo
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555
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55
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555 5 £5 f>
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oo s^ oo o oo oo g °
§7. 1 is now generally considered to be a semi-vowel and it is a liquid, a modification of I ; in
palm-leaf MSS 1 and I are constantly interchanged. I is not seldom the substitute of d; It is a
lingual because it is pronounced as the letters of that class (t, th, etc,).
§8. y or niggahita, comports, properly speaking no classification; it is merely a nasal
breathing found only after the short vowels: ay, iy, uy.
§9. [The classification of letters followed by Duroiselle is as follows:]
The Gutterals are so called from their being pronounced in the throat;
The Palatals, from being uttered by pressing the tongue on the front-palate;
The Linguals are formed by bringing the up-turned tip of the tongue in contact
with the back of the palate;
The dentals are so called from their being pronounced with the aid of the teeth;
The Labials are formed by means of the lips;
The Nasals are sounded through the nose;
The Sibilant has a hissing sound; and,
The Spirant a strong aspirated breathing.
The Mutes are so called on account of their not being readily pronounced without
the aid of a vowel;
Surds, are hard, flat, and toneless;
The Sonants are soft and uttered with a checked tone;
The Liquids, readily combine with other consonants: (except, perhaps, 1);
The Aspirates are pronounced with a strong breathing or h sound added to them;
The Unaspirates are pronounced naturally, without effort and without the h
sound.
PRONUCIATION.
THE VOWELS.
§10. a is pronounced like a in art.
a is pronounced like a in father
i is pronounced like i in sin, pin
T is pronounced like ee in been, sheen,
u is pronounced like u in put, bull
u is pronounced like oo in fool, boon,
e is pronounced like a in table, fate,
o is pronounced like o in bone, stone.
;-6
THE CONSONANTS.
§ 11 .
Remark.
In all cases, the aspirates are pronounced like the unaspirates, but with the addition of a
strong h sound; hence the pronunciation of the unaspirates only is given.
k is pronounced like k in king.
g is pronounced like garden, go.
ji is pronounced like ng in king, bring,
c is pronounced like ch in church, chip.
j is pronounced like jail, jar.
n is pronounced like ny in banyan,
t is pronounced like table, tack.
Th, it must be borne in mind, is never pronounced like the English th, in such words as: the,
thin, etc. It is merely t, uttered with an effort.
d is pronounced like d in deed.
n is pronounced like n in nag.
p is pronounced like p in part.
Ph, it must be remarked, is simply the aspirate of p, and ought not to be pronounced like f
(as in: philosophy).
b is pronounced like b in book.
m,y, r, l, s, h are pronounced like the corresponding English letters,
v, not preceded by a consonant has the sound of v, in vine, vile. But
preceded by a consonant, it is sounded like w in wind, win; tva, therefore,
is pronounced twa.
y, ( niggahita ), found always at the end of words is, in Burma, pronounced
like m in, jam, ram; in Ceylon, it is given the sound of ng in, bring, king.
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS.
§12. Two consonants coming together form what is called a conjunct or double consonant.
For instance, in: vassa, kattha and pandapeti, the ss, t th, and nd, are conjunct consonants.
§13. Only the letters of a same vagga or group (viz., the five divisions of the mutes:
gutterals, palatals, etc.), can be brought together to form a conjunct consonant: the first
and second, and the third and fourth only: the fifth letter of each group, that is the nasal,
can be coupled with any of the other four consonants in its group.
CHAPTER II.
SANDHI (EUPHONY).
§14. Sandhi (union) is that part of the grammar which treats of the euphonic changes that
occur when one word is joined to another.
§15. Generally these changes occur
(a) When a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning with a vowel.
(b) When a word ending in a vowel is joined to another word beginning with a
consonant.
(c) When a word ending in niggahita (rj) is followed by a word beginning either
with a vowel or with a consonant.
§16. From the above it will be seen that sandhi is of three kinds:
(i) Vowel-sandhi, (ii) Mixed sandhi, and (iii) Niggahita-sandhi.
Remarks.
It is not absolutely necessary that the student should master thoroughly the rules of
sandhi before beginning the study of the other chapters; but he should read them once
carefully, and always refer to them whenever in the course of his reading he finds forms
and combinations that puzzle him.
§1. VOWEL- SANDHI.
§17. A vowel before another vowel is elided.
Examples.
Elision of a,
yassa + indriyani = yassindriyani.
ajja + uposatho = ajjuposatho.
Elision of a,
ma + avuso evarupay akasi = rndvuso, etc.
tada+ utthahi = tadutthahi.
Elision of i,
udadhi+ umiyo = udadhumiyo.
aggi + ahito = aggahito.
Elision of f,
bhikkhuni + ovado = bhikkhunovado.
migi+ iva = migiva.
Elision of u,
dhatu + ayatanani = dhatayatanani.
dhatu + indriyani = dhatindriyani.
Elision of u,
jambu + admi = jambadmi.
jambu + irita vatena = jamblrita vatena.
Elision of e,
laddho me + okaso = laddho m'okaso.
gatha me + udirita = gatha m'udmta.
Elision of o,
eso + avuso ayasma = es' avuso ay asma.
;• 7
Remarks.
When f is followed by a vowel it is very seldom elided: in the expression t unhassa, however,
we have an example of its elision; tunhassa = tunhf + ossa; [whereas] tunhf ahesuy, remains
without change.
§18. A vowel coming after another vowel may, if it is dissimilar, be elided.
Examples.
(i) cakkhu + indriyay = cakkhundriyay.
(ii) yassa + idani = yass'idani.
§19. The first vowel having been elided the following vowel may be lengthened.
Examples.
(i) tatra + ay ay = tatrayay.
(ii) sa + atthika = satthika.
(iii) kiki + iva = kikiva.
(iv) kamma + upanissayo = kammupanissayo.
(Note: A short vowel, a, i, u, is lengthened by putting a (Dash [or 'Macron']) over it).
§20. Sometimes, the second vowel having been elided, the preceding vowel is lengthened.
Examples.
(i) vi + atimanenti = vitimanenti.
(ii) kiysu + idha vittay = kiysudha vittay.
§21. Generally:
(i) a or a + i or f= e.
(ii) a or a + u or u = o.
§1. a or a + i or f:
(i) upa + ikkhati = upekkhati.
(ii )jina + Iritanayo = jineritanayo.
(iii) ava + ecca = avecca.
(iv) bandhussa + iva = bandhusseva.
Exceptions:
(a) iti preceded by a becomes ati, as:
(i) tassa + iti = tassati.
(ii) tissa + iti = tissati.
(b) i may be elided after a, as:
(i) pana + ime = pana'me.
(ii) tena + ime = tena'me.
(c) Sometimes a + i becomes i, as:
seyyatha + iday = seyyathiday.
II. a or a + u or u.
(i) canda + udayo = candodayo.
(ii) na + upeti = nopeti.
(iii) udaka + umi = udakomi.
(i v)yatha+ udaka = yathodaka.
§22. When two vowels of the same organ meet, the result is generally long: that is,
a + a = a
a + a = a
a + a = a
a + a =
a
i + i = T
i + i = i
i+i = i y
i+i =
i
a + u = u
u + u = u
u + u = u
u +u =
u
Examples.
(i) nana + alokena = nanalokena.
(ii) demi + iti = demlti.
i and u may, before verbs beginning with a vowel, remain unchanged.
Examples.
(i) gathahi aijhabhdsi.
(ii) adhivasesi avihannamano.
(iii) satthu adasi.
§23. A final vowel may remain unchanged before any other vowel when not followed by iti,
in the following cases:
(a) In nouns in the vocative case:
kassappa etay...
(b) In a word ending in a long vowel if it does not form a compound with
the following word:
bhagava utthayasana.
(c) After particles, vowels remain unchanged. [Examples:]
(i) atho + anto ca = atho an to ca.
(ii) atha kho + ayasma = atha kho ayasma.
(iii) no + atikkamo = no atikkamo.
(d) i and u before a verb may remain unchanged (see §22).
Remarks.
The particles, called nipata, are indeclinable; they are rather numerous. The following are a
few of them and the most common:
atho, atha,yeva, adho,yatha, tathd, tava,ydva, eva, iva, va, re, are, ca, hi, tu, kacci, kho,
khalu, kira, pana, ce, nanu, nuna, nama, etc., etc.*
*There are two kinds of indeclinable words: the nipata or adverbs and the upasagga, or
prepositions. The latter number only 20: a, u, ati, pati, pa, pari, ava, para, adhi, abhi, arm, upa,
apa, api, sag, vi, ni., m, su, du, ( Saddamti : catupadavibhaga). All the other indeclinables are of
course nipata.
Note.
Final vowels before particles beginning with a, i, e, as: atha, iva, eva, follow the rules of
sandhi, as;
(i) itthi + iti = itthtti.
(ii) sabbe + eva = sabbe'va.
(iii) so + eva = sveva.
(iv) na + ettha = n'ettha.
§25. The vowel e, when followed by a long dissimilar vowel and also when followed by a
short dissimilar vowel followed by a conjunct consonant, may be elided.
Examples.
(i) me + asi = m'asi.
(ii) sace + assa = sac'assa.
§26. After o, a vowel is usually elided.
Examples.
(i) yo + aharj = yo'harj.
(ii) cattaro + ime = cattaro'me.
Transformation of vowels into Semi-vowels.
§27. The vowels i, u, e, o, when followed by another vowel may be transformed into their
semi-vowels.
(i) The semi-vowel of i, and e, isy.
(ii) The semi-vowel of u and o, is v.
Transformation of i &e intoy
(a) Final i, before a dissimilar vowel, is changed toy.
(i) vi + akasi = vydkdsi.
(ii) vitti + anubhuyyate = vittyanubhuyyate.
(iii) dasi + aharj = dasyaharj.
(b) In such words as: me, te, ke, ye, etc., e is changed to y, and, if the a following e stands
before a single consonant it is lengthened to a.
Remarks.
iti + eva = itveva.
Examples.
(i) me + aharj = myaharj.
(ii) me + ayarj = my ayarj.
(iii) te + ayarj = tydyarj.
(iv) te + aharj = ty aharj.
(v) ke + ossa = kyassa (cf. §34).
Exceptions:
(a) Final e may be elided before a long vowel:
me + asi = m'asi.
(b) Final e may be elided before a short vowel followed by a double
consonant:
sace + assa = sac'assa.
(c) Final e sometimes elides a following vowel:
(i) te + ime = te'me.
(ii) sace + ajja = sace'jja
(d) Final e + a may give a:
sace + ayarj = sacayarj.
Transformation of the u into v
[Rule:] When u, is followed by a dissimilar vowel, it is changed to v.
Examples.
(i) anu + eti = anveti.
(ii) dhatu + anta = dhatvanta.
(iii) dhatu + attha = dhatvattha
(iv) bahu + abadho = bahvabadho.
(v) su + agatarj = svagatarj.
(vi ) anu + addhamasarj = anvaddhamasarj.
Exceptions. (a) Final u may be elided before a dissimilar vowel:
sametu + ayasma = samet'ayasma.
(b) Not seldom, u + i gives u:
sadhu+ iti = sadhuti.
(c) Final o, may be changed to v before a dissimilar vowel.
Examples.
(i) ko + attho = kvattho.
(ii) agama nu kho + idha = agama nu khvidha.
;.9
(iii) yato + adhikaranag = yatvadhikaranag.
(iv) yo + ayag = yvayag.
Exception: final o before a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a double consonant, is
generally elided:
(i) kuto + ettha = kut'ettha.
(ii) tato + uddhag = tat'uddharj.
(iii) tayo + assu = tay'assu.
Remarks.
§1. The change of u and o to v occurs chiefly when u or o comes after one of the following
consonants: k, kh, t, th, d, na,y, s and h ( Saddaniti , part III sandhisuttamala).
§2. Sometimes, after i or i,y is inserted before a word beginning with a vowel, to avoid
hiatus:
(i) aggi + agare = aggiy agare.
(ii ) sattami + atthe = sattamiy atthe.
§3. Similarly, to avoid a hiatus, a v is inserted between final u and another vowel:
(i) du + ajigikag = duvajigikag.
(ii) bhikkhu + asane = bhikkhuvasane.
(See below, re: "Consonantal Insertions".)
CONSONANTAL INSERTIONS.
§28. (a). Not seldom, to avoid a hiatus, a consonant is inserted between two vowels.
(b) . The consonants thus inserted are:y, v, m, d, n, t, r, l (= l), and h. (Saddaniti gives also
(c) . Of these, the most frequently used are: d, r, m,y, and v.
Remarks.
Some of these consonants are mere revivals from the older language, as in:
puna+ eva = punareva.
Here the r is simply revived.
EXAMPLES OF INSERTION OF CONSONANTS.
Insertion ofy:
(i) na + imassa = nayimassa.
(ii) ma + evam = mayevarj.
(iii) santi + eva = santiyeva.
Insertion of v:
(i) bhu + adaya = bhuvadaya.
(ii) migl bhanta + udikkhati = miglbhantavudikkhati.
(iii )pa + uccati = pavuccati.
Insertion of m:
(i) idha + ahu = idhamahu.
(ii) lahu + essati = lahumessati.
(iii) bhayati + eva = bhayatimeva.
Insertion of d:
(i) saki + eva = sakideva.
(ii) tava + eva = tavadeva.
(iii) samma + anna = sammadanna.
Insertion of n:
(i) ito + ayati = itonayati.
(ii) drag + ayati = drag nayati or drannayati (cf. §30).
Insertion of t:
(i )yasma + iha =yasmatiha.
(ii) ajja + agge = ajjatagge
Insertion of r:
(i) ni + antarag = nirantarag.
(ii) ni + ojag = nirojag.
(iii) du + atikkamo = duratikkamo.
(iv) du + ajano = durajano.
(v) patu + ahosi = paturahosi.
(vi) catu + arakkha = caturarakkha.
Insertion of l = l:
(i) cha + ajigam = chalajigay.
(ii) cha + aysa = chakysa.
Insertion of h (i) su + ujuca = suhujuca
(ii) su + utthitay = suhutthitay.
Remarks.
(i) The insertion of d is constant after the particle u, and very frequent after: sakiy, kenaci,
kind, kinnihci, koci, sammd,ydva, tava, puna; as well as after the bases of pronouns such as: ya,
u + apadi = udapadi;
yava + atthay = yavadatthay;
t a, sa, etc., as:
u + aggo = udaggo;
kenaci + eva = kenacideva;
puna + eva = punadeva; ta + atthay = tadatthay;
ta + antaro = tadantaro; eta + atthay = etadatthay.
[This derives from the] Maharupasiddhi l's chapter on] sandhi. It must, however, be
remarked that the d is, in most words, a survivance from the older language; Sanskrit has
invariably preserved it. Thus u, of the native Pali grammarians is but the Sansk. ud; so [too
Pali] ci [is equivalent to Sansk.] cid., etc.
(ii) The insertion of t, mostly takes place after the words: yava, tava, ajja, before iha and
Q-CjCjCl.
(iii) Between tatha eva and yatha eva, ri is often inserted; the a preceding is shortened and
the e of eva elided: tathariva, yathariva.
(iv) The consonant r, is generally inserted after the particles: ni, du, patu, puna, dhi, pata,
catu, and a few others. In most cases it is simply revived.
(v) I = l is generally inserted after cha (six).
II. CONSONANTAL SANDHI.
§29. Consonantal sandhi occurs when a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word
beginning with a consonant.
§30. In the majority of cases, Consonantal sandhi is resorted to, to meet the exigencies of
[poetic] metres but not always.
§31. Before a consonant, a long vowel may be shortened:
(i) yatha + bhavi + gunena = yathabhdvigunena.
(ii) yitthay va hutay va loke =yitthay va hutay va loke.
§32. A vowel, before a consonant, if short, may be lengthened:
0) evay game muni care = evay game muni care
(ii) du + rakkhay = durakkhay.
(iii) su + rakkhay = surakkhay.
§33. A consonant following a word or a particle ending in a vowel, is generally
reduplicated.
Examples.
(i) idha + pamado = idhappamado.
(ii) su + patthito = suppatthito.
(iii) vi + payutto = vippayutto.
(iv) a + pativattiyo = appativatdyo.
(v) pa + kamo = pakkamo.
(vi) yatha + kamay =yathakkamay (34).
(vii) anu + gaho = anuggaho.
(viii) vi +jotati = vijjotati.
(ix) kata + hu = katahhu.
(x) du + labho = dullabho.
(xi) du + silo = dussilo.
Remarks.
(a) v, after a vowel becomes bb:
(i) ni + vanay = nibbanay.
(ii) ni + vayati = nibbayati.
(iii) du + vinicchay o = dubbinicchayo.
(b) Reduplication of the consonants takes place generally after the prefixes:
u, upa ,pari, ati, pa, a, anu, etc.
(c) The constant rule in reduplication is that an aspirate is reduplicated by an unaspirate,
and an unaspirate by an unaspirate. That is to say, an unaspirate is reduplicated by itself.
§34. The vowel preceding a conjunct consonant being prosodically long, the naturally long
vowels: a, i, u, are not allowed to stand before a double consonant.
§35. When, according to para (33), a consonant is reduplicated after a particle ending in a
long vowel, this vowel is shortened:
(i )a + kamati = akkamati.
(ii) para + kamo = parakkamo.
Exceptions. There are, however, a few exceptions to paras 34, 35. The following are the
most common examples:
(\)na + anna = nanna. (\\)na + ossa = nassa.
(iii) na + assu = nassu. (iv) kasma + assa = kasmassa,
(v) tatra + assa = tatrassa. (vi) sa + antevasiko = santevasiko.
(vii) sa + atthi = satthi. (viii) vedana + khandho = vedanakkhandho, etc.
§36. (a) Before a consonant, the o in: so, eso, may be changed to a:
(i) eso dhammo or esa dhammo.
(ii) so muni or sa muni.
(b) Sometimes, this change occurs even before a vowel, thus creating a hiatus, which is
allowed to remain:
so attho or sa attho.
(c) The same change (of o to a), occurs also, but not so frequently, in: ayo (iron), mano (the
mind), tamo (darkness), paro (other), tapo (penance, mortification), and a few others:
ayopattag or ayapattag, etc.
III. NIGGAHTTA SANDHI
§37. niggahita sandhi takes place when a word ending; in g ( niggahita ), is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel, or with a consonant.
§38. Niggahita when followed by a consonant, may, remain unchanged.
Examples.
(i) tag dhammag katag
(ii) tag khanag.
(iii) tag pat to.
§39. Niggahita, followed by a consonant, may be transformed to the nasal of the class to
which that consonant belongs.
Examples.
(i) ranag +jaho = ranahjaho.
(ii) tanhag + karo = tanhajikaro.
(iii) sag + thito = santhito.
(iv) jutig + dharo =jutindharo.
(v) sag + mato = sammato.
(vi) evag + kho = evaji kho.
(vii) dhammag + ca = dhammahca.
(viii) tag + niccutag = tanniccutag.
Remarks.
Before initial 1, the niggahita of sag and pug is changed to 1:
(i) sag + lakkhana = sallakkhana.
(ii) pati + sag + lino = patisallino.
(iii) sag + lekko = sallekho.
(iv) pug + lijigag = pullijigag.
§40. Niggahita, followed by e or h is changed to hh and nh respectively.
(i) tag + eva = tahheva.
(ii) paccantarag + eva = paccantarahheva.
(iii) evag + hi kho = evanhi kho.
(iv) tag + hitassa = tahhitassa
§41. Y following niggahita becomes assimilated to it, and both together may become hh:
(i) sag +yuttag = sahhuttag.
(ii) sag +yogo = sahhogo.
Remarks.
Not seldom, no coalescence takes place, and both letters remain unchanged:
sagyuttag; sagyojanag.
§42. When preceding a vowel, niggahita becomes m:
(i) tag + atthag = t am atthag.
(ii ) yag + ahu =yam ahu.
(iii) kig + etag = kim etag.
Remarks.
Rules 39 and 42, are not strictly adhered to in texts edited in Roman characters; in prose
above all, niggahita is allowed to remain unchanged before a vowel or a consonant, even in
the middle of a word sometimes; in poetry, the retention of niggahita or its change to m
before a vowel, is regulated by the exigencies of the metres.
§43. Sometimes, niggahita before a vowel, may become d:
(i) etag + attho = etadattho.
12
(ii) etay + eva = etadeva.
(in) etay + avoca = etadavoca.
(iv)yay + anantaray = yadanantaray.
My ay + iday =yadiday.
Remarks.
The change of niggahfta into d is more fictitious than real; in most examples, the d is simply
a survivance [i.e., reflects an etymologically older form of the word, from the Vedic period,
etc.]. (See Insertion of consonants).
§44. Niggahfta, before a vowel or a consonant may be elided:
(i) tasay + ahay santike = t asahay santike.
(ii) ariyasaccanay + dassanay = ariyasaccanadassanay.
(iii) etay buddhanay + sasanay = etay buddhanasasanay.
§45. A niggahfta may sometimes be inserted before a vowel or a consonant:
(i) ava siro = avaysiro.
(ii) manopubba gama = manopubbajigama
(iii) cakkhu + udapadi = cakkhuy udapadi.
(iv) yava c'idha bhikkhave = yavanc'idha.
§46. After niggahita, a vowel may be elided:
(i) kiy + iti = kinti.
(ii) iday + api = iday pi.
(iii) cakkay + iva = cakkay va.
(iv) kaliy + idani = kaliy 'dani or kalin dani
INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS.
§47. Not infrequently an interchange of letters takes place:
(i) dh becomes h; rudhira = ruhira.
(ii) d becomes t; sugado = sugato.
(iii) t becomes t; pahato = pahato.
(iv) t becomes d; gantabba = gandabba.
(v) g becomes k; hatthupaga = hatthupaka.
(vi) r becomes I; paripanno = palipanno.
(vii) y becomes j; gavayo = gavajo.
(viii) k becomes y; sake pure = saye pure.
(ix) j becomes y; nijayputtay = niyayputtay.
(x) t becomes k; niyato = niyako.
(xi) k becomes kh; nikamati = nikhamati.
SIGNS.
§48. As has already been said a dash (-) indicates a long vowel:
(i) ahay sakkhfahay sakkhf= I am witness!
(ii) pajjalantani pabbatakutani malagulabhavay apannani disva
= seeing the blazing mountain peaks had turned into nosegays...
§49. Crasis, the contraction of two syllables into one, is shown by the circumflex accent ( A ):
(i) sadhu hoti, lacchasati, all right! you'll get it.
(ii) tay...ganhissamati, I'll seize him!
Remarks.
In most texts, crasis is expressed by a (— ) dash, as used for the long vowels [i.e., the long
vowel is marked with a macron, and the reader is left to infer the crasis].
§50. The elision of a vowel is expressed by an apostrophe (').
(i) eken'uno = ekena uno,
(ii) idan'eva = idani eva,
(iii) pi'ssa = pi assa.
(iv) tass'ekadivasay = tassa ekadivasay,
CHAPTER III.
ASSIMILATION.
§51. The matter included in this chapter should perhaps have come under the head of
"sandhi," for assimilation is nothing but changes that occur for the sake of euphony.
I have remarked that, although the rules of sandhi, as explained in the preceding chapter,
are readily understood and applied by the young students, the laws of assimilation puzzle
them not a little, and retard their reading much more than is necessary. The difficulty thus
experienced arises from their ignorance of Sanskrit, without at least a slight knowledge of
which, the study of Pali becomes sensibly more difficult.
In the following paragraphs, I shall try and explain as succinctly and as clearly as possible,
the rules of assimilation. The student cannot be too much recommended to study
thoroughly this chapter and to refer to it constantly in the course of his studies.
§52. Assimilation is the blending into one of two consonantal sounds. It involves the
change of one sound to another of the same series, but sometimes also to a sound of
another series. (See chart at end of para 6).
§53. Assimilation is of two kinds:
(i) The initial consonant is assimilated to the final consonant of the preceding
word.
This is called Progressive Assimilation.
(ii) The final consonant of the preceding word is assimilated to the initial
consonant of the word that follows. This is called Regressive Assimilation.
I. PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION.
EXAMPLES: (a) Vlag (to cling) + na = lagna = lagga (clung).
(b) Vbudh (to know) + ta = budhta = buddha (known).
It will be remarked that in example (a) the n (dental) has been assimilated to the
which belongs to another series (gutteral).
In (b), the t, become d, assimilates to the preceding dh, both being sounds of the
same series (dentals).
II. REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION.
EXAMPLES: (a) Vlip (to smear) + ta = lipta = litta (smeared).
(b) V dam (to subdue) + ta = damta = danta (subdued).
In these two examples, p, in (a), is assimilated to initial t and passes to another
series of sounds.
In (b), m likewise passing to another series, assimilates itself to t and becomes n.
GENERAL RULES OF ASSIMILATION.
§54. Assimilation takes place mostly in the formation of the Passive Voice, the Passive
Perfect Participle, the base of verbs of the third conjugation, of the Infinitive, Gerund the
Potential Passive Participle and in the formation of the Desiderative; also under the
influence of certain suffixes in the derivation of words
§55. In Pali, regressive Assimilation is the more common.
§56. When a mute meets with an initial mute (non-nasal), there is regressive assimilation
generally, that is the first consonant is assimilated to the second:
(i) sak + ta = sakta = satta.
(ii) sak + thi = sakthi = satthi.
§57. A gutteral assimilates the following dental:
(i) lag + na = lagna = lagga
(ii) sak + no = sakno = sakko + ti = sakkoti.
§58. A gutteral assimilates a final dental:
(i) ud + kamapeti = ukkamapeti.
(ii) tad + karo = takkaro.
(iii) ud + gacchati = uggacchati.
§59. A final palatal* being followed by a dental surd or sonore, assimilates it into a lingual:
(i) V maj + ta = mattha or matta.
(ii) Vpucch + ta = puttha.
(iii) Vicch + ta = ittha.
(a) j however sometimes is assimilated to the following t:
(iv) y/bhuj + ta = bhutta.
(b) c also becomes assimilated to t:
(v) V muc + ta = mutta.
*To better understand these changes, the student ought to bear in mind that no word can
end in a palatal nor in h, because these letters are not primitive letters the palatals have
sprung into existence from the contact of gutteral consonants with certain vowels; and h
represents an old gh and is the aspirate of j; the original gutterals, therefore, reappear at
the end of words either pure or transformed into a lingual, and then assimilate or are
assimilated by the following dental. For instance:
y/pucch = puth + ta = puttha, but, V muc = muk + ta = mukta = mutta;
bhuj = bhuk + ta = bhukta = bhutta;
again, V maj = mat (t = Sk. s) + ta = matta.
In Sk., V mrj + ta= mrsta = Pali: matta.
§60. But an initial palatal assimilates a final dental in palatal:
ud + cinati = uccinati.
ud + chedl= ucchedl.
ud +jala = ujjala.
ud +jhayati = ujjhayati.
§61. A final lingual assimilates a following surd dental, (t):
Vkutt + ta = kuttha.
§62. A final dental is assimilated to the following consonant:
(i) ud + ganhati = ugganhati.
(ii) ud + khipati = ukkhipati.
(iii) ud + chindati = ucchindati.
(iv) ud +jhayati = ujjhayati.
(v) ud + saha = ussaha.
(vi) ud + tinna = uttinna.
(vii) ud + loketi = ulloketi.
§63. When initial t, follows a sonant aspirate, the assimilation is progressive: the final
sonant aspirate loses its aspiration, the following t (surd) becomes sonant, viz. d, and
taking the aspiration which the final sonant has lost, becomes dh.
EXAMPLE: V rudh + ta = rudh + da = rud + dha = ruddha.
Remark.
In the case of final bh, initial t having become dh, regressive assimilation takes place;
V labh + ta = labh + d = lab + dha = laddha.
§64. Before an initial dental surd, a gutteral or a labial surd unaspirate is generally
assimilated:
(i) tap + ta = tapta = tatta.
(ii) sak + ta = sakta = satta.
(iii) sakt + hi = sakthi = satthi.
(iv) kam + ta= kamta = kanta.
§65. An initial labial generally assimilates a preceding dental surd or sonant unaspirate:
(i) tad + purisa = t appurisa.
(ii) ud + bhijjati = u bbhijjati.
(iii) ud + pajjati = uppajjati.
(iv) ud + majjati = ummajjati.
§66. A final labial may assimilate an initial nasal:
pap + no + ti = papno + ti = pappoti
ASSIMILATION OF NASALS.
§67. Final m before t is assimilated:
■Jgam + tva = gamtva = gantva.
§68. The group sm is preserved:
tasmirj, bhasma, asma, usma.
§69. An initial nasal assimilates a preceding dental:
ud + magga = un + magga = ummagga.
Remark.
Here final d, being before a nasal, is first changed to the nasal of its class, that is n, and this
n (dental) is then assimilated to m (labial). So for gantva in §67.
(i) ud + nadati = unnadati.
(ii) V chid + na= chinna.
ASSIMILATION OF Y.
§70. Y is regularly assimilated to the preceding consonant by Progressive Assimilation.
§71. The assimilation ofy takes place principally in the Passive Voice in the formation of
verbal bases of the 3rd conjugation, of some gerunds and of numerous derived nouns.
(i) V; gam +ya = gamy a = gamma.
(ii) Vpac +ya = pacya = pacca.
(iii) V mad +ya = madya = majja.
(iv) Vbhan + ya = bhanya = bhahha.
(v) V div +ya = divva = dibba.
(vi) y/khad+ya = khadya = khajja (§34).
(vii) Vkhan +ya = khanya = khahha.
§72. This rule holds good also in the middle of a compound word: final i having become y
by Rule 27 (i) (a), is assimilated to the preceding, consonant, and the following word is
joined on to form a compound.
Examples.
(i) pali* + ajiko = paly ajikso = pallajiko.
(ii) vipali* + aso = vipaly aso = vipallaso.
(iii) vipali + attharj = vipaly attharj = vipallatthag.
(iv) api + ekacce = apy ekacce = appekacce.
(v) api + ekada = apy ekada = appekada.
(vi) abhi + uggacchati = abhy uggacchati = abbhuggacchati.
(vii) abhi + okiranarj = abhy okiranarj = abbhokiranag.
(viii) abhi + ahjanag = abhy ahjanar/ = abbhahjanarj.
(ix) ani + ayo = anv ayo = ahhayo (§34, 35).
* The preposition pari, is often changed into pali.
§73. By far the most common changes occurring through the assimilation ofy (final as in
the above examples) or ofy (initial as in §71), take place when the dental surd unaspirate t
or the dental sonore aspirate or unaspirate d, dh, precedes. To state the rule shortly:
§74. (i) final ti + any dissimilar vowel becomes cc + that vowel.
(ii) final dhi + any dissimilar vowel becomes jjh + that vowel.
(iii) final di + any dissimilar vowel becomes jj + that vowel.
(iv) final t+y = cc.
(v) final d+y =jj.
(vi) final dh+y=J)h.
15
Examples.
(ij ati + antag = aty antag = accantag.
(iij pati + ayo = paty ayo = paccayo.
(iiij pati + eti = paty eti = pacceti.
(ivj it! + assa = ity assa = iccassa.
(vj iti + adi = ity adi = iccadi.
(v'Ojati + andho =jaty andho =jaccandho (34, 35).
(viij adhi + agamo = adhy agamo = ajjhagamo.
(viiij adhi + ogahitva = adhy ogahitva = qjjhogdhitva.
(ix) adhi + upagato = adhy upagato = ajjhupagato.
(x) adhi + eti = adhy eti = ajjheti.
(x i ) nadi +a = nady a = najja.
(xii )yadi + evag =yady evag =yajjevay.
(x iii ) sat + ya = satya = sacca.
(xivj pandita +ya = panditya = pandicca.
(xv) V mad +ya = madya = majja.
(xvij Vvad +ya = vadya = vajja.
(xviij 'Jmdh +ya = rudhya = ru[jha.
§75. Final th+y = cch:
tath +ya = tathya = taccha.
§76. A final sibilant may assimilate a followingy:
(i) V pas +ya = pasya = passa.
(iij V dis +ya = disya = dissa.
§77. v + y becomes bb:
(ij Vdiv + ya = divya = dibba.
(iij Vsiv +ya = sivya = sibba.
Remarks.
At the beginning of a word, however, they (the semi-vowel of i) is retained, and v
changed to b:
(ij vi + akaranarj = vyakaranarj = byakaranarj.
(iij vi + ahjanarj = vyahjanarj = byahjanarj.
§78. Wheny follows h, metathesis, the transposition of letters, takes place:
(ij y/sah +ya = sahya, and by metathesis = say ha.
(iij vguh +ya = guhya = guyha.
§79. Initial y, may assimilate a final dental, non-nasal:
(ij ud +yuhjati = uyyuhjati.
(iij ud + yati = uyyati.
(iiij ud +yana = uyyana.
ASSIMILATION OF R.
§80. Final r is often assimilated to a following mute:
(ij y/kar + 1 abba = kattabba.
(iij y/kar + ta = katta.
(iiij y/kar +ya = kayya.
(ivj y/ dhar + ma = dhamma.
§81. Very often too, final r is dropped:
(ij y/ mar + ta = mata.
(iij y/kar + ta = kata.
§82. Sometimes, r having been dropped, the vowel a before it, is lengthened:
(ij y/kar + tabba = katabba.
(iij y/kar + tug = katug.
§83. R followed by n, lingualizes the n, and then becomes assimilated to it:
V car +na = carna = cinna
The student will understand the insertion of i when reading the chapter on Passive Perfect
Participles.
§84. Final r may be assimilated to a following l:
dur( = du) + labho = dullabho.
ASSIMILATION OF S.
§85. S (or sa) is assimilated by the preceding consonant, having first been transformed into
a gutteral or a palatal.
§86. Final j + sa = kkha:
(ij titij + sa = titikkha.
(iij bubhuj + sa = bubhukkha.
§87. Final p + sa = ccha:
jigup + sa =jiguccha.
§88. Final t + sa = cch:
tikit + sa = tikiccha.
§89. Final s + sa = ccha:
jighas + sa =jighaccha.
§90. Final s assimilates a following y:
V nas +ya = nassa. (See para 76).
§91. But sometimes the combination remains unchanged:
alasa + ya = alasya.
§92. Final s, assimilates an initial t into a lingual:
(i) y/kas + ta = kattha.
(ii) Vkilis + ta = kilittha.
(iii) V das + ta = dattha.
§93. Initial s assimilates a preceding dental:
(i) ud (or ut) + saha = ussaha.
(ii) ud (or ut) + suka = ussuka.
§94 Pretty often, s + t = t:
y/jhas + ta =jhatta.
§95. Sometimes too, s + 1 = tth:
y/vas + ta = vuttha.
ASSIMILATION OF H.
§96. Initial h sometimes is changed to the mute aspirate of the class of the preceding final
consonant:
(i) ud + harati = uddharati.
(ii) ud + harana = uddharana.
(iii) ud + hata ( V han ) = uddhata.
§97. When final h is followed by a nasal, the group generally undergoes metathesis (see 78,
note):
V gah + na = gahna = ganha.
§98. Metathesis also occurs in the groups hy and hv:
(i) mahyag becomes may hag.
(ii) oruh +ya becomes oruyha.
(iii ) jihva becomes jivha.
Remarks.
Very seldom, h is assimilated to the following y, leh +ya = leyya.
§99. h is sometimes changed to gh; (*) principally in the root han, to kill.
hanati, to kill, or ghateti, to kill.
ghahha, killing, from , -Jhan (han or ghan +ya = ghahha).
ghammati to go = hammati, to go.
* It must be remembered that h is the aspirate of j, since it now represents an ancient gh
(cf. 59, note), and therefore, in euphony, it is treated exactly as j, that is to say when final it
becomes sometimes k and sometimes t. The above rules, which may seem arbitrary are
familiar to the Sanskritist.
§100. Final h + t becomes generally ddha:
V duh + ta = duddha.
§101. Sometimes also h + t = dh:
y/lih + tug = ledhug.
(For the change of i to e see "ji Strengthening n")
§102 It has been said above (7) that / is very often interchangeable with d; when the d is
aspirate viz, dh, its substitute also becomes aspirate, viz., lh.
Now, according to para (101), we have seen that h + t becomes dh; for this dh may be
substituted lh, so that we have the following form:
V muh + ta = mudha = mulha.
yj ruh + ta = rudha = rulha.
CHAPTER IV.
(a) STRENGTHENING PROCESS.
§103. Strengthening is the process of changing a vowel sound into another vowel sound.
§104. The vowels which undergo strengthening are: a, i, 1 , u and u.
§105. Thus: a being strengthened, becomes a.
i being strengthened, becomes e.
T being strengthened, becomes e.
u being strengthened, becomes o.
u being strengthened, becomes o.
§106. The result thus obtained is also called guna (quality).
§107. Therefore, the guna of a is a, that of i and T is e, that of u and u is o.
§108. Further, as we already know (by rules 27 (i) a, 27 (ii) b.), final e and o when followed
by a vowel may be changed into their semi-vowel + that vowel.
§109. The following table of these very useful changes should be borne in mind.
Simple Vowel
Strengthening or Guna
Vowel & Semi- Vowel
a
a
[none]
i, T
e
ay
u, u
0
av
§110. Strengthening occurs frequently in the formation of verbal bases, of Verbals (See
chapter on Verbs) and in the derivation of words under the influence of certain suffixes.
Remarks.
In the derivation of Primary and Secondary Nouns (see Derivation), it will simplify matters
to assume at once that:
i or T + a = aya. u or u + a = ava.
e + a = aya. o + a = ava.
(b) METATHESIS.
§111. Examples of metathesis have already (78) been given.
§112. Metathesis is the transposition of letters or of syllables in a word; the following are
further instances of this transposition:
0) pariyudahasi becomes payirudahasi.
(ii) ariya becomes ayira.
(iii) kariya becomes kayira.
(iv) masaka becomes makasa.
(v) rasmi becomes rarjsi.
(vi) na abhineyya becomes anabhineyya.
(vii) cilimikd becomes cimilikd.
(c) EPENTHESIS.
§113. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter in the middle of a word.
§114. Epenthesis is resorted to mostly to avoid a hiatus of the collocation of consonants of
different organs:
Examples.
(i) klesa becomes kilesa.
(ii) dcdrya becomes acariya.
(iii) tiajigula becomes tivajigula.
(iv) hyo becomes hiyo or hiyyo.
(v) barhisa becomes barihisa.
(vi) hrada becomes harada.
(vii) arhati becomes arahati.
(viii) sri becomes Sin.
(ix) hn becomes hirl
(x) plavati becomes pilavati.
(d) DROPPING OF SYLLABLES.
§115. Sometimes, for the sake of the metre, or to facilitate pronunciation, whole syllables
are dropped:
(i) abhinnaya sacchikatva, becomes, abhihhd sacchikatva.
(ii jjambudiparj avekkhanto addasa, becomes, jambudiparj avekkhanto adda.
(iii) dasasahassl, becomes, dasahassi.
(iv) chadajigula, becomes, chajigula.
CHAPTER V.
DECLENSION.
§116. (a) Declension is the adding to the stems of Nouns and Adjectives certain suffixes
which show, case, gender and number.
(b) The stem or base of a noun is that noun as it stands before any suffix has been added to
it.
(c) Pali has three genders: the Masculine, the Feminine and the Neuter.
(d) Pali does not strictly follow the natural division of male, female, etc, in assigning
gender to nouns, many nouns which are Masculine in English are Feminine or Neuter in
Pali and vice-versa; a great number of nouns which we consider as neuter are, some
Masculine, some Feminine in Pali. This is called grammatical gender.
(e) There are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
(f) There are eight cases.
§1. Nominative, showing the subject of the sentence.
§2. Genitive, showing possession (of 's).
§3. Dative, showing the object or person to or for whom something is given or
done.
§4. Accusative, this is the object of the sentence.
§5. Instrumentive, shows the object or person with or by whom something is
performed.
§6. Ablative, generally showing separation, expressed by from.
§7. Locative, showing place (in, on at, upon, etc.).
§8. Vocative, used in addressing persons.
Remarks.
The student will find fuller explanations of the uses of the cases in the chapter on Syntax.
§117. The declension of nouns is divided into two great divisions:
(a) Vowel-declension, comprising all the stems that end in a vowel.
(b) Consonantal, declension, in which are included all the stems ending in a
consonant.
(c) Vowel-declension is generally, for the sake of clearness, divided again into
three classes:
(i) the declension of stems ending in, a or, a.
(ii) the declension of stems ending in, i or, T.
(iii) the declension of stems ending in, u or, u.
§118. (a) Native grammarians give the following as the regular case endings or suffixes for
all nouns.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
s.
Nom
yo.
Gen.
ssa.
Gen.
nap.
Dat.
ssa.
Dat.
nap.
Acc.
at).
Acc.
yo.
Ins.
a.
Ins.
hi.
Abl.
sma.
Abl.
hi.
Loc.
smip.
Loc.
su.
Voc.
(like the stem of Nom.)
Voc.
(like the Nom.)
(b) Most of the above suffixes are theoretical only, in practice they differ considerably
according to gender and case. The actual suffixes will be given with each declension.
VOWEL DECLENSION.
Declension of stems ending in a (short).
§119. (a) The great bulk of nouns and adjectives belong to this declension, and as the other
declensions have borrowed several of its suffixes, its thorough mastery is most important
and will greatly facilitate the study of the other declensions.
(b) Nouns ending in a, are all masculine or neuter.
§120. The following are the suffixes of masculine nouns the stem of which ends in a:
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
0.
Nom.
a, ase.
Gen.
ssa.
Gen.
nap.
Dat.
ssa, aya.
Dat.
nap.
Acc.
tj-
Acc.
e.
Ins.
ina.
Ins.
ehi, ebhi.
Abl.
a, sma, mha, to.
Abl.
ehi, ebhi.
Loc.
i, smip, mhi.
Loc.
su
Voc.
(like the stem) and a
Voc.
a
§121. These suffixes have to be attached to the stems, taking care to observe the sandhi
rules which may apply when suffixes begin with a vowel; in every case the student should
accustom himself to look up the rules, which will be referred to by their numbers, and
accustom himself to account for every form he meets with, whether nominal, verbal or
derivative. He should remember that a systematic study from the start will ensure
thoroughness and eventually save him a great deal of labour and time.
§122. DECLENSION OF DEVA, GOD, ANGEL
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Ins.
Abl.
Loc
Voc.
Singular,
devo, a god.
devassa, a god's,
devassa, to or for a god.
devarj, a god.
devena, by, with or
on account of, a god.
deva, from a god
devasma, from a god.
devamha, from a god.
devato, from a god.
deve, in, on, or upon a god. devesu, in on, or upon gods,
devasmig on, or upon a god.
devamhi on, or upon, a god.
Plural.
deva, gods.
devanar), gods', of gods.
devanar), to or for gods.
deve, gods.
devehi, devebhi,
by, with, or on account, of gods.
devehi, devebhi, from gods.
deva, deva, 0 god!
deva, 0 gods!
EXERCISE.
Decline like deva (masc.)
nara, man.
byaggha, tiger,
miga, deer,
gandhabba, musician,
kacchapa, tortoise,
satta, being,
surjsumara, crocodile.
matajiga, elephant,
slha, lion,
orodha, a seraglio,
dhamma, doctrine, right,
putta, son.
kupa, a mast,
makara, a sea.monster.
Remarks.
(a) The true Dat. sing, in aya has now generally been displaced by the suffix of the gen. ssa;
the Dat. aya is almost equal to an Infinitive and mostly denotes intention.
(b) sma and mha of the Abl. and smig and mhi of the Loc. have been borrowed from the
pronominal declension (see Declension of Pronouns).
(c) so is sometimes used also as an Abl. sing, suffix:
vaggaso, by groups, bhagaso, by share.
(d) sa is also found as an Ins. sing, suffix, as: balasa, by force, forcibly, talasa, with the sole
of the foot.
(e) The Nom. plur.in ase, very scarce, corresponds to the Vedic Nom. plur.
(f) ebhi, of the Ins. and Abl. plural, is mostly used in poetry, and probably comes from the
Vedic ebhis.
(g) Before o, Nom. sing., ehi, ebhi, Ins. and Abl. plur. and e, Acc. plur. final a of the stem is
dropped:
deva + o = dev + o = devo, deva + ehi = dev + ehi = devehi.
(h) Before su, Loc. plur. final a of stem is changed to e
(i) In the Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing.; and in Nom. and Voc. plur. the usual rules of sandhi
are regularly followed:
EXAMPLES: Singular Instrumentive. deva + ina = devena, (21, i).
Singular Dative. deva + aya = devaya (22).
Singular Loc. deva + i = deve (21, i).
Singular Abl. deva + a = deva (22).
Plural Nom. deva + a = deva (ibid).
deva + ase = devase (ibid).
Plural Loc. deva + a = deva (ibid).
(j) Before nar), Gen. and Dat. plur., final a of the stem is lengthened,
deva + nar) = deva + nar) = devanar],
§123. Neuter nouns ending in a (short).
SUFFIXES.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
tJ
ni, a.
Gen.
ssa
nar].
Dat.
ssa, aya.
nag.
Acc.
D
ni, e.
Ins.
ina
ehi, ebhi.
Abl.
a, sma, mha, to.
ehi, ebhi.
Loc.
i, smig, mhi.
su.
Voc.
(like the stem)
ni, a.
lCLENSION of rupa (neuter), form
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ruparj
rupani, rupa.
Gen.
rupassa
rupanarj.
Dat.
rupassa, rupaya.
rupanarj.
Acc.
ruparj
rupani, rupe.
Ins.
rupena
rupehi, rupebhi.
Abl.
rupa, rupasma,
rupamha, rupato.
rupehi, rupebhi.
Loc.
rupe, rupasmig, rupamhi.
rupesu.
Voc.
rupa
rupani, rupa.
20
Remarks.
(a) ni is essentially the distinctive sign of Neuter nouns in the Nom. Acc., and Voc. plur.
all declensions.
(b) The final vowel of the stem is lengthened before ni.
EXERCISE.
Decline like rupa.
citta, mind,
mula, root, price,
upatthana, service,
jala, water.
Iona, salt,
vajira, diamond,
vata, wind,
yotta, rope,
yuddha, fight.
sota, ear.
veluriya, coral,
ahata, cloth (new),
osana, end.
savana, hearing,
sataka, garment,
pesana, despatch, sending,
pattana, a sea port,
panna, leaf.
Remarks.
(a) . It will be noticed that neuter nouns in a differ from the masculine in a, in the Nom.
sing, and in the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur.; all the other cases are identical.
(b) In the plur. the Nom. Acc. and Voc. have the same form.
(c) The form in ani, of the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur. is the most common.
§125. Declension of nouns ending in a (long).
All nouns ending in a are Feminine.
§126. SUFFIXES.
Singular
Plural
Nom.
_
a, yo.
Gen.
aya
nap
Dat.
aya
nap
Acc.
E )
a, yo
Ins.
aya
hi, bhi
Abl.
aya, to
hi, bhi
Loc.
ayap, aya
su
Voc.
e
a, yo
§127. DECLENSION OF KANNA (FEM.), A VIRGIN.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
kanna
kanna, kannayo.
Gen.
kannaya
kannanap.
Dat.
kannaya
kannanap.
Acc.
kannap
kanna, kannayo.
Ins.
kannaya
kannahi, kannabhi.
Abl.
kannaya, kannato.
kannahi, kannabhi.
Loc.
kannayap, kannaya.
kannasu.
Voc.
kanna, kanne.
kanna, kannayo.
Remarks.
(a) Before to of the Abl. sing, the final vowel, if long, is shortened. So also before p of Acc.
sing.
(b) The following words all meaning mother have two forms in the Voc. sing:
amma, amba, anna, tata.
Voc. Sing. amma, amba, anna, tata.
amma, amba, anna, tata.
(c) In the Acc. sing, final a is shortened.
EXERCISE.
Decline like kanna:
saddha, faith,
vijja, science,
tanha, lust, thirst,
iccha, desire,
gatha, stanza,
khidda, play, sport,
sena, army,
nava, boat,
glva, throat.
medha, intelligence,
panna, wisdom,
metta, love,
bhikkha, begged-food,
mala, garland,
puja, honour,
chaya, shadow
pipasa, thirst,
vela, time.
■21
§128. It has been said above (125) that all nouns ending in a are feminine; but there are a
very few examples of masculine nouns ending in a. We give below their declension.
Masculine nouns ending in a (long)
DECLENSION OF SA (DOG).
Singular.
Plural
Nom.
sa.
sa.
Gen.
sassa.
sanag.
Dat.
sassa, saya.
sanag.
Acc.
sag.
sane.
Ins.
sena.
sahi, sabhi.
Abl.
sa, sasma, samha.
sahi, sabhi.
Loc.
se, sasmig, samhi.
sasu.
Voc.
sa.
sa.
Remark, (a) the declension above given is according to rupasiddhi grammar book,
(b) The declension given in the Saddaniti differs slightly:
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
sa
sa, sano
Gen.
sassa
sanarj
Dat.
sassa
sanarj
Acc.
sanarj
sane
Ins.
Sana
sanehi, sanebhi
Abl.
sana
sanehi, sanebhi
Loc.
sane
sanesu
Voc.
sa
sa, sano
The following are declined like sa:
paccakkhadhamma, one to whom the Doctrine is evident,
gandlvandhava, Arjuna.
ma, the moon,
raha,* sin.
* [As according to the] Niruttidlpanl, a scholium on moggallanavyakarana, a grammar held
in high esteem in Ceylon and Burma.
Remarks.
Masculine nouns in a belong to the Consonantal declension, but native grammarians,
consider them as stems ending in a vowel.
§129. Declension of nouns in i (short).
Nouns the stem of which ends in i are Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. They do not form a
very numerous class.
§130. Masc. nouns in i (suffixes)
Singular.
Nom.
Plural.
I,yo
Gen.
ssa, no
nag
Dat.
ssa, no
nag
Acc.
b
I,yo
Ins.
na
hi, bhi
Abl.
na, sma, mha
hi, bhi
Loc.
smig, mhi
su
Voc.
-
T, yo
§131. DECLENSION OF KAPI (Masc.), MONKEY.
Singular.
Nom. kapi.
Plural.
kapi, kapayo.
Gen.
kapissa, kapino.
kaplnag.
Dat.
kapissa, kapino.
kaplnag.
Acc.
kapirj.
kapi, kapayo.
Ins.
kapina.
kaplhi, kaplbhi.
Abl.
kapina, kapisma,
kaplhi, kaplbhi.
Loc.
kapimha.
kapismig, kapimhi.
kaplsu.
Voc.
kapi.
kapi, kapayo.
22
Remarks.
(a) The Nom. and Voc. sing, are like the stem.
(b) In the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur, final i, is changed to a before suffix yo.
(c) However final i is sometimes preserved before yo, so that we also have the form kapiyo
(rare).
(d) In the plural, before suffixes: nap, hi bhi, su final i is lengthened.
(e) Some rare and old forms are sometimes found:
(i) Gen. sing, ending in -e, as: mune.
(ii) Loc. sing, ending in -o, as: ado, and also
(iii) Loc. sing, ending in -e, as: gire.
(iv) Ins. sing, ending in -ena, as: rapsena.
(v) Nom. plur. ending in -no, as: saramatino.
(f) Not seldom, the stem itself is used for almost all the cases in the singular.
EXERCISE.
Words declined like kapi (masc).
aggi, fire.
kali, sin.
sandhi, union.
nidhi, a depository.
sarathi, a charioteer.
yati, a monk
anjali, salutation.
ari, an enemy.
bondi, body.
giri, a mountain.
umi, a wave.
bali, oblation.
senapati, a general.
gahapati, householder.
Feminine nouns ending in i (short).
JFFIXES.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
*
T, yo.
Gen.
a.
nap.
Dat.
a.
nap.
Acc.
r )•
T, yo.
Abl.
a.
hi, bhi.
Ins.
a.
hi, bhi.
Loc.
a, ap.
su.
Voc.
*
T, yo.
[in showing a blank entry in the table of suffixes, Duroiselle means to indicate that the
unmodified form of the base is used; cf., the following table for the paradigm Ratti — E.M.]
§133.
(a) DECLENSION OF RATTI (FEM.), NIGHT.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ratti.
ratti, rattiyo, ratyo.
Gen.
rattiya, ratya.
rattlnap.
Dat.
rattiya, ratya.
rattlnap.
Acc.
rattip.
ratti, rattiyo, ratyo.
Ins.
rattiya, ratya.
rattlhi, rattlbhi.
Abl.
rattiya, ratya.
rattlhi, rattlbhi.
Loc.
ratiya, ratya,
rattiyap, ratyap.
rattlsu.
Voc.
ratti.
ratti, rattiyo, ratyo.
Remarks.
(a) There is an ancient Loc. sing, in o: ratto.
(b) An Abl. sing in to, is also found: rattito.
(c) In the Gen., Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing, a y is inserted between the stem and the suffix
a to avoid a hiatus, (See 27 (ii) Remark 2.); so also in the Loc. sing, before ap.
(d) Before a, of the same cases, final i of the stem may become y by rule 27 (i), a; and as in
Pali there can be no group of three consonants (except ntr, as in antra, etc.) one t is
dropped. Hence we get: ratti + a = rattya = ratya.
(e) Before suffixes, nap, hi, bhi, su of the plural, the i of the stem is lengthened.
(b) DECLENSION OF JATI (FEM.), BIRTH.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
jati.
j atl j atiyo, j atyo, j acco .
Gen.
jatiya, jatya, jacca.
jatlnap.
Dat.
jatiya, jatya, jacca.
jatlnap.
Acc.
jatip.
j atl, jatiyo, j atyo, j acco,
Ins.
jatiya, jatya, jacca.
jatlhi,jatlbhi.
Abl.
jatiya, jatya, jacca.
jatlhi,jatlbhi.
Loc.
jatiya, jatya, jacca,
j atiyap , j atyap , j accap .
jatlsu.
Voc.
jati.
j atl, jatiyo, j atyo, j acco,
Remarks.
(a) For the forms, jacca and jaccap see rule (74).
(b) Jacco is obtained by the assimilation of y after the elision of final i. (71, 74).
(c) It will be remarked that, whereas in Masc. nouns in i the i of the stem is changed to a
before yo, in Fem. nouns it is retained.
23
EXERCISE.
Nouns declined like ratti (fem).
bhumi, earth.
keli, amusement.
satti, ability.
nandijoy.
patti, attainment.
mati, understanding.
tutthi, satisfaction.
mutti, deliverance.
asatti, attachment.
vuddhi, increase.
dhuli. dust.
ruci, splendour.
tanti, a string.
chavi, the skin.
gati, going, rebirth.
cuti, disappearance.
sati, recollection.
ditthi, sight, belief.
Neuter Nouns ending in i (short).
§134 .
, SUFFIXES.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ni, T.
Gen.
ssa, no.
nag.
Dat.
ssa, no.
nag.
Acc.
0-
ni, T.
Ins.
na.
hi, bhi.
Abl.
na, sma, mha.
hi, bhi.
Loc.
smig, mhi.
su
Voc.
-
ni, T.
DECLENSION OF VARI (NEUT.), WATER
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
vari.
varrni, vari.
Gen.
varissa, varino.
varinag.
Dat.
varissa, varino.
varinag.
Acc.
varig.
varlni, vari.
Ins.
varina.
varihi, varlbhi.
Abl.
varina, varisma,
varimha.
varihi, varlbhi.
Loc.
varismir), varimhi.
varlsu.
Voc.
vari.
varini, vari.
Remarks.
(a) There is also found a Nom. sing, in g like the Acc., as, atthig, bone, akkhig, eye, etc.
(b) As usual, final i is lengthened before ni, nag, hi, bhi and su in the plural.
pg. 24
EXERCISE.
atthi, bone,
akkhi, eye.
sappi, ghee,
chadi, roof.
Decline like vari (neut).
satthi, the thigh,
dadhi, milk curds,
acchi, eye.
rupi, silver.
§135. Declensions of Nouns ending in 1 (long )
There are no Neuter nouns ending in T (long).
Masculine Nouns ending in T (long).
§136. SUFFIXES.
Singular.
Nom.
T.
Gen.
ssa, no.
Dat.
ssa, no.
Acc.
g, nag.
Ins.
na.
Abl.
na, sma, mha.
Loc.
smig, mhi.
Voc.
T.
DECLENSION OF DANDI (MASC.), MENDICANT.
Singular.
Nom.
dandl
Gen.
dandissa, dandino.
Dat.
dandissa, dandino.
Acc.
dandig, dandinag.
Ins.
dandina.
Abl.
dandina, dandisma
Loc.
dandismig, dandimhi
Voc.
dandl.
Plural.
T, no.
nag.
nag.
T, no.
hi, bhi.
hi, bhi.
su.
T, no.
[Literally, a man with a walking-stick — E.M.]
Plural.
dandl dandino
dandinag.
dandinag.
dandl dandino.
dandlhi, dandlbhi.
dandlhi, dandlbhi.
dandlsu.
dandl, dandino.
Remark.
(a) A Nom sing, in i (Short) is sometimes met with: dandi.
(b) Voc. sing, in ni is also found: dandini.
(c) Note that in all the oblique cases of the singular the final i of the stem is shortened
before the suffixes.
(d) In the Nom. plur. a rare form in yo is found formed on the analogy of Masc. in i (short);
as dandiyo.
(e) An Acc. plur. in ye is occasionally met with: dandiye.
(f) It should be noticed that before no of the Nom. Acc. and Voc. plur. T of the base is
shortened.
(g) An Acc. sing, in ap with the semi-vowel y developed before it is met with: dandiyap.
(h) An Abl. sing, in to is found pretty frequently dandito.
EXERCISE
Decline like dandi (Masc).
saml, lord. senanl, a general,
kapanl, pauper. sakkhl, a witness,
mantl, minister. yoddhl, warrior.
§137. Most Masc. nouns in T are not pure substantives, they are adjectives used
substantively; their true stem is in in, the Nom. sing, being T. The true stem of dandi
therefore is dandin. Properly, all these words belong to the consonantal declension.
Feminine Nouns ending in I (long).
§138. SUFFIXES.
Singular Plural.
Nom.
T.
I,yo.
Gen.
a.
nap.
Dat.
a.
nap.
Acc.
tJ-
I, yo.
Ins.
a.
hi, bhi.
Abl.
a.
hi, bhi.
Foe.
a, ap.
su.
Voc.
T.
i, yo.
§139. DECLENSION OF NADI. (Fem.), RIVER.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
nadi.
nadi nadiyo, najjo,
Gen.
nadiya, nadya, najja.
nadlnap.
Dat.
nadiya, nadya, najja.
nadlnap.
Acc.
nadip.
nadi nadiyo, najjo,
Ins.
nadiya, nadya, najja.
nadlhi, nadlbhi.
Abl.
nadiya, nadya, najja.
nadlhi, nadlbhi.
Loc.
nadiya, nadya, najja,
nadlsu.
nadiyap, nadyap, najjap.
Voc. nadi. nadi, nadiyo, najjo.
Remarks, (a) There is a Gen. plur. in anap, nadiyanap.
(b) In all the oblique cases of the sing, final T of the base is shortened;
also before yo in the plural.
(c) For insertion of y before suffixes beginning with a vowel, see 27,
Remark 2.
(d) For the forms nadya, najja, and najjap see Rules 71, 74.
(4) In the form najjo, yo is assimilated after the elision of final i.
EXERCISE.
Decline like nadi (Fem.)
patl, canvas,
lakkhl, prosperity,
slhl, lioness,
patl, bowl,
kumarl, girl.
brahman!, a brahmin woman,
bhikkhunl, nun.
vanarl, ape.
yakkhl, ogress,
dev!, nymph.
BaranasI, Benares,
raj ini, queen.
dabbT, spoon.
bhisT, mat
sakhl, a female friend,
tarunl, young woman
kakl, a female crow,
mahl the earth.
migT, a doe.
vapl, a reservoir, tank.
Delension of Nouns ending in u (short).
§140. The nouns ending in u (short), are either Masculine, Feminine or Neuter.
Masculine Nouns in u (short)
§141. SUFFIXES.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
u, 0 .
Gen.
ssa, no.
nap
Dat.
ssa, no.
nap
Acc.
fJ
u, 0 .
Ins.
na.
hi bhi.
Abl.
na, sma, mha.
hi bhi.
Loc.
smip, mhi.
su.
Voc.
u, o, e.
DECFENSION OF BHIKKHU (MASC), MONK.
Singular.
Nom. bhikkhu.
Gen. bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno.
Plural.
bhikkhu, bhikkhavo.
bhikkhunap.
25
Dat.
bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno
bhikkhunag.
Acc.
bhikkhug.
bhikkhu, bhikkhavo.
Ins.
bhikkhuna.
bhikkhuhi, bhikkhubhi.
Abl.
bhikkhuna, bhiskhusma, bhikkhumha.
bhikkhuhi, bhikkhubhi.
Loc.
bhikkhumhi, bhikkhusmig.
bhikkhusu.
Voc.
bhikkhu.
bhikkhu, bhikkhavo,
bhikkhave.
Remarks.
(a) A Nom. and an Acc. plural, in yo are sometimes met with in some words: jantuyo,
hetuyo.
(b) Before suffixes o and e, in the plural, u
of the stem, or base is strengthened
becomes av. (27 (ii) a).
EXERCISE.
Nouns declined like bhikkhu (Masc.)
pasu, goat.
velu, bamboo.
bandhu, relative.
bhanu, the sun.
maccu, death.
ucchu, sugar-cane.
bahu, arm.
setu, bridge.
ketu, flag.
katu, sacrifice.
pharasu, axe.
ruru, a deer.
taru, tree.
hetu, cause.
Feminine Nouns ending in u (Short).
§142. SUFFIXES.
Singular
Plural
Nom.
_
u, yo.
Gen.
ya.
nag.
Dat.
ya.
nag.
Acc.
m.
u, yo.
Ins.
ya.
hi, bhi.
Abl.
ya.
hi, bhi.
Loc.
yag, ya.
su.
Voc.
-
u, yo.
§43. DECLENSION OF DHENU (FEM.), COW.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
dhenu.
dhenu, dhenuyo.
Gen.
dhenuya.
dhenunag.
Dat.
dhenuya.
dhenunag.
Acc.
dhenug.
dhenu, dhenuyo.
Ins.
dhenuya.
dhenuhi, dhenubhi.
Abl.
dhenuya.
dhenuhi, dhenubhi.
Loc.
dhenuyag, dhenuya
dhenusu.
Voc.
dhenu.
dhenuyo.
Remarks.
(a) An Abl. sing, in to is common: dhenuto, jambuto.
(b) A Nom. plur. in o occurs without strengthening of final u but with insertion of v:
dhenuvo.
(c) Final u is, in the plural, lengthened before nag, hi, bhi, and su.
EXERCISE.
Decline like dhenu.
dhatu, an element,
rajju, string,
ku, the earth,
daddu, ringworm,
kasu, a hole, pit.
kacchu, scab,
natthu, nose.
yagu, rice gruel,
karenu, elephant,
hanu, jaw.
vannu, sand,
kandu, itch.
piyajigu, a medicinal plant,
vijju, lightning.
Neuter Nouns ending in u (short).
§144. SUFFIXES.
Singular.
(Like the Masculine.)
Plural.
Nom. Acc. Voc. u, ni
(The rest like the Masc.)
§146. DECLENSION OF CAKKHU (Neut ), EYE.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
cakkhu.
cakkhuni, cakkhu.
Gen.
cakkhussa, cakkhuno.
cakkhuno, cakkhunag.
Dat.
cakkhussa, cakkhuno.
cakkhunag.
Acc.
cakkhug.
cakkhuni, cakkhu.
Ins.
cakkhuna.
cakkhuhi, cakkhubhi.
Abl.
cakkhuna, cakkhusma, cakkhumha.
cakkhuhi, cakkhubhi.
Loc.
cakkhusmig, cakkhumhi.
cakkhusu.
Voc.
cakkhu.
cakkhuni, cakkhu.
Remarks.
There is a form of the Nom. sing, in g cakkhug.
26
EXERCISES.
Words declined like cakkhu, (Neut.)
dhanu, a bow.
daru, wood,
madhu, honey,
massu, the beard,
matthu, whey,
assu, a tear.
ambu, water,
aru, a wound,
janu, the knee,
vatthu, a story,
ayu, age.
vasu, wealth.
Declension of Nouns ending in u (long).
§146. Declension of Nouns in u:.
(a) This declension includes Masculine and Feminine nouns only.
(b) The Suffixes are much the same as those of the u (short) declension, and
present no difficulty.
§147. DECLENSION OF SAYAMBHU (MASC.), AN EPITHET OF THE BUDDHA.
Nom.
Singular.
sayambhu.
Plural.
sayambhu, sayambhuvo.
Gen.
sayambhussa, sayambhuno.
sayambhunarj.
Dat.
sayambhussa, sayambhuno.
sayambhunarj.
Acc.
sayambhug.
sayambhu, sayambhuvo.
Ins.
sayambhuna.
sayambhuhi, sayambhubhi.
Abl.
sayambhuna, sayambhusma,
sayambhuhi, sayambhubhi.
Loc.
sayambhumha.
sayambhusmig, sayambhumhi.
sayambhu.
Voc.
sayambhu.
sayambhu, sayambhuvo.
Remarks.
(a) In the Nom. Acc. and Voc. Plur., v is inserted between the
suffix o and the stem after the
shortening of u.
(b) Final u of the stem is shortened to u in the oblique cases of the singular.
iCLENSION
OF VADHU, (FEM.) A WIDOW.
Singular. Plural.
Nom.
vadhu.
vadhu, vadhuyo.
Gen.
vadhuya.
vadhunag.
Dat.
vadhuya.
vadhunag.
Acc.
vadhug.
vadhu, vadhuyo.
Ins.
vadhuya
vadhuhi vadhubhi.
Abl.
vadhuya.
vadhuhi, vadhubhi.
Loc.
vadhuya, vadhuyag.
vadhusu.
Voc.
vadhu.
vadhu, vadhuyo.
Remarks.
(a) As in the Masc., final u is shortened in the oblique cases of the sing.
(b) A form in to is also found in the Abl. sing., vadhuto.
(c) In the plural, before yo, final u is shortened.
§149. Stems ending in a diphthong.
All diphthongic stems have disappeared in Pali; only one such stem remains, it is the word
go, a cow.
SPECIAL NOUNS.
§160. (i) DECLENSION OF GO (DIPHTHONGIC STEM), A COW.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
go-
gavo, gavo.
Gen.
gavassa, gavassa.
gavag gonag, gunnag.
Dat.
gavassa, gavassa.
gavag, gonag, gunnag.
Acc.
gavag, gavag. gavo, gavo.
gavurj, gavurj.
Ins.
gavena, gavena.
gohi, gobhi, gavehi.
Abl.
gava, gava,
gavasma, gavasma,
gavamha, gavamha.
gohi, gobhi, gavehi.
Loc.
gave, gave,
gavasmig, gavasmig,
gavamhi, gavamhi.
gosu, gavesu, gavesu.
Voc.
go-
gavo, gavo.
I DECLENSION OF SAKHA, A FRIEND.
(Sk. sakhi. The stem is irregular. Masc.)
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
sakha.
sakhayo, sakhano, sakhino, sakha.
Gen.
sakhino, sakhissa.
sakharanag, sakhlnag,
sakhanag.
Dat.
sakhino, sakhissa.
sakharanag, sakhlnag,
sakhanag.
Acc.
sakhanag, sakhag,
sakhi, sakhayo,
sakharag.
sakhano, sakhino.
Ins.
sakhina.
sakharehi, sakharebhi,
sakhehi, sakhebhi.
Abl.
sakhina, sakhara,
sakharehi, sakharebhi,
sakharasma.
sakhehi, sakhebhi.
Loc.
sakharasmig, sakharimhi.
sakharesu, sakhesu.
Voc.
sakha, sakha,
sakhayo, sakhano, sakhino, sakha.
27
sakhi, sakhi, sakhe.
Remarks.
The student will perceive that sakha has forms belonging to stems in ar and others to
stems in in. (See: Consonantal Declension.)
§152. CONSONANTAL DECLENSION.
(a) The Consonantal Declension includes all nouns and adjectives whose stem
ends in a consonant.
(b) Nouns the stem of which ends in a consonant, are rather few and special, the
majority of the words included in this declension being adjectives ending in vat or
mat, and all words ending in a nasal (n) being considered as belonging to the
Vowel Declension, by native grammarians.
(c) Most of the words of the Consonantal Declension seem to follow two
declensions; some suffixes belong to the vowel, and others to the Consonantal
Declension.
§153. (i) Stems ending in a nasal (n).
§154. DECLENSION OF ATTA (STEM ATTAN), SELF.
(Stem in an., Masc.)
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
atta.
attano, atta.
Gen.
attano, attassa.
attanag.
Dat.
attano, attassa.
attanag.
Acc.
attanag, attag, attanag.
attano, atte.
Ins.
attana, attena.
attanehi, attanebhi.
Abl.
attana, attasma, attamha.
attanehi, attanebhi.
Loc.
attani, attasmig, attamhi.
attanesu.
Voc.
atta, atta.
attano, atta.
Like atta (stem: attan) are declined:
atuma, self, muddha, head.
asma, stone, addha, road, distance, time.
§155. DECLENSION OF BRAHMA (STEM BRAHMAN, MASC.), BRAHMA.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
brahma.
brahmano, brahma.
Gen.
brahmuno, brahmassa.
brahmanam, brahmunag.
Dat.
brahmuno, brahmassa.
brahmanam, brahmunag.
Acc.
brahmanag, brahmag.
brahmano.
Ins.
brahmana, brahmuna.
brahmehi, brahmebhi,
brahmuhi, brahmubhi.
Abl.
brahmana, brahmuna.
brahmehi, brahmebhi,
brahmuhi, brahmubhi.
Loc.
brahme, brahmani.
brahmesu.
Voc.
brahme.
brahmano, brahma.
(a) In the Loc. Sing, we meet with the forms in - smig, mhi: brahmasmig, brahmamhi.
§156. DECLENSION OF RAJA, (STEM RAJAN MASC.), A KING.
Singular.
Nom.
raja.
Gen.
ranno, rajino, rajassa.
Dat.
ranno, rajino, rajassa.
Acc.
rajanag, rajag.
Ins.
ranna, rajena, rajina
Abl.
ranna, raj asma, rajamha.
Loc.
ranne, ranni, rajini,
rajimhi, rajismig.
Voc.
raja, raja.
Plural,
rajano, raja.
rannam, rajunag, rajanag.
rannam, rajunag, rajanag.
rajano.
rajuhi, rajubhi, rajehi, rajebhi.
rajuhi, rajubhi, rajehi, rajebhi.
rajusu, rajesu.
rajano, raja.
Remarks.
(a) When the word raja is used by itself in a sentence, it follows the above declension, but
when it forms the last part of a compound as for instance in dhammaraja, maharaja, etc., it
follows the declension of Masculine nouns in a, like deva.
(b) The forms of the plural seem to point to a base or stem in, u: raju.
(c) A few nouns the stem of which ends in an, follow the a declension of Masc. nouns like
deva; they are:
Vissakamma, the architect of the gods.
Vivattacchaddo, He by whom the veil (of ignorance) is rolled back (from this
world).
Puthuloma, a fish.
Yakana, the liver.
Athabbana, the fourth veda, and some others.
-.28
§157. DECLENSION OF PUMA, (STEM PUMAN), A MAN
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
puma.
pumano, puma.
Gen.
pumuno, pumassa.
pumanarj.
Dat.
pumuno, pumassa.
pumanarj.
Acc.
pumanag, pumag.
pumano, pume.
Ins.
pumana, pumuna,
pumanehi, pumanebhi,
pumena.
pumehi, pumebhi.
Abl.
pumuna, pumana, puma,
pumanehi, pumanebhi,
pumasma, pumamha.
pumehi, pumebhi.
Loc.
pumane, pume,
pumasmig, pumamhi.
pumanesu, pumasu, pumesu.
Voc.
pumag, puma.
pumano. puma.
Remarks.
(a) The influence of the a declension Masculine, is clearly discernible throughout.
(b) The word sa a dog, given at (128), properly belongs to this declension; this gives the
stem, san, from Sanskrit svan.
The declension of nouns the stem of which ends in -in, has already been given (130); these
words declined like dandi, (stem dandin) and rather numerous, form the transition
between the pure vowel declension and the declension of consonantal-stems.
§158. (ii) Stems ending in s.
§159. DECLENSION OF MANO, (STEM MANAS), THE MIND.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
mano, manag.
mana.
Gen.
manaso, manassa.
mananag.
Dat.
manaso, manassa.
maninag.
Acc.
mano, manag.
mane.
Ins.
manasa, manena.
manehi, manebhi.
Abl.
manasa, manasma,
manamha, mana.
manehi, manebhi.
Loc.
manasi, mane,
manasmig, manamhi.
manesu.
Voc.
mano, manag,
mana, mana.
mana.
Remarks.
(a) It should be borne in mind that mano is never used in the plural, although the forms
are given by some grammarians.
(b) The influence of the a declension is here also clearly seen, principally in the plural, of
which in fact, all tbe forms are after the a declension.
(c) There is also a Neuter form in ni in the plural: manani.
§160. Native grammarians give the following nouns as belonging to the manas declension,
their stems ending in as:
vaco, discourse,
vayo, age.
ceto, thought,
yaso, glory, fame,
payo, a beverage,
chando, metrics, prosody,
uro, breast,
aho, day.
ojo, splendour; strength,
vaso, cloth, clothing.
tejo, power.
tapo, heat.
tamo, darkness.
ayo, iron.
siro, the head.
saro, a lake.
raho, solitude, privacy.
rajo, dust, passion.
thamo, strength, vigour.
Remarks.
(a) aha, day, in the Loc. sing, has the following forms: ahasmig, ahamhi, ahe, ahu, ahasi,
ahuni.
(b) The words: rajo, ojo, thamo and vaso are included in the manas declension by the
Sinhalese grammarians.
(c) The comparative adjectives ending in yo, iyyo, as for instance seyyo, gariyo, follow the
manas, declension.
§16l. DECLENSION OF AYU (STEM A YUS), LIFE.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ayu, ayug.
ayu, ayuni.
Gen.
ayussa, ayuno.
ayunag, ayusag
Dat.
ayussa, ayuno.
ayunag, ayusag
Acc.
ayu, ayug.
ayu, ayuni.
Ins.
ayuna, ayusa.
ayuhi, ayubhi.
Abl.
ayuna, ayusa.
ayuhi, ayubhi.
Loc.
ayuni, ayusi.
ayusu.
Voc.
ayu, ayug.
ayu, ayuni.
§162. III. Stems ending in ar ( = Sansk r).
■ 29
§163. DECLENSION OF SATTHa, THE TEACHER (BUDDHA).
(STEM SATTHAR, SANSK SASTR)
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
sattha.
sattharo, sattha.
Gen.
satthu, satthussa,
satthanap, sattharanap,
satthuno.
satthunap.
Dat.
satthu, satthussa,
satthanap, sattharanap,
satthuno.
satthunap.
Acc.
sattharap, sattharap.
sattharo, satthare.
Ins.
satthara, satthara, satthuna.
sattharehi, sattharebhi.
Abl.
satthara, satthara, satthuna.
sattharehi, sattharebhi.
Loc.
satthari.
sattharesu, satthusu.
Voc.
sattha, sattha.
sattharo, sattha.
Remarks.
(a) The form of the Gen. sing, in u: satthu, is the base employed in the formation of
compound words.
(b) Stems ending in ar (Sk. r) have their Nom. sing, in a as pitar ( = Sk. pitr), Nom. sing, pita;
so matar ( = matr), Nom.sing. mata. Their base in composition is generally in u.
(c) Before suffix to of the Abl. sing, stems in ar often take the vowel i; as pitito, matito, and
sometimes a base piti, mati is used in composition: pitipakkhe.
(d) Some words whose stem is in ar, follow the a declension, (of deva), for instance:
sallakatta (stem sallakattar), a physician; kattara (stem kattarar), a weak person; sota (stem
sotar), a hearer.
EXERCISE.
Decline like sattha:
neta, a guide,
mata, mother,
jeta, a conqueror,
katta, an agent.
natta, a grandson,
pita, father,
data, a giver,
bhata, brother.
The words pita and mata present some peculiarities.
§164. DECLENSION OF MaTa, MOTHER.(STEM MaTAR) (Sk. MaP).
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
mata.
mataro, mata.
Gen.
matu, matuya, matya.
mataranap, matanap,
matunap, matunnap.
Dat.
matu, matuya, matya.
mataranap, matanap,
matunap, matunnap.
Acc.
matarap.
mataro, matare.
Ins.
matara, matuya, matya.
matarehi, matarebhi,
matuhi, matubhi.
Abl.
matara, matuya, matya.
matarehi, matarebhi,
matuhi, matubhi.
Loc.
matari, matuya, matya,
matuyap, matyap.
mataresu, matusu.
Voc.
mata, mata.
mataro, mata.
Remark.
(a) In the oblique cases of the singular, the student will readily recognize the influence of
the Feminine declension in the suffixes a and p.
(b) There is also found, rarely, a Gen. sing, in ssa: matussa.
DECLENSION OF PITA. (STEM PITAR) (Sk. PITR), FATHER.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
pita.
pitaro.
Gen.
pitu, pituno, pitussa.
pitaranap, pitanap,
pitunnap, pitunap.
Dat.
pitu, pituno, pitussa.
pitaranap, pitanap,
pitunnap, pitunap.
Acc.
pitarap, pitup.
pitaro, pitare.
Ins.
pitara, pituna, pitya, petya. pitarehi, pitarebhi,
pituhi, pitubhi.
Abl.
pitara, pitu, pitya, petya.
pitarehi, pitarebhi,
pituhi, pitubhi.
Loc.
pitari.
pitaresu, pitusu.
Voc.
pita, pita.
pitaro.
Remarks.
In the Dat. and Gen. plur. of mata and pita the n is doubled to compensate for the
shortening of u (long); hence: matunnap, matunap and pitunnap, pitunap.
30
§165. (iv) The words ending in: at (or ant), vat (or vant), mat (or mant), are mostly
adjectives and their declension will be given in the chapter on Adjectives.
We shall, however, give here the declension of a few nouns, in at or vant.
§166. DECLENSION OF BHAVAJJ, SIR. STEM IN AT, (OR ANT.)
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
bhavap, bhanto
bhavanto, bhavanta, bhonto.
Gen.
bhavantassa, bhavato, bhoto.
bhavatap, bhavantanap.
Dat.
bhavantassa, bhavato, bhoto.
bhavatap, bhavantanap.
Acc.
bhavantap, bhotap.
bhavante, bhonte.
Ins.
bhavantena, bhavata, bhota.
bhavantehi, bhavantebhi.
Abl.
bhavata, bhavanta, bhota.
bhavantehi, bhavantebhi.
Loc.
bhavati, bhavante
bhavantesu.
Voc.
bho, bhonta, bhante.
bhavanto, bhonto, bhante,
bhavanta.
Remarks.
(a) Bhavap is a polite term of address, and it may be translated by "Your Honour."
(b) Native grammarians invariably use it as the sign of the Vocative case.
(c) The Feminine, bhotT, "madam" is regularly declined after the T declension Feminine,
(adT).
§167. DECLENSION OF ARAHAQ, SAINT. STEM IN AT, (OR ANT).
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
arahap, araha.
arahanto, araha.
Gen.
arahato, arahantassa.
arahatap, arahantanap.
Dat.
arahato, arahantassa.
arahatap, arahantanap.
Acc.
arahantap.
arahante.
Ins.
arahata, arahantena.
arahantehi, arahantebhi.
Abl.
arahata, arahanta,
arahantasma, arahantamha.
arahantehi, arahantebhi.
Loc.
arahati, arahante,
arahantasmip, arahantamhi.
arahantesu.
Voc.
arahanta.
arahanto.
Similarly is declined santa, meaning, a good man.
CHAPTER VI.
FORMATION OF FEMININE BASES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
Note: This chapter has for the most part been adopted from the NiruttTdipam.
§168. From what has been already said (116, d) about grammatical gender, it will be easily
understood that the gender of substantives will be better learned from the dictionary. The
student will already have remarked, however, that:
§169. All nouns the stem of which ends in a, and the Nom. sing in o, are Masculine.
Examples.
Stem.
Nom. Sing Masc.
slha, lion.
slho.
assa, horse.
asso.
hattha, the hand.
hattho.
dara, wife.
daro.
§170. All nouns the stem of which ends in o, and the Nom. sing, in ap, are Neuter.
Examples.
Stem.
Nom. Sing. Neuter.
citta, the mind.
cittap.
rupa, an image.
rupap.
bhatta, rice.
bhattap.
hita, benefit.
hitap.
bhaya, fear.
bhayap.
§171. All nouns the stem of which ends
in a, and the Nom. sing, in a are Feminine.
Examples.
Stem.
Nom. Sing. Fern.
vaca, a word.
vaca.
nava, a boat.
nava.
sala, a hall.
sala.
gatha, a stanza.
gatha.
puja worship.
puja.
Remarks.
The Masculine nouns with stems in a (128) are very few in number and rarely met with.
Although included by all native grammarians, as has already been remarked, in the Vowel-
declension, they properly belong to the Consonantal-declension. For instance, the true
31
stem of sa, a dog is san (Sanskrit svan); that of ma, the moon, is mas (Sk. mas); again, the
true stem of gandivadhanva, Arjuna, is gandlvadhanvan.
§172. All nouns whose stem ends in T and the Nom. sing, also in T are Feminine.
Stem.
mahi, the earth,
slhl, lioness,
bhisl, a mat.
raj ini, a queen,
bhuml the earth.
Examples.
Nom. Sing. Fem.
mahi.
slhl.
bhisl.
raj ini.
bhuml.
§173. There are also some Masculine nouns whose Nom. sing ends in T. As a general rule,
the Masc. nouns of this class are adjectives used substantively; they properly belong to the
Consonantal-declension, and their stems end in -in.
§174. There are no Neuter nouns in T.
§175. Nouns the stem of which ends in u, are either Masculine, Feminine or Neuter. The
gender is best learned from the dictionary.
§176. All pure substantives whose stem ends in u and the Nom sing, also in u are Feminine.
Examples.
Stem.
camu, an army.
padu, a shoe.
sassu, a mother-in-law.
bhu, the earth.
vadhu, daughter-in-law.
Nom. Sing. Fem.
camu.
padu.
sassu.
bhu.
vadhu.
This class is not numerous.
Remarks.
§177. Masculine nouns the stem of which ends in u and the Nom. sing, in u, are properly
not pure substantives, but adjectives, sometimes used substantively.
Examples.
Stem [and associated
verbal meaning]
Meaning of the Adjective/
Substantive use.
Nom. sing. Masc. form
abhibhu, mastering.
chief, conqueror.
abhibhu.
vedagu, knowing the
vedas.
a sage, a savant.
vedagu.
maggannu, knowing the
Way.
a saint.
maggannu
§178. There are no Neuter nouns the stem of which ends in u.
§179. The above rules, though meagre, will somewhat help the student to discriminate the
gender of nouns.
§180. As in other languages, many Feminine substantives are derived from the base or stem
of Masculine substantives by means of certain suffixes.
§181. The suffixes used in Pali to form Feminine bases are:
1. a, ika, aka.
2. T, ikinl.
3. nl, ini.
4. a, nl.
§182. FEMININE BASES OF SUBSTANTIVES.
§183. Many Feminine bases are derived from Masculine ones ending in a by means of a and
I.
§184. EXAMPLES WITH A.
Masc. base,
manusa a man.
assa, a horse,
kumbhakara, a potter,
kataputana, a demon,
vallabha, a favourite.
Fem. base,
manusa, a woman,
assa, a mare.
kumbhakara, a potter's wife,
kataputana, a she-demon.
vallabha, a favourite woman.
Remarks.
Feminine bases formed with a, are not very numerous, and most of them can also be
formed with T or ini, or ika.
32
§185. EXAMPLES WITH I
Masc. base,
slha, lion,
miga, deer,
kumara, boy, prince,
manava, a young man.
samanera, a novice.
Fem. base.
sThT, lioness,
migl, doe.
kumari, girl, princess.
manavT, a young woman,
samanerl, a novice (fem.)
Remarks.
Feminine bases derived from the Masculine by means of T are very numerous.
§186 The Feminine of many patronymics is also formed by means of T.
Masc. base. Fem. base.
Kaccayana. kacchayanl.
vasettha. vasetthl.
gotama. gotamT.
§187. Nouns in ka (mostly adjectives used substantively) form their Feminine in ika or
ikini.
Masc. base,
navika, a boatman,
paribbajaka, a wandering ascetic,
parjsukulika, a monk wearing
robes made of picked-up rags,
kumaraka, a boy.
Fem. base,
navika, navikinl.
paribbajika, paribbajikinl
parjsukulikinl, paqsukulika,
a nun wearing, etc.
kumarika, a girl.
§188 EXAMPLES WITH INT.
Masc. base,
raja, king.
kumbhakara, potter,
miga, deer,
slha, lion,
yakkha, an ogre.
Fem. base,
raj ini, queen.
kumbhakarinl, potter's wife,
miginl, doe.
slhinl, lioness,
yakkhinl, an ogress.
§189. EXAMPLES WITH NT.
Masc. base.
bhikkhu, Buddhist monk,
bandhu, a relative,
patu, a wise man.
dhammannu, a pious man.
dandl a mendicant,
brahmacarl, one who lives
the higher life,
hatthi, an elephant.
Fem. base.
bhikkhunl, Buddhist nun.
bandhunl, a female relative.
patunT, a wise woman,
dhammannunl, a pious woman,
dandinl, a female mendicant,
brahmacarinl, a woman who lives
the higher life, a religious student,
hatthinl, female elephant.
Remarks.
The suffix n! is used after Masculine bases ending in i, T, and u, u. The T and u of the base
are shortened before nl.
§190 EXAMPLES WITH ANT.
§191. A few nouns form their Feminine by means of the suffix am.
Masc. base,
matula, uncle,
varuna, Varuna.
khattiya, a nobleman,
acariya, a teacher,
gahapati, householder.
Fem. base.
matulanT, aunt.
varunanT.
khattiyanT, a noblewoman.
acariyanT.
gahapatanT,* householder's wife.
*Note that in gahapati, final i is dropped before am.
§192. Some nouns assume two or more Feminine forms.
Examples.
Masc. base.
atthakama one wishing to be useful.
kumbhakara, potter.
yakkha, ogre.
naga, snake, elephant.
miga, deer.
sTha, lion.
byaggha, tiger.
kaka, a crow.
manusa, a man.
Fem. base.
atthakama, atthakamT, tthakaminT.
kumbhakara, kumbhakarT, kumbhakarinT.
yakkhT, yakkhinT.
nagT, naginT.
migT, miginT.
sThT, sThinT.
byagghT, byagghinT.
kakT, kakinT.
manusa, manusT, manusinT.
33
§193. The suffixes used for the formation of Adjectival Feminine bases are the same as
those given above (181), that is;-
§194. Of Adjectives the stem of which ends in a, some form their Feminine in a, some in T.
§195. Adjectives ending in i, T, and u, u, form their Feminine by adding nl (189), before
which long T and u are shortened.
(For examples see Chapter VII. Adjectives.)
CHAPTER VII.
ADJECTIVES.
DECLENSION .
§196. Adjectives, like nouns, may be divided into those whose stem ends in a vowel and
those the stem of which ends in a consonant.
To the student who has mastered the declension of nouns, that of Adjectives will present
no difficulties.
Declension of Adjectives in a.
§197. Adjectives in a form their Feminine by means of a mostly; some by means of T.
§198. The Neuter is obtained by adding g to the stem.
§199. The Masculine is declined like deva (122); the Feminine like kanha (127), and the
Neuter like ruparj (124). Feminines in i are declined like nadl (139).
§200. DECLENSION OF BALA (STEM), FOOLISH.
Singular.
Masculine
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
balo.
bala.
balag.
Gen.
balassa.
balaya.
balassa.
Dat.
balassa, balaya.
balaya.
balassa, balaya.
Acc.
balag.
balag.
balag.
Ins.
balena.
balaya.
balena.
Abl.
bala,
balaya.
bala,
balasma,
balasma,
balamha,
balamha,
balato.
balato.
Loc.
bale,
balaya, balayag.
bale,
balasmig,
balasmig,
balamhi.
balamhi.
Voc.
bala, bala.
bala, bale.
bala.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
bala.
bala, balayo.
balani, bala.
Gen.
balanag.
balanag.
balanag.
Dat.
balanag.
balanag.
balanag.
Acc.
bale.
bala, balayo.
balani, bale.
Ins.
balehi, balebhi.
balahi, balabhi.
balehi, balebhi.
Abl.
balehi, balebhi.
balahi, balabhi.
balehi, balebhi.
Loc.
balesu.
balasu.
balesu.
Voc.
bala.
bala, balayo.
balani, bala.
EXERCISE. Adjectives declined like deva, kanna and rupag.
Stem.
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
dura, far. duro
dura
durag
taruna, young.
taruno
taruna
tarunag
dlgha, long.
dlgho
dlgha
dlghag
rassa, short.
rasso
rassa
rassag
gambhlra, deep.
gambhTro
gambhlra
gambhTrag
pharusa, harsh.
pharuso
pharusa
pharusag
sukkha, dry.
sukkho
sukkha
sukkhag
amaka, raw.
amako
amaka
amakag
papa, evil, papo
papa
papag
khema, calm.
khemo
khema
khemag
34
§201. We give here only a few examples of Feminine adjectives formed by means of T from
stems in a.
papa, evil. papo, papl.
taruna, young. taruno, tarunl.
dlpana, illuminating. dlpano, dTpani.
Remarks.
As said above these adjectives are declined like nadT and therefore present no difficulty.
§202 Adjectives In I (short).
§203. Adjectives ending in i are declined like kapi, in the Masculine, and like vari, in the
Neuter. The Feminine formed by means of ni is declined like nadT.
§204. DECLENSION OF BHURI (STEM), ABUNDANT.
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
bhuri.
bhurini.
bhuri.
Gen.
bhurissa,
bhuriniya.
bhurissa,
bhurino.
bhurino.
Dat.
bhurissa,
bhuriniya.
bhurissa,
bhurino.
bhurino.
Acc.
bhurip.
bhurinip.
bhurip.
Ins.
bhurina.
bhuriniya.
bhurina.
Abl.
bhurina,
bhuriniya.
bhurina,
bhurisma,
bhurisma,
bhurimha.
bhurimha.
Loc.
bhurismip,
bhuriniya,
bhurismip,
bhurimhi.
bhuriniyap.
bhurimhi.
Voc.
bhuri.
bhurini.
bhuri.
Plural
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
bhurT,
bhurinT,
bhurinT,
bhurayo.
bhuriniyo.
bhuri.
Gen.
bhurTnap.
bhurinTnap.
bhurinap.
Dat.
bhurTnap.
bhurinTnap.
bhurinap.
Acc.
bhurT,
bhurinT,
bhurinT,
bhurayo.
bhuriniyo.
bhuri.
Ins.
bhurihi,
bhurimhi,
bhurihi,
bhuribhi.
bhurinTbhi.
bhuribhi.
Abl.
bhurihi,
bhurimhi,
bhurihi,
bhuribhi.
bhurinTbhi.
bhuribhi.
Loc.
bhurisu.
bhurinTsu.
bhurisu.
Voc.
bhurT,
bhurini,
bhurini,
bhurayo.
bhurinTyo.
bhuri.
§205. Adjectives In I (long).
§206. A numerous class of Masculine adjectives are derived from nouns by means of suffix i
(an adjectival suffix not to be confounded with the Feminine suffix I)(l81, 2; 185).
Examples.
Substantives,
papa, sin.
dhamma, religion,
mana, pride,
soka, sorrow,
roga, sickness,
makkha, hypocrisy.
Adjectives,
papl, sinful.
dhamml, religious, pious,
mam, proud.
sokT, sorrowful,
rogl, sick.
makkhl, hypocritical.
§207. The Masculine is declined like dandi.
§208. The Feminine is formed by adding ni, before which final T is shortened; it is declined
like nadT.
§209. In the Neuter final i is shortened to i and is declined like vari.
35
§210. DECLENSION OF ESI, WISHING.
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
esi.
esinl.
esi.
Gen.
esissa, esino. esiniya.
esissa, esino.
Dat.
esissa, esino. esiniya.
esissa, esino.
Acc.
esig.
esinig.
esig.
Ins.
esina.
esiniya.
esina.
Abl.
esina, esisma, esiniya.
esina, esisma,
esimha.
esimha.
Loc.
esismig, esimhi.
esiniya, esiniyag.
esismig, esimhi.
Voc.
esi.
esinl.
esi.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
esi,
esinl,
eslni,
esino.
esiniyo.
esi.
Gen.
eslnarj.
esinlnag.
esinag.
Dat.
esTnarj.
esinlnag.
eslnag.
Acc.
esi.
esinl, esiniyo.
eslni, esi.
Ins.
esThi, eslbhi.
esimhi, esinlbhi.
esThi, eslbhi.
Abl.
esThi, eslbhi.
esimhi, esinlbhi
esihi, esibhi.
Loc.
eslsu.
esinlsu.
eslsu.
Voc.
esi.
esinl.
esi.
Decline like esi
Masculine
Feminine.
Neuter.
ekakl, solitary.
ekakinl,
ekaki.
carl, roaming.
carinl,
cari.
ekakkhl, one eyed.
ekakkhinl,
ekakkhi.
maccharl, niggardly.
maccharinl,
macchari.
surl, wise.
surini,
suri.
jayl, victorious.
jayinl,
jayi.
§211. Adjectives in u (short.)
§212. These are declined in the Masculine like bhikkhu, in the Feminine like nadi, and in
the Neuter like cakkhu.
§213. The Feminine base is formed by the addition of ni.
§214. DECLENSION OF GARU (STEM.), HEAVY.
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
garu.
garunl.
garu.
Gen.
garussa,
garuniya.
garussa,
garuno.
garuno.
Dat.
garussa,
garuniya.
garussa,
garuno.
garuno.
Acc.
garug.
garunig.
garug.
Ins.
garuna.
garuniya.
garuna.
Abl.
garuna, garusma,
garuniya.
garuna,
garumha.
garusma,
garumha.
Loc.
garusmig, garumhi.
garuniya, garuniyag.
garusmig,
garumhi.
Voc.
garu.
garunl.
garu.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
garu, garavo.
garunl, garuniyo.
garuni, garu.
Gen.
garunag.
garunlnag.
garunag.
Dat.
garunag.
garunlnag.
garunag.
Acc.
garu, garavo.
garunl, garuniyo.
garuni, garu.
Ins.
garuhi, garubhi.
garumhi, garunlbhi.
garuhi, garubhi.
Abl.
garuhi, garubhi.
garumhi, garunlbhi.
garuhi, garubhi.
Loc.
garusu.
garunlsu.
garusu.
Voc.
garu, garavo.
garunl, garuniyo.
garuni, garu.
Decline like garu.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
bahu, many.
bahunl,
bahu.
sadu, agreeable.
sadunl,
sadu.
sadhu, good.
sadhunl,
sadhu.
dattu, stupid.
dattunl,
dattu.
§2l5. Adjectives in u (long)
§216. Adjectives in u form their Feminine by means of ni, u being shortened before it.
§217. They are declined, in the Masc. like sayambhu, and in the Feminine like nadi and in
the Neut. like cakkhu.
36
§218. DECLENSION OF VINNU, WISE.
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
vinnu.
vinnunl.
vinnu.
Gen.
vinnussa, vinnuno.
vinnuniya.
vinnussa,
vinnuno.
Dat.
vinnussa, vinnuno.
vinnuniya.
vinnussa,
vinnuno.
Acc.
vinnug.
vinnunir).
vinnur).
Ins.
vinnuna.
vinnuniya.
vinnuna.
Abl.
vinnuna,
vinnuniya.
vinnuna
vinnusma,
vinnusma,
vinnumha.
vinnumha.
Loc.
vinnusmir),
vinnuniya,
vinnusmir),
vinnumhi.
vinnuniyar).
vinnumhi.
Voc.
vinnu.
vinnunl.
vinnu.
Plural
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
vinnu, vinnuvo.
vinnunl, vinnuniyo.
vinnuni, vinnu.
Gen.
vinnunar).
vinnunlnar).
vinnunar).
Dat.
vinnunar).
vinnunlnar).
vinnunar).
Acc.
vinnu, vinnuvo.
vinnunl, vinnuniyo.
vinnuni, vinnu.
Ins.
vinnuhi,
vinnumhi,
vinnuhi,
vinnubhi.
vinnunlbhi.
vinnubhi.
Abl.
vinnuhi,
vinnumhi,
vinnuhi,
vinnubhi.
vinnunlbhi.
vinnubhi.
Loc.
vinnusu.
vinnunlsu.
vinnusu.
Voc.
vinnu, vinnuvo.
vinnunl, vinnuniyo.
vinnuni, vinnu.
Decline like vinnu, in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter,
niddalu, sleepy. pabhu, powerful,
mattannu, temperate. katannu, grateful.
§219. ADJECTIVES WITH CONSONANTAL BASES.
§220. Adjectives with consonantal bases are of three kinds:
(1) those the stem of which ends in at or ant.
(2) those the stem of which ends in mat or mant.
(3) those the stem of which ends in vat or vant.
§221. All the adjectives in mat, mant, and vat, vant, are formed from nouns by means of
suffixes ma and va, (whose original base is mat and vat), which express possession of the
quality or state indicated by the noun to which they are affixed.
§222. It must, however, be remarked that va and ma are not affixed indiscriminately. The
following rule is invariable.
(a) Suffix va is added only to nouns ending in a.
(b) Suffix ma is always added to nouns ending in i and u.
Noun.
mana, pride,
guna, virtue,
bhoga, wealth,
bala, strength.
Adj.
manava, having pride, viz, proud,
gunava, having virtue, viz., virtuous,
bhogava, possessing wealth, viz., wealthy,
balava, possessing strength, viz., strong.
Noun
suci, purity,
sati, mindfulness,
khanti, patience,
hetu, cause,
bandhu, relative.
Adj.
sucima, endowed with purity, viz., pure,
satima, possessed of mindfulness, viz., mindful,
khantima, endowed with patience, viz., patient,
hetuma, having a cause, causal,
bandhuma, having a relative.
§213. The Feminine is formed by adding i to either of the bases viz, mat, mant or vat, vant;
for instance:
Stem.
Masculine.
Feminine.
gunavat.
gunava.
gunavat!.
gunavant.
gunavant!.
jutimat.
jutima.
jutimat!.
jutimant.
jutimant!.
§224, In the Nom., Acc., and Voc. sing, the Neuter is formed by adding g after va and ma,
the long a being shortened (4, 34); and ni to the stem in vant and mant, for the Nom., Acc.,
and Voc. plural.
Stem
jutimant.
gunavant.
Masculine.
jutima.
gunava.
Feminine.
Singular.
jutimarp
gunavar).
Plural.
jutimantani.
gunavantani.
37
§224. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES IN AT OR ANT.
§226. DECLENSION OF MAHA (STEM, MAHAT, MAHANT.)
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
mahag, mahanto.
mahati, mahantl.
mahag,
mahantag.
Gen.
mahato,
mahatiya,
mahato,
mahantassa.
mahantiya.
mahantassa.
Dat.
mahato,
mahatiya,
mahato,
mahantassa.
mahantiya.
mahantassa.
Acc.
mahantag.
mahatig,
mahantig.
mahantag.
Ins.
mahata,
mahatiya,
mahata,
mahantena.
mahantiya.
mahantena.
Abl.
mahata,
mahatiya,
mahata,
mahantasma,
mahantiya.
mahantasma,
mahantamha.
mahantamha.
Loc.
mahati,
mahatiya,
mahati,
mahante,
mahantiya,
mahante,
mahantasmig,
mahatiyag,
mahantasmig,
mahantamhi.
mahantiyag.
mahantamhi.
Voc.
mahag,
mahati,
mahag
maha,
mahantl.
maha,
maha.
maha.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
mahanto,
mahanta.
mahati,
mahatiyo,
mahantl,
mahantiyo.
mahantani.
mahanta.
Gen.
mahatag,
mahantanag.
mahatlnam,
mahantlnag.
mahatag,
mahantanag.
Dat.
mahatag,
mahantanag.
mahatlnam,
mahantlnag.
mahatag,
mahantanag.
Acc.
mahante,
mahanta,
mahanto.
mahati,
mahatiyo,
mahantl,
mahantiyo.
mahantani,
mahanta.
Ins.
mahantehi,
mahantebhi.
mahantlhi,
mahantlbhi,
mahatlhi,
mahatlbhi.
mahantehi,
mahantebhi.
Abl.
mahantehi,
mahantebhi.
mahantlhi,
mahantlbhi,
mahatlhi,
mahatlbhi.
mahantehi,
mahantebhi.
Loc.
mahantesu.
mahatlsu,
mahantlsu.
mahantesu.
Voc.
mahanta,
mahanto.
mahati,
mahatiyo,
mahantl,
mahantiyo.
mahantani,
mahanta.
Remarks.
(a) The declension of maha should be carefully studied, as all the Present Participles, in at
and ant, as for instance gacchag or gacchanto, karag or karanto, pacag or pacanto, are
declined like it.
(b) We have already given (167) the declension of arahag which, in the Nom. sing, has also
the form araha.
(c) The word santo (167) meaning a good man, is similarly declined; the form sabbhi,
however, is also found in the Ins. and Abl. plural.
-.38
EXERCISE.
Decline like mahai] (stem: mahat, mahant),in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter.
cararj, caranto (stem carat, carant) walking, roaming,
bhunjap, bhunjanto (stem bhunjat, bhunjant) eating,
karap, karanto (stem karat, lcarant) doing,
sararj, saranto (stem: sarat, sarant) remembering,
vasag, vasanto (stem vasat, vasant) living,
pucchap, pucchanto (stem pucchat, pucchant) asking.
§227. Declension of Adjectives in mat or mant.
§228. DECLENSION OF DHlMA, WISE. (STEM: DHlMAT, DHTMANT).
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
dhima,
dhlmati,
dhlmap,
dhlmanto.
dhlmantl.
dhlmantarj.
Gen.
dhlmato,
dhlmatiya,
dhlmato,
dhlmantassa.
dhlmantiya.
dhimantassa.
Dat.
dhlmato,
dhlmatiya,
dhlmato,
dhlmantassa.
dhlmantiya.
dhimantassa.
Acc.
dhlmarj,
dhlmatirj,
dhlmap,
dhlmantag.
dhlmantip.
dhlmantarj.
Ins.
dhlmata,
dhlmatiya,
dhlmata,
dhlmantena.
dhlmantiya.
dhlmantena.
Abl.
dhlmata,
dhlmantiya,
dhlmata,
dhlmanta,
dhlmatiya.
dhlmanta,
dhlmantasma,
dhlmantasma,
dhlmantamha.
dhlmantamha.
Loc.
dhlmati,
dhlmatiya,
dhlmati,
dhlmante,
dhlmantiya,
dhlmante,
dhlmantasmip,
dhlmatiya^,
dhlmantasmig,
dhlmantamhi.
dhlmantiya^.
dhlmantamhi.
Voc.
dhlmag,
dhlmati,
dhlmap,
dhima,
dhlmantl.
dhima,
dhima,
dhima,
dhlmanta,
dhlmanta,
dhlmanta.
dhlmanta.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
dhlmanta,
dhlmanto,
dhima.
dhlmati,
dhlmatiyo,
dhlmantl,
dhlmantiyo.
dhlmantani,
dhlmanta.
Gen.
dhlmatag,
dhlmantanag.
dhlmatlnap,
dhlmantlnai].
dhlmatarj,
dhlmantanap.
Dat.
dhlmatarj,
dhlmantanag.
dhlmatlnap,
dhlmantlnag.
dhlmatarj,
dhlmantanap.
Acc.
dhlmante.
dhlmati,
dhlmatiyo,
dhlmantl,
dhlmantiyo.
dhlmantani,
dhlmanta.
Ins.
dhlmantehi,
dhlmantebhi.
dhlmatlhi,
dhlmatlbhi,
dhlmantlhi,
dhlmantlbhi.
dhlmantehi,
dhlmantebhi.
Abl.
dhlmantehi,
dhlmantebhi.
dhlmatlhi,
dhlmatlbhi,
dhlmantlhi,
dhlmantlbhi.
dhlmantehi,
dhlmantebhi.
Loc.
dhlmantesu.
dhlmantlsu,
dhlmatlsu.
dhlmantesu.
Voc.
dhlmanta,
dhlmanto,
dhima.
dhlmati,
dhlmatiyo,
dhlmantl,
dhlmantiyo.
dhlmantani,
dhlmanta.
EXERCISE.
Decline like dhima. (stem dhlmat, dhlmant), in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter:
goma (stem gomat, gomant,) a cattle owner,
puttima (stem puttimat, puttimant,) having sons,
khanuma (stem khanumat, khanumant,) having stumps,
ketuma (stem ketumat, ketumant,) glorious, victorious lit., having banners,
hetuma (stem hetumat, hetumant ) having a cause,
cakkhuma (stem cakkhumat cakkhumant,) enlightened.
39
§229. Declension of adjectives in vat or vant.
Remarks.
The declension of Adjectives in vat, vant is the same as that of those in mat, mant; the only
difference being that, of course, v replaces m throughout.
§230. DECLENSION OF GUNAVA, VIRTUOUS, (stem gunavat, gunavant)
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
gunava,
gunavati,
gunavap,
gunavanto.
gunavantl.
gunavanta.
Gen.
gunavato,
gunavatiya,
gunavato,
gunavantassa.
gunavantiya.
gunavantassa.
Dat.
gunavato,
gunavatiya,
gunavato,
gunavantassa.
gunavantiya.
gunavantassa.
Acc.
gunavap,
gunavatip,
gunavap,
gunavantap.
gunavantip.
gunavantap.
Ins.
gunavata,
gunavatiya,
gunavata,
gunavantena.
gunavantiya.
gunavantena.
Abl.
gunavata,
gunavantiya,
gunavata,
gunavanta,
gunavatiya.
gunavanta,
gunavantasma,
gunavantasma,
gunavantamha.
gunavantamha.
Loc.
gunavati,
gunavatiya,
gunavati,
gunavante,
gunavatiyap,
gunavante,
gunavantasmip,
gunavantiya,
gunavantasmip,
gunavantamhi.
gunavantiyap.
gunavantamhi.
Voc.
gunavap,
gunavati,
gunavap,
gunava,
gunavantl.
gunava,
gunava,
gunava,
gunavanta,
gunavanta,
gunavanta.
gunavanta.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
gunavanta,
gunavati,
gunavantani,
gunavanto,
gunava.
gunavatiyo,
gunavantl,
gunavantiyo.
gunavanta.
Gen.
gunavatap,
gunavatlnap,
gunavatap,
gunavantanap.
gunavantlnap.
gunavantanap.
Dat.
gunavatap,
gunavatlnap,
gunavatap,
gunavantanap.
gunavantlnap.
gunavantanap.
Acc.
gunavante.
gunavati,
gunavatiyo,
gunavantl,
gunavantiyo.
gunavantani,
gunavanta.
Ins.
gunavantehi,
gunavatlhi,
gunavantehi,
gunavantebhi.
gunavatlbhi,
gunavantlhi,
gunavantlbhi.
gunavantebhi.
Abl.
gunavantehi,
gunavatlhi,
gunavantehi,
gunavantebhi.
gunavatlbhi,
gunavantlhi,
gunavantlbhi.
gunavantebhi.
Loc.
gunavantesu.
gunavantlsu,
gunavatlsu.
gunavantesu.
Voc.
gunavanta,
gunavati,
gunavantani,
gunavanto,
gunava.
gunavatiyo,
gunavantl,
gunavantiyo.
gunavanta.
§231. There is another not very numerous class of Adjectives formed from nouns and roots
by means of suffixes avl and vT.
§232. The original stem of avl and vT is avin and vin and they therefore belong to the
Consonantal declension. VT is used after nouns, and avl after roots.
§233. The Feminine is formed by adding the Feminine suffix nl, before which final long T is
shortened.
§234. In the Neuter, final i is shortened in the Nom. and Voc. singular; in the plural, before
Neuter suffix ni final T remains unchanged.
§235. vT, like ma and va, expresses possession.
40
Examples.
Neuter.
Noun. Adj.Masc. Adj.Fem. Singular. Plural,
medha, wisdom. medhavl. medhavinl. medhavi. medhavlnl.
y/ pass, to see. passavl. passavinT. passavi. passavTnl.
The declension of these Adjectives presents no difficulty. They are declined in the
Masculine like dandl, in the Feminine like nadl and in the Neuter like vari.
§236. NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES.
§237. Negative Adjectives are obtained by prefixing to affirmative Adjectives the prefix a
and ana.
Remarks.
a is used before a consonant, and ana before a vowel.
Examples.
dlgha, long. adlgha, not long,
alcula, turbid. anakula, not turbid, clear.
COMPARISON.
§238. The Comparison of Adjectives is formed in two ways:
(1) by adding tara for the comparative and tama for the Superlative, to the
Masculine bases of the Positive.
(2) by adding iya or iyya for the comparative, and ittha, issika for the Superlative,
to the Masculine bases of the Positive.
§239. The Comparative and Superlative are declined in the Masculine like deva, in the
Feminine like kanna and in the Neuter like rupag.
Examples.
(l) tara, tama.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative,
suci, pure. sucitara, purer,
papa, evil. papatara, more evil,
omaka, vile, omakatara, viler,
hari, green, haritara, greener.
sucitama, purest,
papatama, most evil,
omakatama, vilest,
haritama, greenest.
Remarks.
Of the above Comparative and Superlative bases, the Masculine is, sucitaro, sucitamo; the
Feminine, sucitara, sucitama, and the Neuter, sucitarag, etc., etc.
Positive,
papa, evil.
khippa, quick.
kattha, bad.
[Examples of] iya (iyya), ittha, & issika.
Comparative.
papTya, more evil,
papiyya more evil,
khippiya, quicker,
khippiyya, quicker,
katthiya, worse,
katthiyya, worse.
Superlative,
papittha, most evil,
papissika, most evil,
khippittha, quickest,
khippissika, quickest,
katthittha, worst,
katthissika, worst.
§240. With many, we should say most, adjectives, the suffixes of (238-1) tara, tama or of (2)
iya, iyya, ittha, issika, may be used interchangeably.
Examples.
papatara or papiya.
khippatara or khippiya.
papatama or papittha or papissika, etc.
§241. The comparatives in iya, iyya, are declined like mano (159).
It will be remarked that, before iya, iyya, ittha and issika, the final vowel of the Positive
Adjective is dropped.
§243. Adjectives formed by means of the possessive suffixes, ma (mat), va (vat) (221), and
vT, vin (231), drop these suffixes and the vowel which precedes them, before iya, iyya ittha
and issika.
Examples.
(a) gunava + iyo = guna + iyo = gun + iyo = guniyo.
Similarly: gun + iyyo, guniyyo: gun-ittha, etc.
(b) medhavl + iyo = medha + iyo = medh + iyo = medhiyo
Similarly: medh-iyyo, medhiyyo; medh-ittha, medhittha, etc.
(c) satima + iyo = sati + iyo = sat + iyo = satiyo
Similarly: sat-iyyo = satiyyo; sat-ittha = satittha, etc.
;■ 41
§244. Tara may be superadded to the Superlative ittha, as, papitthatara.
§245. The Acc. sing, of most Adjectives is used adverbially.
Adjective,
khippa, quick,
sukha, happy,
slgha, swift,
manda, stupid.
Examples.
Adverb.
khippap, quickly,
sukhap, happily,
slghap, swiftly,
mandap, stupidly.
§246. The Absolute Superlative is formed by prefixing ati to the Positive adjective:
atikhippa, very quick, extremely quick, too quick,
atippasattha, very excellent,
atithoka, very little, too little, excessively little.
§247. Some Adjectives form their Comparison irregularly.
Positive
antika, near,
balha, strong.
appa, few.
yuva, young,
vuddha, old.
pasattha, excellent,
garu, heavy.
Comparative,
nediya, nearer,
sadhiya, stronger,
sadhiyya, stronger,
kaniya, fewer,
kaniya, younger,
jeyya, older,
seyya, better,
gariya, heavier.
Superlative
nedittha, nearest,
sadhittha, strongest.
kanittha, fewest,
kanittha, youngest,
jettha, oldest,
settha, most excellent, best,
garittha, heaviest.
§248. Any substantive is used in the sense of an adjective when it is the last member of a
bahubbihi compound (see chapter on compounds, bahubbihi) qualifying a noun or a
pronoun expressed or understood.
§249. The noun thus used, whether Feminine or Neuter, assumes the form of the
Masculine.
Noun.
(i) dassanap, (neut) Looking.
(ii) jajigha (fern.) leg.
(iii) panna (fem.) wisdom,
(iv) sllap (neut ) morality.
(v) hattho (masc.) hand.
Examples.
as Adjective.
ruddadassano kumbhllo a fierce-looking
crocodile.
dlghajajigho puriso, a long-legged man.
mahapanno, having great wisdom, very
wise.
sampannasllo, one who is full of morality:
moral, virtuous.
chinnahatthena purisena kato, done by a
man whose hands have been cut off.
CHAPTER VIII.
NUMERALS.
§250. The Numerals are as follows:
Cardinals.
Ordinals.
1 eka, one.
pathama, first.
2. dve, two.
dutiya, second.
3. tayo, three.
tatiya, third.
4. cattaro.
catuttha, turlya.
5. panca.
pancatha, pancama.
6. cha.
chattha, chatthama.
7 satta.
sattha, sattama.
8. attha.
atthama.
9. nava.
navama.
10. dasa, rasa, lasa, lasa.
dasama.
11. ekarasa, ekadasa.
ekarasama.
12.barasa, dvarasa.
barasama.
13. tedasa, terasa, telasa.
tedasama.
14. catuddasa, cuddasa, coddasa.
catuddasama.
15. pancadasa, pannarasa, pannarasa.
pancadasama.
16. solasa, sorasa.
solasama.
17. sattadasa sattarasa.
sattadasama.
18. atthadasa attharasa.
atthadasama.
19. ekunavlsati ekunavisap.
ekunavlsatima.
20 vlsati, vlsap.
vlsatima.
21. ekavlsati ekavlsap.
ekavlsatima.
22. dvavisati.
dvavisatima.
23. tevTsati.
tevlsatima.
24. catuvlsati.
catuvTsatima.
25. pancavlsati.
pancavlsatima.
26. chabbTsati.
chabblsatima.
27. sattablsati sattavlsati.
sattabTsatima.
28. atthavisap.
atthavlsatima.
29. ekunatipsati ekunatipsap.
ekunatipsatima.
30. tipsati, tipsap.
tipsatima.
31. ekatipsati.
ekatipsatima.
32. dvattipsati.
dvattipsatima.
40. cattallsap, cattarlsap.
cattalisatlma.
50. pannasa, pannasap.
pannasama.
60. satthi.
satthima.
70. sattati.
sattatima.
80. aslti.
asltima.
42
90. navuti.
100. sataq.
200. basataq. dvasataq.
1000. sahassaq.
10.000. dasasahassaq.
10.000. 000 koti.
navutima.
satama.
basatama.
sahassama.
dasasahassama.
kotima.
§252. (i) CARDINALS.
§253. Eka, one, is in the singular very often used in an indefinite sense, meaning: a certain,
a; as,
eko naviko, a boatman, a certain boatman,
eka kumarika, a princess, a certain princess.
In the plural, it means: some, as,
eke purisa, some men...
eka manusini, some women...
§254. The Cardinals, eka, taya and cattaro are declined in the plural in the three genders;
eka, alone of course, having singular forms.
§255. DECLENSION OF EKA, ONE.
Singular.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
eko.
eka.
ekaq.
Gen.
ekassa.
ekissa, ekissaya.
ekassa.
Dat.
ekassa.
ekissa, ekissaya.
ekassa.
Acc.
ekaq.
ekaq.
ekaq.
Ins.
ekena.
ekaya.
ekena.
Abl.
ekasma, ekamha.
ekaya.
ekasma,
ekamha.
Loc.
ekasmiq, ekamhi.
ekaya, ekissaq.
ekasmiq,
ekamhi.
Voc.
eka.
eke.
eka.
Plural.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
eke.
eka, ekayo.
ekani.
Gen.
ekesaq.
ekasaq.
ekesaq.
Dat.
ekesaq.
ekasaq.
ekesaq.
Acc.
eke.
eka, ekayo.
ekani.
Ins.
ekehi, ekebhi.
ekahi, ekhabhi.
ekehi, ekebhi.
Abl.
ekehi, ekebhi.
ekahi, ekhabhi.
ekehi, ekebhi.
Loc.
ekesu.
ekasu.
ekesu.
Voc.
eke.
eka, ekayo.
ekani.
Remark. The above declension is chiefly pronominal, (See Pronouns, Chapter IX).
§256. DECLENSION OF TAYO, THREE.
Plural. (No Singular.)
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
tayo.
tisso.
tini.
Gen.
tinnaq,
tissannaq,
tinnaq,
tinnannaq.
tissaq.
tinnannaq.
Dat.
tinnaq,
tissannaq,
tinnaq,
tinnannaq.
tissaq.
tinnannaq.
Acc.
tayo.
tisso.
tini.
Ins.
tlhi, tlbhi.
tlhi, tlbhi.
tlhi, tlbhi.
Abl.
tlhi, tlbhi.
tlhi, tlbhi.
tlhi, tlbhi.
Loc.
tlsu.
tlsu.
tlsu.
§257. DECLENSION OF CATTARO, CATURO, FOUR.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
cattaro, caturo.
catasso.
cattari.
Gen.
catunnaq.
catassannaq,
cattassaq.
catunnaq.
Dat.
catunnaq.
catassannaq,
cattassaq.
catunnaq.
Acc.
cattaro, caturo.
catasso,
cattari.
Ins.
catubbhi,
catubbhi,
catubbhi,
catuhi,
catuhi,
catuhi,
catubhi.
catubhi.
catubhi.
Abl.
catubbhi,
catubbhi,
catubbhi,
catuhi,
catuhi,
catuhi,
catubhi.
catubhi.
catubhi.
Loc.
catusu.
catusu.
catusu.
§258. (a) In composition, the base of tayo, is ti, as, tilokahitada, bestowing benefits on the
three worlds, (b) Not seldom, tri also is met with: trikumbhanagaraq, the "three-Hillock-
City" (Rangoon) (c) The base of cattaro in composition is catu before a consonant, the
consonant being often reduplicated; and catur before a vowel:
catumukho, having four faces,
catuppado, a quadruped,
catuparisaq, the four assemblies,
caturajigl (catu . r. ajigl), having four divisions,
caturasso (catu . r. asso), having four corners, quadrangular.
43
§259. The Dual has completely disappeared in Pali; the only two vestiges that have come
down to us being dve or duve, two, and ubho, both. But even in these two words, the
student will remark that the inflection of the plural has almost entirely superseded that of
the dual.
§260. Dve or duve and ubho, are of the three genders, and used in the plural only.
DVE, TWO.
UBHO, BOTH.
Nom.
dve, duve.
ubho, ubhe.
Gen.
dvinnag, duvinnag.
ubhinnag.
Dat.
dvinnag, duvinnag.
ubhinnag.
Acc.
dve, duve.
ubho, ubhe.
Ins.
dvlhi, dvlbhi.
ubhohi, ubhobhi.
ubhehi, ubhebhi.
Abl.
dvlhi, dvlbhi.
ubhohi, ubhobhi.
ubhehi, ubhebhi.
Loc.
dvlsu.
ubhosu, ubhesu.
§261. (a) The base of dve, duve in composition is dvi and also di, du and dve:
dvijo, twice.born, a brahmin. dvijivho, double-tongued, a snake,
dvipo, drinking twice, an elephant. dipado, two-legged, a biped,
diguno, two-fold. duvidho, of two kinds,
dvebhumako, having two stories. dvepakkho, two factions or parties.
(b) dva, dva are also used as the bases of dve, but chiefly in composition with other
numbers:
dvattikkhatug (dva-ti-khatturj), two or three times,
dvatirjsati, thirty.two.
dvasatthi, sixty-two.
dvavlsati, twenty-two.
(c) ba is similarly used as a base.
barasa, badasa, twelve,
bavlsati, twenty-two.
§262. Panca, five, is, like dve, of the three genders. It is declined as follows:
Nom.
panca.
Gen.
pancannai]
Dat.
pancannai]
Acc.
panca.
Ins.
pancahi.
Abl.
pancahi.
Loc.
pancasu.
§263. The other numbers up to 18 included, are also of the three genders, and are declined
as follows:
Nom. & Voc.
Acc.
Gen.& Dat.
Ins.& Abl.
Loc.
six,
cha.
channag.
chahi.
chasu.
seven,
satta.
sattannag.
sattahi.
sattasu.
eight,
attha.
atthannag.
atthahi.
atthasu.
nine,
nava.
navannag.
navahi.
navasu.
ten,
dasa.
dasannag.
dasahi.
dasasu.
§264. The numerals from 11 to 18 are declined in exactly the same way.
§265. Here it must be observed that 10 has three forms: dasa, rasa, lasa, the last two being
used only in composition with other numerals; lasa is also found.
§266. The numerals from 19 to 99 are Feminine; as they are formed by prefixing the
numerals from 1 to 9 to the decades, the decades are here given separately.
20, visati, visa. 50, pannasa, pannasa.
30, tigsati, tigsa 60, satthi.
40, cattallsa, cattalisa, 70, sattati.
cattarisa, 80, asiti.
talisa, talisa. 90, navuti.
§267. The numerals ending in i are declined like the Feminines in i (jati, ratti).
§268. Those in a take in the Nom. sometimes the form in a, like kanna, but usually they
assume in the Nom. the Neuter form in ag.
§269. The following will serve as a model for the declension of numerals from 20 to 99:
DECLENSION OF VISATI, 20.
Nom, & Voc. Acc. Gen. & Dat. Ins. & Abl. Loc.
1st form.
vlsag,vlsa. visag. visaya. visaya. visaya, visayarj.
2nd form.
visati. vlsatig. visatiya. visatiya. visatiya, visatiyag.
Remark. Numerals in i follow the 2nd form and those in a the 1st form.
§270. To express full decades but one, as 19, 29, 39. etc ekuna (eka, one + una, deficient by)
is prefixed to the decades, as:
ekunavlsati, 19, viz., 20 deficient by one.
ekunatirjsa, 29 viz. 30 deficient by one, etc.
;■ 44
§271. The very high numerals as, koti, ten millions, pakoti, one hundred billions, etc., are
declined like visati.
§272. Satag 100, sahassag, 1000, lakhag, 100,000, are Neuter substantives, and therefore
declined as such on the model of rupag (124).
§273. (ii) ORDINALS.
§274. The Ordinals are formed from the Cardinals, from 5 upwards, by means of the suffix
ma:
Cardinal. Ordinal.
5, panca, pancama 5th.
6, cha, chama, 6th.
7, satta, sattama, 7th.
8, attha, atthama, 8th., etc,.
§275. Ordinals 5th, 6th and 7th, have two forms:
5th, pancatha, pancama.
6th, chattha, chatthama.
7th, satta, sattama.
§276. From 5 upwards, the Ordinals form their Feminine by means of suffix i (181, 2) and
their Neuter is formed in ag. They are therefore declined like devo, nadl and rupag.
Examples.
Masc. Nom.
pancamo.
chatthamo.
sattamo.
atthamo.
Fern. Nom.
pancaml.
chatthaml.
sattaml.
atthamT.
Neut. Nom
pancamag.
chatthamag.
sattamag.
atthamag, etc,.
§277. From 11 upwards, however, the Cardinals themselves are not seldom used as
Ordinals; so that we have the choice of two forms, and can say either,
ekarasa, 11th, or ekarasama, 11th.
pancadasa, 15th, or pancadasama, 15th.
catuvlsati 24th, or catuvlsatima, 24th, etc,.
§278. The first four Ordinals are as follows:
Masc. Nom. Fern. Nom.
pathamo. pathama.
dutiyo. dutiya.
tatiyo. tatiya.
catuttho. catuttha.
Neut. Nom.
pathamag.
dutiyag.
tatiyag.
catutthag.
Remark.
They are consequently declined like deva, kanna and rupag.
§279. (iii) ADVERBIAL DERIVATIVES FROM NUMERALS.
§280. Many important adverbs are derived from numerals by means of some suffixes.
§281. By means of suffix dha are formed adverbs signifying: ways, times, fold and
sometimes kinds.
Examples.
ekadha, once.
dvidha, in two ways; in two; of two kinds,
tidha, in three ways; three-fold, in three parts.
§282. The word guna, though not a suffix, is often employed like dha with the meanings of
times, fold. In the sense of times, it generally takes the Neuter form in ag.
Examples.
dasagunag, ten times; or ten-fold,
tigunag, three times; or three-fold,
catugunag, four times; or, four-fold.
Remark.
In the sense of fold, the compound being an adjective, is treated as such and is declined
like deva, kanna and rupag.
§283. dha is also used in the same way after a few adjectives:
bahudha, in many ways,
anekadha, in more than one way.
§284. Distributive adverbs are formed from numerals by means of suffix so (Sk. sas).
Examples.
ekaso, one by one.
pancaso, five by five.
§285. From khattug, multiplicative adverbs are formed.
Examples.
dvikkhattug, twice.
sattakkhattug, seven times.
satasahassakkhattug. one hundred thousand times.
45
§286. The two following suffixes, from substantives and adjectives ka and ya, form
collective nouns and adjectives.
Examples.
catukka, fourfold, consisting of four, a collection of four things;
a place where four roads meet.
dvaya, of two sorts, consisting of two a pair.
dvika, duka, consisting of two, a pair.
tika, taya, tayi, consisting of three, a triad, etc.
§287. There is an adverb, meaning once, at once, never used in composition with numerals,
it is sakig, (Sansk, sakrt). When used before words beginning with a vowel it sometimes
takes the forms sakid or sakad.
Examples.
sakig passanto, seeing (him) once,
sakig yeva, at once, simultaneously,
sakid eva, at once, simultaneously,
sakadagaml (agami), returning once only.
CHAPTER IX.
PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOMINAL DERIVATIVES.
§288. (i) PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
§289. DECLENSION OF AHAt), I.
Of All Genders.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ahag, I.
mayag, we.
amhe, we.
vayag, we.
Gen.
mama, my, mine.
amhakag, our, ours.
mayhag, my, mine.
amhag, our, ours.
mamag, my, mine.
asmakag, our, ours.
amhag, my, mine.
no, our, ours.
Dat.
mama, to me, for me.
amhakag, to us, for us
mayhari, to me, for me.
amhag, to us, for us.
mamag, to me, for me.
asmakam, to us, for us,
amhag, to me, for me.
me, to me, for me.
no, to us, for us.
Acc.
mag, me.
amhe, us,
mamag. me.
amhakam, us.
asme, us.
amhe, us.
no, us.
Ins.
maya, me, by me,
amhehi, by us.
amhebhi, by us
no, by us
Abl.
maya. me, from me.
amhehi, from us.
amhebhi, from us.
no, from us.
Loc.
mayi, in, on, upon me.
amhesu, in, on, upon us,
asmasu, in, on, upon us.
asmesu, in, on, upon us.
Remark.
(a) The singular base of ahag is mad according to Sanskrit commentators; it is properly ma
and mar). Pronominal derivatives are, however, formed from the three bases: mad, mam
and ma, the latter sometimes with the a lengthened: ma (See Pronominal Derivation at the
end of the present chapter.)
(b) The form me, of the Gen., Dat., Ins., Abl., Sing., is enclitic; it is never used at the
beginning of a sentence.
46
(c) The form no, of the same cases in the plural is also enclitic, and never used at the
beginning of a sentence.
(d) The plural base is amha, or amhad.
§290. DECLENSION OF TVAE), THOU.
Of All Genders.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
tvag, thou,
tuvag, thou,
tag, thou.
tumhe, you.
Gen.
tava, thy, thine.
tumhakag, your, yours.
tavag, thy, thine.
tumhag, your, yours.
tuyhag, thy, thine,
tumhag, thy, thine,
te, thy, thine.
vo, your, yours.
Dat.
tava, to thee, for thee.
tumhakag, to you, for you
tavag, to thee, for thee.
tumhag, to you, for you.
tuyhag, to thee, for thee,
tumhag, to thee, for thee,
te, to thee, for thee.
vo, to you, for you.
Acc.
tavag, thee.
tumhe, you.
tag, thee.
tumhakag, you.
tuvag, thee,
tvag, thee,
tyag, thee.
vo, you.
Ins.
tvaya, by thee.
tumhehi, by you.
taya, by thee.
tumhebhi, by you.
te, by thee.
vo, by you.
Abl.
tvaya, from thee.
tumhehi, from you.
taya, from thee.
tumhebhi, from you.
tvamha, from thee,
te, from thee.
vo. from you.
Loc.
tvayi, in, on, upon thee,
tayi in, on, upon thee.
tumhesu, in, on, upon you.
Remarks.
(a) The bases are tad and ta (sometimes lengthened to ta, in the singular).
(b) tumha (tumhad), is the plural base.
(c) te like me of ahag, is an enclitic form and never begins a sentence; so is vo for the
plural.
(d) vo is also found in the Nom. plural.
(e) It will be remarked that Pronouns have no forms for the Vocative case.
§291. (ii) DEMONSTRATIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
§292. DECLENSION OF SO, SA, TAT): THIS, THAT, HE, SHE, IT.
Masculine: so, he, this, that.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
so, sa.
te.
Gen.
tassa.
tesag, tesanag
Dat.
tassa.
tesag, tesanag
Acc.
tag.
te.
Ins.
tena.
tehi, tebhi.
Abl.
tasma,tamha.
tehi, tebhi.
Loc.
tasmig, tamhi.
tesu.
Nom.
Feminine: sa, she, this, that.
Singular. Plural,
sa. ta, tayo.
Gen.
tassa,
tasag, tasanag
Dat.
tassaya,
tissa,
tissaya,
taya.
tassa,
tasag, tasanag
Acc.
tassaya,
tissa,
tissaya,
taya.
tag.
ta, tayo.
Ins.
taya.
tahi, tabhi.
Abl.
taya.
tahi, tabhi.
Loc.
tassag, tissag, tayag.
tasu.
;■ 47
§ 294 .
Neuter: tag, it, this, that.
Singular.
Plural
Nom.
tag, tad.
tani.
Gen.
tassa.
tesag, tesanag.
Dat.
tassa.
tesag, tesanag.
Acc.
tag, tad.
tani.
Ins.
tena.
tehi, tebhi.
Abl.
tasma, tamha.
tehi, tebhi.
Loc.
tasmig, tamhi.
tesu.
Remarks.
(a) In the Gen., Dat., Abl, and Loc. singular for the Masc, and Neut, a form from pronominal
stem: a, is also used: assa, asma, asmig in the Feminine too, for the Gen., Dat. and Loc,
singular: assa, assag (Loc.).
(b) In the Neuter, the form tad is used mostly in compound words, as:
tad ( = tag) karo = takkaro, "doing this", and also before a vowel.
(c) It will have been remarked that the stem ta, 3rd personal pronoun (so, sa, tag), is also
used as a demonstrative.
(d) ta is the base or stem of so, sa, tag; as above said (Note b), the form tad of the base is
also used.
(e) Very often, the above pronoun may be translated as the Definite Pronoun.
(f) It is, too, often used pleonastically with the pronouns ahag and tvag, as are, in fact,
most Demonstrative Pronouns; for instance:
so'hag = this I, viz., I.
tassa me (Dat.) = to this me, viz., to me.
sa'yam ( = sa ayag) tanha = This longing.
(g) atta self; own (154), is, in its oblique cases, very much used in a reflexive sense, instead
of the three Personal Pronouns.
§295. There is a common substitute of so, sa, tag, obtained by replacing t wherever it
occurs, by n, for the three genders. Thus we have:
Masculine,
nassa = tassa.
nena = tena.
nag = tag.
nasma = tasma.
nasmig = tasmig.
ne = te.
nehi = tehi.
nesag = tesag.
nesu = tesu.
Feminine,
naya = taya.
nassa = tassa.
nassaya = tassaya.
nassag = tassag.
nayag = tayag.
na = ta,tayo.
nahi = tahi.
nasag = tasag.
nasu = tasu.
Neuter,
nag = tag
nena = tena.
nag = tag.
nasma = tasma.
nasmig = tasmig.
ne = te.
nehi = tehi.
nesag = tesag.
nesu = tesu.
§296. The forms with n as above given are generally used when a noun which has
been already mentioned, is referred to; as, tag khadapessami nan 'ti, I'll make you
eat him (viz., a monkey previously mentioned).
§297. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
§298. DECLENSION OF ESO, ESA ETAr), THIS.
§299. The student will readily perceive that the above Demonstratives are formed simply
by prefixing e to so, sa and tag, They are declined exactly like so, sa, tag.
§300. As in the case of so, sa and tag, so also with eso, esa and etag, the t may be replaced
all through by n, so that we obtain the forms: enena, enag, enaya, etc., whose declension
presents no difficulty whatever. These forms are also used in referring to a noun aleady
mentioned.
§301. eso, esa, etag may be translated by "that " sometimes.
§302. The Neuter etad ( = etag) is used in composition before a vowel.
§303. This Pronoun is also used pleonastically with a Personal Pronoun (294, f).
§304. e, is considered as the base of Pronouns ena, eta etc. It is much used in derivation.
DECLENSION OF AYAF): THIS; THIS HERE.
§305. Masculine.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ayag.
ime.
Gen.
assa,
imesanag, imesag
imassa.
esanag, esag.
Dat.
assa,
imesanag, imesag
imassa.
esanag, esag.
Acc.
imag.
ime.
Ins.
anena,
imehi, imebhi,
imina.
ehi, ebhi.
Abl.
asma, imasma,
imehi, imebhi,
imamha.
ehi, ebhi.
Loc.
asmig, imasmig,
imamhi.
imesu, esu.
48
§306.
Feminine
§307.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ayarj.
ima, imayo.
Gen.
assaya, assa.
imissaya, imissa, imaya.
imasanag, imasag
Dat.
assaya, assa.
imissaya, imissa, imaya.
imasanag, imasag
Acc.
imag.
ima, imayo.
Ins.
imaya, assa, imissa.
imahi, imabhi.
Abl.
imaya, assa, imissa.
imahi, imabhi.
Loc.
assarj, imissag, assa,
imissa, imayag, imaya.
Neuter.
imasu.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
idag, imag.
imani.
Gen.
imassa,
imesap, imesanap
assa.
esanar], esarj.
Dat.
imassa,
imesap, imesanap
assa.
esanar], esarj.
Acc.
idag, imag.
imani.
Ins.
imina,
imehi, imebhi,
anena.
ehi, ebhi.
Abl.
imasma, amha,
imehi, imebhi,
asma.
ehi, ebhi.
Loc.
imasmig, asmig,
imamhi.
imesu, esu.
Remarks.
(a) The student will remark that the declension of ayag is based on two stems: a and i. (b)
Ayag is used substantively as well as pronominally.
§309.
§310.
DECLENSION OF ASU, THAT.
§308. Masculine.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
asu.
amu, amuyo.
Gen.
amussa, adussa,
amusag,
amuno.
amusanag.
Dat.
amussa, adussa,
amusag.
amuno.
amusanag.
Acc.
amup.
amu, amuyo.
Ins.
amuna.
amuhi, amubhi.
Abl.
amusma, amumha,
amuhi.
amuna.
amubhi.
Loc.
amusmig, amumhi.
amusu.
Feminine.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
asu.
amu, amuyo.
Gen.
amussa,
amusag,
amuya.
amusanag.
Dat.
amussa,
amusag,
amuya.
amusanag.
Acc.
amup.
amu, amuyo.
Ins.
amuya.
amuhi, amubhi.
Abl.
amuya.
amuhi, amubhi.
Loc.
amussap,
amusu.
amuyap.
Neuter.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
adup, amug.
amuni, amu.
Gen.
amussa, adussa.
amusag, amusanag
Dat.
amussa, adussa.
amusag, amusanag
Acc.
adug, amug.
amuni, amu.
Ins.
amuna.
amuhi, amubhi.
Abl.
amusma, amumha,
amuhi.
amuna.
amubhi.
Loc.
amusmig, amumhi.
amusu.
49
Remarks.
(a) Some native grammarians also give amu for the Nom. Sing, in the Masculine and
Feminine.
(b) It will be noticed that the stem is amu; in the Neuter, there are a few forms on the stem
adu.
(c) To express: such, so and so ka is added to the stem, as, asuka, amuka
(d) The forms asuka and amuka are often used to express some contempt.
(e) These two forms have in the plural Masc. and Neut acc. asuke, amuke.
§311. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
DECLENSIONS OF YO, YA, YArj.
§312. Masculine yo who; he who; whoever; what,
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
yo.
ye.
Gen.
yassa.
yesap.
Dat.
yassa.
yesap.
Acc.
yap.
ye.
Ins.
yena.
yehi, yebhi.
Abl.
yasma, yamha.
yehi, yebhi.
Loc.
yasmip, yamhi.
yesu.
§313. Feminine, ya, she; she who; whoever; what.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ya.
ya, yayo.
Gen.
yaya, yassa.
yasap.
Dat.
yaya, yassa.
yasap.
Acc.
yap.
ya, yayo.
Ins.
yaya.
yahi, yabhi.
Abl.
yaya.
yahi, yabhi.
Loc.
yayap, yassap.
yasu.
uter, yap, it; which; that which.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
yap, yad.
yani.
Gen.
yassa.
yesap.
Dat.
yassa.
yesap.
Acc.
yap, yad.
yani.
Ins.
yena.
yehi, yebhi.
Abl.
yasma, yamha.
yehi, yebhi.
Loc.
yasmip, yamhi.
yesu.
Remarks.
(a) For the sake of greater emphasis, the Personal Pronouns, and also so ayap and eso are
used pleonastically with yo.
(b) Yo is used with koci (323), in the three Genders as yo koci, yena kenaci, yap kind, etc.,
both pronouns together meaning: whosoever, whoever, whatever, anyone, anything, etc.
(c) The form yad of the Neuter singular, is used before vowels and in composition.
(d) The base of yo is ya.
§315. INTEROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
DECLENSION OF KO, KA, Kir).
§316. Masculine, ko, who ? what ?
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ko.
ke.
Gen.
kassa, kissa.
kesap, kesanap.
Dat.
kassa, kissa.
kesap, kesanap.
Acc.
kap.
ke.
Ins.
kena.
kehi, kebhi.
Abl.
kasma, kamha.
kehi, kebhi.
Loc.
kasmip, kamhi,
kismip, kimhi.
kesu
Feminine, lea, who ? what ?
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
ka.
ka, kayo.
Gen.
kaya, kassa.
kasap, kasanap.
Dat.
kaya, kassa.
kasap, kasanap.
Acc.
kap.
ka, kayo.
Ins.
kaya.
kahi, kabhi.
Abl.
kaya.
kahi, kabhi.
Loc.
kaya, kassa,
kayap, kassap.
kasu.
Neuter, kip, what ?
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
kip.
kani.
Gen.
kissa, kassa.
kesap, kesanap.
Dat.
kissa, kassa.
kesap, kesanap.
Acc.
kip.
kani.
Ins.
kena.
kehi, kebhi.
Abl.
kasma, kamha.
kehi, kebhi.
Loc.
kasmip, kamhi,
kismip, kimhi.
kesu.
50
Remarks.
(a) The base of ko assumes several forms: ka, ku (kud), ki (kid).
(b) kud and kid are used before vowels and in composition.
§319. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
§320. The Indefinite Pronouns are formed by adding ci (cid), api and cana, to the
Interrogative Pronouns.
§321. ci, or, before a vowel cid is the suffix most commmonly used to form these pronouns.
§322. canap = cana, is also found; both are sometimes shortened to ca.
DECLENSION OF KOCI, KACI AND KI„CI.
§323. Masculine koci, any, some, anyone.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
koci.
keci.
Gen.
kassaci.
kesanci.
Dat.
kassaci.
kesanci.
Acc.
kanci, kind.
keci.
Ins.
kenaci.
kehici.
Abl.
kasmaci.
kehici.
Loc.
kasminci, kamhici,
kisminci, kimhici.
kesuci.
Feminine kaci, any, some, anyone.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
kaci.
kaci, kayoci
Gen.
kayaci, kassaci.
kasanci.
Dat.
kayaci, kassaci.
kasanci.
Acc.
kanci.
kaci, kayoci
Ins.
kayaci.
kahici.
Abl.
kayaci.
kahici.
Loc.
kayaci, kayanci.
kassanci.
kasuci.
§ 325 .
Neuter, kind, any, some, anything.
The Neuter is declined like the Masculine, except:
Singular. Plural,
kind kanici.
Nom. & Acc.
§326. By placing na, not, before the Indefinite Pronouns we get the meanings: none, no
one, nothing, etc.
§327. ci, cana may also be placed after adverbs, to give them an indefinite sense, as:
kuhip, where? kuhinci, kuhincanap, anywhere,
kuda, when? kudacanap, ever, sometimes,
kada, when? kadaci, sometimes.
OTHER PRONOUNS.
§328. atta, self, own, oneself (154), is very much used as a Reflexive Pronoun; so also are:
atuma, self, own, etc., which is but another form of atta, and very rarely used in Buddhist
writings: tuma, having the same meaning, is still less frequent.
§329. In composition the bases are: atto, atuma and tuma.
§330. sayap. oneself, by oneself and samap self, both indeclinable, are often used as
Reflexive Emphatic Pronouns.
§331. atta, atuma and tuma are properly nouns used pronominally.
§332. A few other nouns are thus used pronominally; the following are the most usual.
§333. bhavap, lord, sir, (166). It is a very respectful term of address, used for the Second
Pers. Pronoun; the verb is put in the Third Person.
§334. Ayya, lord, master; a Buddhist monk; it is used chiefly in addressing Buddhist monks,
and is then often used with bhante (166).
§335. avuso, friend, brother; is also used as a pronoun sometimes. It is used mostly by
senior monks to junior monks, avuso is indeclinable.
PRONOMINAL DERIVATIVES
Possessive Pronouns.
§336. A few Possessive Pronouns are formed from the bases of the first and second
Personal Pronouns by means of suffixes: Tya and aka, the vowel of the bases being
sometimes lengthened before aka.
Base. Possessive Pronoun,
mad (289, a) madlya, mine, my, my own.
mam (289, a) mamaka, mamaka, mine, my, my own.
amhad (289, d) amhadiya, ours, our own.
-.51
tad (290, a) tadiya, thine, thy, thy own,
tava (Gen.) tavaka, thine, thy, thy own.
Remarks.
(a) amaka, mamaka, as well as tavaka, may be derived from the singular genitive form by
the addition of ka.
(b) The above Pronouns are declined like deva, kanha and rupag.
§337. A great number of adjectives and adverbs are derived from pronominal bases by
means of suffixes, the principal of which are the following:
(a) di (dl), disa, disaka, risa, tara, tama, ka.
(b) da, dani, tra, tha, tha, thag, ti, to, va(vat), rahi, hag, ha, hig, va, vag, di.
The former (a) are used to form adjectives, and the latter, (b), adverbs.
The following are the principal derivatives by means of the above suffixes.
§338. ADJECTIVES.
§339. di (di), disa, disaka and risa, express likeness, resemblance; the vowel of the stem
being lengthened before them.
Examples.
Pronominal base,
ma (289, a)
ta (290, a)
amha (289, d)
tumha (290, b)
i (307, a)
e (304)
eta (298, 302)
ki (318,a,b)
Adjective.
rnadT, madisa, marisa, like me, such as I.
tadi, tadisa, tadisaka, like him, like that, such,
amhadisa, like us.
tumhadisa, like you.
Idl, Tdisa, Trisa, Tdisako, like this, such as this,
edl, edisa, erisa, like this, such as this,
etadisa, etarisa, such as this or that, such,
kidl, k!disa,klrisa, like what? of what kind?
§340. The suffix dikkha, has the same meaning as disa, etc. It is obtained by assimilation
from the Sanskrit drksa
Hence we have also the forms:
tadikkha = tadisa.
kldikkha = kTdisa,
edikkha = edisa,
Tdikkha = Tdisa. etc,
§341. In edi, edisa, etc., the stem i is strengthened (105), in idisa, etc., it is merely
lengthened (19).
§342. Tara and tama, which are used for the comparison of adjectives (238), are also added
to the interogative stem to form Pronominal Adjectives which, in meaning, differ but little
from the single stem. Hence we have:
katara, which ? what ?
katama, which ? what ?
§343. Some adjectives assume a rather anomalous form; such are, for instance: kittaka,
tattaka, yattaka, ettaka, etc. A glance will suffice to show that they are formed on
pronominal bases: ya, eta, ki, (ka), etc. The difficulty is to account (for most of them) for
the double tt. It is obvious these adjectives were formed by adding the adjectival suffix ka
to the Adverbial Instrumentive in ta (from vat, vant: c£, Sk. tavata from tavat; yavata from
yavat). The Pali forms are simply contractions from the Sanskrit forms; as: tavata + ka =
tavataka: the loss of medial va being compensated by the doubling of the last ta; the a
being shortened before ka, and the a of the first ta as well, according to euphonic laws. So
that:
kittaka, how much ? How many ? How great?
kittaka, = kTvataka.
ettako, so great, so much, so many,
ettako, = etavataka.
yattaka, however much; however big or large,
yattaka, = yavataka.
tattaka, as many, as great, as big or large,
tattaka, = tavataka.
But see also such Sk. forms as: iyattaka (i-yad-ta-ka); kiyattaka (ki-yad-ta-ka).
The form etta = ettaka, may be accounted for by the further dropping of final ka, the
adverb etto, thence, is probably a contracted form etato (Abl. of etag); in ettavata, = etavat,
the consonant of the base is doubled.
§344. (b) Adverbial Derivatives.
Adverbial derivatives from pronominal bases constitute a large and useful class of words.
The principal suffixes used to form these adverbs have been given above (337, b). We will
give here a few examples of such formation.
§345. da, dani, rahi express time.
Pronominal base,
ka (318, a)
i (307, a)
ta (290, a)
eta (298), 302)
Examples.
Adverb.
karahi, kada, when.
idani, now; at this time.
tarahi, tada, tadani, then; at that time.
etarahi. now.
52
§346. to, tra, tha, dha, ha, hap, hip, form adverbs of place. Before a short vowel the t of tha
is doubled.
Examples.
Pronominal base.
Adverb.
ka, ku (318, a)
kattha, kutra, kuttha, kahap, kuhap, kuhip,
where? whither? wherein? in what place?
ya (314, d)
yatra, yattha, where, wherein, whither.
ya
yato, from what.
e(304.)
ettha, here, herein.
a (307, a)
atra, attha, here.
ta (290, a)
tattha, tatra, tahap, tahip, there, thither.
Pronominal base.
Adverb.
ta
tato, thence, from that place.
i (307, a)
iha, idha, here in this place.
i
ito, hence, from this place.
eta (298, 302)
etto, through etato (343), hence.
§347. tha, va, vap, thap, ti, form adverbs of manner.
Examples.
Pronominal base.
Adverb.
ta
tatha, thus, so, like that.
ka
kathap, how?
i
itthap, thus, in this manner.
i
iva, like this, as, as it were.
i
iti, thus, in this manner.
e
eva, evap, so, just so.
ya
yatha, as, like.
§348. Another suffix va, from vat, ( = Sk. vat), forms adverbs of time and cause from the
Pronominal bases ta, ya, ki. The final t of vat is dropped according to the phonetic laws
obtaining, in Pali, which do not suffer any consonant to remain at the end of a word,
except p; before a vowel however, the final t is revived in the form of a d; as for instance:
tava; but; tavad eva.
Pronominal base.
Adverb.
ya
yava, until; as long as; in order that.
ta
tava, so long, still, yet.
Remarks.
Final a of the base is lengthened before va (vat), which, as we have seen already, (219),
forms adjectives from nouns.
The Abl. sing, suffix ta, is also added to such forms as the above.
Examples.
yavata, as far as, because.
tavata, so far, to that extent, on that account.
From other pronominal bases we have:
Pronominal base. Adverb.
eta (298) ettavata, to that extent, so far, thus,
ki (318, a) kittavata, to what extent? how far ?
§349. It has been seen that by adding ka to these forms we obtain adjectives of cognate
meaning.
§350. The suffix di, expressing condition, is found only in yadi, if.
§351. The suffix ti, is found in: kati, how many? yati, as many, and tati, so many.
ADJECTIVES DECLINED PRONOMINALLY.
§353. A few adjectives take the pronominal declension. They are:
katara, which ? what ?
anna, other,
para, distant, other,
uttara, upper, higher,
adhara, lower, inferior
amulca, so and so, such. (310, c)
pubba, first, former.
ubhaya, both.
annatara, one of several, a certain,
apara, subsequent, other,
dakkhina, right, (not left),
vissa, all.
asuka, so and so, such.
CHAPTER X.
VERBS.
§354. Conjugation, or the inflection of verbs, consists in making the verbal root undergo
certain changes in form, by the addition to it of certain prefixes and terminations to show
the difference of Voice, of Tense, of Mode, of Person, and of Number.
§355. There are two voices:
(1) The Active, called in Pali: parassapada (lit. a word for another) and
(2) The Reflective in Pali called attanopada (lit. a word for one's self).
53
§356. The Active Voice, or parassapada may be said to be used, when the fruit or
consequence of the action; expressed by the verb passes on to another person or thing
other than the subject or agent; the Reflective Voice or attanopada, is used when the fruit
or the consequence expressed by the verb accrues to no one else but to the the agent. The
Reflective voice merely implies that the agent has the ability to do that action or suffer
that state which is denoted by the Root.
§357. It must here be remarked that the Reflective Voice has lost very much of its
importance, and that the distinction between Active and Reflective has been almost if not
altogether effaced, and that the choice between the Active or Reflective is mostly
determined now by metrical exigencies. It therefore follows the Reflective Voice or the
"Middle Voice," as it is also called, is confined to poetry, and is but rarely found in prose.
§358. There are six Tenses:
(1) The Present; and its preterite.
(2) The Imperfect; used originally to express a definite past.
(3) The Aorist, expressing time recently past. This is now the only true past tense
in Pali, and is very extensively used.
(4) The Perfect, originally an indefinite past. This tense is of very rare occurrence.
(5) The Future, expressing future time in general and its preterite.
(6) The Conditional, expressing future time relatively to something that is past,
and an action unable to be performed on account of some difficulty in the way of
its execution.
§359 There are three Modes of the Present Tense:
(1) The Indicative.
( 2 ) The Imperative.
(3) The Optative.
§360. The Present, the Perfect and the Future Tenses, have each a Participle, called after
them:
(1) The Present Participle.
( 2 ) The Perfect Participle.
(3) The Future Participle.
Remarks.
The Perfect Participle, mostly formed from the root, is principally of past and passive
meaning; sometimes also of Neuter meaning.
§361. There is also a Participle of Necessity, also called Future Passive Participle and
Potential Participle, which is but a Verbal Adjective.
§362. According to the Base on which they are formed the Present and the Future
Participles may be active or Passive in sense.
§363. There are two Verbal Nouns:
(1) The Infinitive, in the Accusative Case-form; sometimes (rarely), in the Dative
Case-form; which has nothing to do with the Conjugation and the Tense Systems;
and has the sense of a regular infinitive.
( 2 ) A Gerund so-called, which is but the Case-form of a derivative noun having the
force of an absolute participle.
§364. There are two Numbers: the Singular and the Plural.
§365. There are three Persons: the First, Second and Third Persons.
§366. From what has been said above, it will be seen that the tenses group themselves into
four well defined classes or systems.
(1) The Present System, composed of:
(a) The Present Indicative, and its preterite.
(b) The Imperfect.
(c) The Present Imperative.
(d) The Present Optative.
(e) The Present Participle.
( 2 ) The Aorist System, composed of:
(a) The Aorist Tense only.
(3) The Perfect System, comprising:
(a) The Perfect Tense.
(b) The Perfect Participle.
(4) The Future System composed of:
(a) The Future Tense.
(b) The Conditional.
(c) The Future Participle.
§367. There is a division of the tenses, more fictitious than real, into "Special Tenses" and
"General Tenses". From such a division, one would be inclined to think that the former are
formed on a special base or modified form of the root, and the latter, therefore, from the
root itself. But such in fact is not the case, for it will later on be, remarked that the special
and the general tenses not seldom interchange their bases.
§368 As, however the Present System is by far the most important, and as it is made the
basis of the different Conjugations or Classifications of Verbs, we will in the next section
explain the formation of the several stems or bases of the Present System (otherwise called
"Special Tenses") of which there are ten, divided into Seven Conjugations.
These bases are in consequence called "Special Bases."
§369. The Conjugation of Verbs is furthermore divided into Primitive and Derivative
Conjugations.
;• 54
(A) PRIMITIVE VERBS.
Formation of the special bases of the Present System.
Conjugation.
§370. The verbs of the First Conjugation form the Present stem or base in four ways, as
follows:
(l) The roots end in a Consonant, and, to form the base or stem, simply add A.
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
■sj pac, to cook.
paca.
Vlabh, to obtain.
labha.
Vmar, to die. mara.
Vrakkh, to keep, guard.
rakkha.
Vyac, to entreat beg.
yaca.
Vv ad, to tell, say.
vada.
Vtar, to cross.
tara.
VjTv, to live.
jlva.
Vbhar, to carry.
bhara.
§371. To this division belong those roots which, ending in a consonant preceded by i or u,
sometimes do, and sometimes do not strengthen the vowel (i, u).
Examples.
(Without Strengthening.)
Roots.
Bases.
Vtud, to know, destroy.
tuda.
Vphus, to touch.
phusa.
Vlikh, to write.
likha.
Vnud, to remove.
nuda.
(With Strengthening).
Roots.
Bases.
gup, to keep, watch.
gopa.
subh, to shine, be beautiful.
sobha.
(2) The roots of this division do not take the conjugation sign a: the personal
endings of the tenses are added directly to the root.
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
Vya, to go.
Vva, to blow. va
ya
Vtha, to stand.
tha
Vkhya, to tell (with prefix a).
khya
Vbru, to speak.
bru.
Remarks.
(a) To this class may be said to belong the roots ending in i,
T or u, u which, when a is added
to them, do not take their semi-vowel substitute, but are merely gunated (109, 104-107).
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
V nl, to lead.
ne (or naya) (3rd Division).
Vji, to conquer.
je (or java) (3rd Division).
V hu, to be.
ho.
Vku, to sound.
ko (or kava) (3rd Division).
Remarks.
(b) To these transformed roots, which at first sight appear to be pure roots, the personal
endings are added, as after the roots: ya, va, tha, etc., (2nd Division).
(c) So that these roots assume two special bases: one in e or aya, and one in 0 or ava,
according as the last vowel is i, 1 or u, u.
(3) The roots of this division end in i, 1 or u, u which, before the conjugational sign
a, are respectively changed to ay and av (103-110).
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
Vnl, to lead, guide.
( Vm + a = )
naya.
Vji, to conquer.
(Vji + a = )
jaya.
Vbhu, to be.
( Vbhu + a = ) bhava.
Vku, to make a sound.
( Vku + a = )
kava.
Vkhi, to govern.
( \/khi + a = )
khaya.
(See above no. 2 Remarks (a, c).
(4) The verbs of the Fourth division of the First Cojugation form their special
bases by reduplicating the root.
-.55
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
■sj tha, to stand.
tittha.
y/ da, to give.
dada
■sj dha, to hold.
dadha
yj ha, to forsake.
jaha.
\/hu, to sacrifice.
juho.
Remark.
These retain the long a before the personal endings of the present and of the Imperative.
§372. The Rules of Reduplication are as follows:
(1) Reduplication consists in the doubling of the first consonant in a root together
with a vowel that follows it. If the root begins with a vowel, that vowel alone is
reduplicated.
(2) A gutteral is reduplicated by its corresponding palatal.
(3) An unaspirate is always reduplicated by an unaspirate (See chart para 9) which
means that an unaspirate is reduplicated by itself.
(4) The initial h of a root, is reduplicated by j.
(5) An aspirate is reduplicated by its unaspirate.
(6) v is generally reduplicated by u
(7) A long vowel is shortened in the reduplicated syllable. That is:
(a) a or a takes a in reduplication, and sometimes:
(b) i or T takes i.
(c) u or u takes u but sometimes a.
(d) i is occasionally changed to e.
(e) u is changed to 0 , sometimes.
(f) a of the root, following the first consonant, is sometimes lengthened
to a.
Examples.
Simple Roots.
Reduplicated Bases.
Vdha, to hold.
(Rule 372, 5, 7-a)
dadha.
Vda, to give.
(Rule 372, 3, 7-a)
dada.
Vkit, to cure.
(Rule372, 2, 7-b; 88)
cikiccha.
\/gam, to go.
(Rule 372, 2, 7-a)
jagama.
Vkhan, to dig.
(Rule 372, 2, 7-a)
cakhana.
Vhar, to bear.
(Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f)
jahara.
Vhas, to laugh.
(Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f)
jahasa.
Vbudh, to know.
(Rule 372, 3, 7-e)
bubodha.
V sue, to mourn.
(Rule 372, 3, 7-e)
susoca.
Vpac, to cook.
(Rule 372, 3, 7-a)
papaca.
y/ chid, to cut.
(Rule372, 5, 7-d)
cicheda.
babhuva.
Vbhu, to be.
Vvas, to live.
Vvad, to say.
yj ah, to say.
(Rule 372, 5, 7-c)
(Rule 372, 6, 7-f)
(Rule 372, 6, 7-f)
(Rule 372, 1; 22)
uvasa.
uvada.
aha.
Remarks.
The above rules of reduplication apply as well to the perfect tense; but as the perfect is
very seldom used in Pali, the student ought not to assume existence of any form unless it
be actually found in the course of his reading.
§373 The Verbs Of the Second Conjugation form their Special Bases by inserting niggahlta
before the last consonant of the root, and then adding a, as in the 1st conjugation,
niggahlta follows the usual rules of sandhi (39).
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
y/ rudh, to restrain.
rundha.
Vmuc, to free.
munca.
yj chid, to cut.
chinda.
Vlip, to smear.
limpa.
Vbhuj, to eat.
bhunja.
a/ pis, to grind.
pimsa.
§374. The sign of the Third Conjugation is ya, which is added to the root; the rules for the
Assimilation of ya (70 ff), are regularly applied.
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
Vyudh, to fight.
Vyudh + ya (74, vi)
= yujjha.
Vbudh, to know.
Vbudh + ya (74, vi)
= bujjha.
Vpas, to see.
Vpas + ya (76, i)
= passa.
y/ dus, to vex.
Vdus +ya (76, i)
= dussa.
Vga, to sing.
Vga + ya)
= gaya
Vjha, to think.
Vjha + ya)
=jhaya.
Remarks.
The roots of this conjugation ending in long a are sometimes given under the form of e
also; thus:
56
ge = ga, to sing.
ve = va, to weave.
jhe = jha, to think, meditate.
§375. The forms in a (ga, etc.) belong, as we have already seen, to the Third Conjugation,
but those in e belong to the First Conjugation (3rd Division), and form their bases by the
addition of a. Thus:
ge + a = gaya.
ve + a = vaya.
Remarks.
Note well that final e + a = aya with lengthening of the first a.
§376. The Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form the present Stem or Base by the addition
of nu, or na if the root end in a vowel; but unu, or una, if the root end in a consonant.
Remarks.
(a) The u of nu and unu may be strengthened to o.
(b) This u or o may, before a personal ending beginning with a vowel, be changed to va (27,
ii a, b).
Examples.
Roots. Bases.
V su, to hear. suna or suno.
\/ap (with prefix pa = pap) attain papuna or papuno.
(c) The long a of na, una is retained before the personal endings of the Present and of the
Imperative except the 3rd Person Plural. Occasionally, however, it is found shortened.
(d) In a few cases the n is de-lingualized and changed to the dental nasal, viz., n, following
in this the analogy of the Sanskrit.
§377. Verbs of the Fifth Conjugation form their bases by adding na to the root, which as a
rule ends in a vowel.
Remarks.
(a) If the final vowel of the root is long (2), it is shortened before na.
(b) Under the influence of a preceding Sanskrit r or r, this na is sometimes lingualised and
becomes na.
Examples.
Roots.
Vci, to heap, collect.
VkT, to buy, barter. (Sk. krl)
V dhu, to shake.
Vji, to conquer, win.
•J as, to eat.
Vja, to know. jana.
\/yu, to mix, associate.
Bases.
cina.
kina, or kina,
dhuna.
jina.
asna.
yuna.
Remarks.
The long a of na is retained in all the persons of the Present and Imperative, except in the
3rd Plural. The short form in na is also often found.
§378. The Verbs of the Sixth Conjugation form their Special Bases by adding u to the root;
this u generally strengthens to o, which before an ending beginning with a vowel is
changed to va (27).
Examples.
Roots. Bases.
Vkar, to do, make. karo.
Vtan, to stretch, expand. tano.
Vkun, to make a sound. kuno.
y/ van, to beg, ask for. vano.
Remarks.
(a) The conjugation of Vkar is highly irregular and formed on several bases and will be
given in full later on.
(b) The roots belonging to this Conjugation are remarkably few.
§379. The Verbs of the Seventh Conjugation form their Special bases by adding to the root
aya, which by contraction may be replaced by e. The forms in e are more commonly met
than those in aya. (Compare: 1st conjugation 3rd Division).
Remarks.
The following should be carefully noted:
(a) When the radical vowel is u, it is changed to o, provided it be not followed by a
Conjunct Consonant.
(b) Radical a, if followed by a single consonant, is generally lengthened, in some
cases, however, it remains short.
(c) It will be perceived from the above that the verbs of the Seventh Conjugation
have two bases: one in e and one in aya (Compare: 1st Conjugation, 3rd division.)
Examples.
Root.
yj cur, to steal.
Vgup, to guard, shine.
Vpus, to nourish.
Vbandh, to bind.
Vtlr, to finish, accomplish, tire or tTraya.
y/ chadd, to throw away.
Vkath, to say.
Base.
core or coraya.
gope or gopaya.
pose or posaya.
bandhe or bandhaya.
chadde or chaddaya.
kathe or kathaya.
57
§380. A great many roots can form their bases according to two or three or even most
Conjugations, in which case the meaning of each Special Base from the same root, differs,
in most instances, from the original meaning of the root itself. This will be better
understood by several examples. The numbers after the bases refer to the conjugations.
Examples.
Roots.
Bases.
subh
sobha (l), to shine.
V subh + a = sobha
subh
sumbha (2), strike.
V subh + p + a = sumbha
kus
kosa (l), to call, cut.
Vkus + a = kosa.
kus
kussa (3), to embrace.
Vkus + ya, kusya = kussa (76)
tik
teka (l), to go.
Vtik + a = teka.
tik
tikuna (4), to oppress.
V tik + una = tikuna.
rl
re (l), to expand.
VrT + a = re.
rl
rTna, (5), to inform.
VrT + na = rTna.
IT
laya (l) to liquify.
Vll + a = laya
IT
lTna (5), to approach.
V ll + na = lTna
tan
tana (l), to aid, assist.
Vtan + a = tana
tan
tano (6), to expand, stretch
Vtan + u ( = o) = tano.
vaddh
vaddha (l), to grow, increase.
Vvaddh + a = vaddha.
vaddh
vaddhe (7), to pour from one
vessel into another.
Vvaddh + e = vaddhe.
vid
vida (l). to know.
Vvid + a = vida.
vid
vijja (3) to be, have.
Vvid + ya = vidya = vijja.
vid
vind (2), to find, get, enjoy.
Vvid + p + a = vinda.
vid
vede, vedaya (7), to feel, speak.
Vvid + e = vede or vedaya
CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
First Conjugation.
§381. The bases of the verbs having been formed according to the rules given in the
preceding paragraphs, there only remains to add to them the appropriate Personal
Endings. We now give the Personal Endings for the tense of the Present- System, which is
by far the most important, omitting the Present Participle, which will be treated in a
special chapter.
Present Indicative
Pres. Active Voice. Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
mi
ma
e
mhe
2.
si
tha
se
vhe
3.
ti
nti
te
nte, re
Imperfect.
Pres. Active Voice.
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
a,ar)
amha
it)
mhase
2.
0
ttha
se
vhap
3.
a
u
ttha
tthup
Imperative
Pres. Active Voice.
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
mi
ma
e
amase
2.
hi
tha
ssu
vho
3.
tu
ntu
tap
ntap
-.58
Optative.
Pres. Active Voice. Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
eyyami
eyyama
eyyarj
eyyamhe
2.
eyyasi
eyyatha
etho
eyyavho
3.
eyya
eyyurj
etha
erap
Remarks.
(a) In the singular Optative Active Voice, e may be substituted for eyyami, eyyasi and eyya.
(b) The vowel of the base is dropped before a Personal Ending beginning with a vowel.
(c) Before mi and ma of the Present Indicative, the a of the base is lengthened.
(d) In the 2nd person singular Active of the Imperative, hi may be dropped and the base or
stem alone used. Note that before hi the a of the base is lengthened.
§382. As has been said above (370) the First conjugation has four divisions. The roots
ending in a consonant and adding a to form the base, are extremely numerous.
§383. The following is the paradigm of Vpac, to cook.
1 .
2 .
3.
Present Indicative
I cook, We cook, Thou cook, You cook, He cooks, They cook.
Pres. Active Voice.
Sing. Plur.
pacami pacama
pacasi pacatha
pacati pacanti
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur.
pace pacamhe
pacase pacavhe
pacate pacante,
pacare
1 .
2 .
3.
Imperfect.
I cooked, etc.
Pres. Active Voice.
Sing. Plur.
apaca apacamha
apacap
apaco apacattha
apaca apacu
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
apacirj
apacase
apacattha
Plur.
apacamhase
apacamhase
apacavharj
apacatthur)
Imperative
Let me cook, etc.
Pres. Active Voice.
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
pacami
pacama
pace
pacamase
2.
pacahi
paca
pacatha
pacassu
pacavho
3.
pacatu
pacantu
pacatarj
pacantap
Optative.
1 may, should, can, could cook. etc.
Pres. Active Voice.
Pres. Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
paceyyami
paceyyama
paceyyar)
paceyyamhe
pace
2.
paceyyasi
paceyyatha
pacetho
paceyyavho
pace
3.
paceyya
pace
paceyyup
pacetha
pacerarj
Remarks.
(a) The Augment a of the Imperfect may be omitted, so that we also have the forms: paca,
pacarp paco, etc.
(b) The final vowel of the 3rd person singular active may also be long: apaca, apacu.
§384. The above Personal-Endings of the Special Tenses are affixed to the Special Base of
the seven Conjugations, after the model of Vpac.
§385. Roots of the 1st Conjugation in i, I and u, u, require no explanations. The base being
obtained, (371, 3) the above Endings are merely added to it.
Examples.
Vbhu, to be, base; bhava. V nl, to lead, base naya.
Present Active
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
bhavami
bhavama
nayami
nayama
2.
bhavasi
bhavatha
nayasi
nayatha
3.
bhavati
bhavanti
nayati
nayanti
59
Present Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
bhave
bhavamhe
naye
nayamhe
2.
bhavase
bhavavhe
nayase
nayavhe
3.
bhavate
bhavante
nayate
nayante
Imperfect Active
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
abhava
abhavamha
anaya
anayamha
abhavar)
anayarj
2.
abhavo
abhavattha
anayo
anayattha
3.
abhava
abhavu
anaya
anayu
Imperfect Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
abhavii]
abhavamhase
anayig
anayamhase
2.
abhavase
abhavavharj
anayase
anayavhag
3.
abhavattha
abhavatthur)
anayattha
anayatthuij
Imperative Active
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
bhavami
bhavama
nayami
nayama
2.
bhavahi
bhavatha
nayahi
nayatha
bhava
naya
3.
bhavatu
bhavantu
nayatu
nayantu
Imperative Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
bhave
bhavamase
naye
nayamase
2.
bhavassu
bhavavho
nayassu
nayavho
3.
bhavatar)
bhavantar)
nayatar)
nayantag
Optative Active.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
bhaveyyami
bhaveyyama
nayeyyami
nayeyyama
bhave
naye.
2.
bhaveyyasi
bhaveyyatha
nayeyyasi
nayeyyatha.
bhave
naye.
3.
bhaveyya
bhaveyyug
nayeyya
nayeyyug
bhave
naye
Optative Reflective.
1 .
2 .
3.
Sing.
bhaveyyarj
bhavetho
bhavetha
Plur.
bhaveyyamhe
bhaveyyavho
bhaverag
Sing. Plur.
nayeyyam nayeyyamhe
nayetho nayeyyavho
nayetha nayerag
§386. The roots of the first conjugation which take the Personal Endings directly (371, 2)
are not numerous.
§387 It must be here noted that in Pali, all the roots are not conjugated in the Active and
the Reflective voice for all the tenses. Especially so is the case with the roots that take the
personal endings directly. E.g.,
Vya, to go.
Sing. Plur.
Vv a, to blow.
Sing. Plur.
Vbha, to shine.
Sing. Plur.
1 .
yami
yama
vami
vama
bhami
bhama
2.
yasi
yatha
vasi
vatha
bhasi
bhatha
3.
yati
yanti
vati
vanti
bhati
bhanti
Remarks.
Before nti, 3rd. Plural, a of the root is shortened.
§388. In the Optative, a y is inserted before the Personal Endings:
yayeyyami, yapeyya, vayeyya, vaye, etc.
§389. Some roots of this class are gunated (110) generally in the Reflective and 3rd Plural
Pres. Active: Vbru, to speak.
Active.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
brumi
bruma
brave
brumhe
2.
brusi
brutha
bruse
bruvhe
3.
bruti
bravanti
brute
bravante
Remarks.
In the Plural 1st and 2nd Persons Reflective the u is sometimes found shortened.
60
§390. Other roots of this conjugation are:
Vhan, to strike, kill, 3rd singular = hanti. but 3rd plural = hananti. In the Aorist
we have: ahani, hani, etc.
Vi to go, strengthened to e; the weak base ya is also used (cf. 1st Conjugation 3rd
division, such roots as Vnl, strong base ne and weak base naya. Similarly: Vji,
strong base je and weak base jaya.). We therefore obtain:
1 .
emi
ema
2.
esi
etha
3.
eti
enti and yanti.
Vtha, to stand, thati, thasi, etc.
Vpa, to guard, protect, pati, pasi, etc.
Remarks.
(a) Roots of this class may like others belonging to different conjugations, be compounded
with verbal prefixes.
Examples.
Vkhya, to tell + a = akhya + ti = akhyati.
Vtha + ni = nittha + ti = nitthati, to be finished.
Vhan + ni = nihan + ti = nihanti, to strike down.
Vi + upa = upe (21) + ti = upeti, to approach.
(b) the a of Vtha is shortened to a when the root is reduplicated(lst Conjugation, 4th
division).
(c) V tha, in composition with Verbal Prefixes, often assumes the Special base thaha.
Examples.
Vtha + sap = santhati, or santhahati, or santitthati (See Niggahlta
sandhi), to stand.
Vtha + pati = patitthati or patitthahati, to stand fast, firmly.
Vtha + ud = utthati or utthahati, to stand up.
§391. Similarly, Vdha, which at first sight would appear to belong to the 1st Conjugation,
2nd Division, de-aspirates itself into daha, and migrates into the Vpac class (370, 1).
Moreover it is used only with Verbal Prefixes. This root also belongs to the reduplicating-
class (372) and consequently has also the base dadha. A base dhe, of the same root, is
extensively used.
Examples.
V dha to carry bear, hold + ni = nidahati, or nidadhati, or nidheti, to put down, hold aside,
lay aside.
V dha + abhi = abhidahati, or abhidadhati, or abhidheti, to declare, point out.
§392. Some roots belonging to the Reduplicating Class (371, 4th Division), also take the
Personal Endings directly in the Present Tense and the Imperative.*
throughout all this chapter many Pali grammars have been consulted, such as:
Saddaniti, Niruttidlpam, Galonpyan, Akhyatapadamala, etc.
§393. By false analogy, some roots in i, (371, 3rd division), seem to belong to the class of
roots which take the endings directly; but in reality, these roots belong not to the 2nd
division, but to the 3rd division, the endings being added, not after the root, but after the
strengthened base (105), i or T having first been changed to e under the influence of a (21,
i). Those bases are conjugated exactly like V cur, base core, the paradigm of which is given
below. The Reflective Voice of such roots is formed from the base in aya.
Examples.
V m, base ne or naya.
Present
Active
Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
nemi
nema
naye
nayamhe
2.
nesi
netha
nayase
nayavhe
3.
neti
nenti.
nayate
nayante
Imperative.
Active
Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
nemi
nema
naye
nayamase
2.
nehi
netha
nayassu
nayavho
3.
netu
nentu
nayatap
nayantaq
Remark.
The Optative may also be formed on the base in ne as:
Optative.
Active
Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
neyyami
neyyama
neyyap
neyyamhe
2.
neyyasi
neyyatha
netho
neyyavho
3.
neyya
neyyup
nayetha
nayerap
§394. Other roots are:
V si, to lie down, base: se or saya.
Vji, to conquer, base: je or jaya.
Vdi, to set a net, base: de (in oddeti).
:• 61
Remark.
The most important root of the Root-Class is Vas, to be; which is rather defective; it will be
given a special chapter (See Defective Verbs).
REDUPLICATING CLASS.
§395. The verbs of this class are characterised by taking a reduplicating syllable: the rules
have been given above (372). The conjugation presents no difficulty, e.g. Vda, to give.
Present. Active
Sing. Plur.
1. dadami dadama
2. dadasi dadatha
3. dadati dadanti
Imperfect Active.
Sing. Plur.
adada adadamha
adado adadattha
adada adadu
Optative Active.
Sing. Plur.
1. dadeyyami dadeyyama
2. dadeyyasi dadeyyatha
3. dadeyya, dade dadeyyug
Imperative Active.
Sing. Plur.
dadami dadama
dadahi, dada dadatha
dadatu dadantu
§396. Some tenses of this verb are formed directly from the base; they will be given in their
proper place.
Remarks.
(a) Of V da, we also find the bases dajj and de, formed by false analogy: dajjami, dajjasi,
dajjati, dajjama, dajjatha, dajjanti, etc., demi, desi, deti; dema, detha, denti, etc.
(b) There is an anomalous form of the singular present very probably formed on the
analogy of the plural: dammi, dasi, dati.
(c) The Reflective forms do not exist for most of the tenses, only a very few are met with:
the first singular, and first plural: dade, dadamase.
(d) In the root V tha the final a of the base is preserved long only in the first singular and
plural present.
Sing. Plur.
titthami titthama
titthasi titthatha, thatha.
titthati titthanti.
It will be remarked that thatha, 2nd person plural, is formed directly from the root.
§397. The conjugation of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Classes does not present any
difficulty; the Personal endings are added as has already been shown for the First
Conjugation.
Second Conjugation
§398. >/chid, base: chinda (373). to cut.
1 .
2 .
3.
Present Active.
Singular. Plural,
chindami chindama
chindasi chindatha
chindati. chindanti
Present Reflective.
Singular. Plural,
chinde chindamhe
chindase chindavhe
chindate chindante
§399. The other Tenses are formed regularly, as:
chindeyyami, chindeyyasi, chindeyya,
or: chinde; chindeyyama, chindayyatha, chindeyyug.
And so on for the other Tenses.
Remark.
The root Vrudh, to obstruct, has five bases: rundhati, rundhiti; rundhlti, rundheti and
rundhoti
Third Conjugation.
§400. \/div, base: dibba (77), to play.
Present Active.
Singular. Plural.
1. dibbami dibbama
2. dibbasi dibbatha
3. dibbati dibbanti
Present Reflective.
Singular. Plural,
dibbe dibbamhe
dibbase dibbavhe
dibbate dibbante
The other Tenses are formed regularly, as: Imperfect adibba, adibbo, adibba, adibbamha,
adibbattha, adibbu.
Optative: dibbe, dibbeyya, dibbeyyami, dibbeyyasi, etc.
Fourth Conjugation.
§401. Vsu, base: suna (376), or suno, to hear. [NB: this table does not conform to the same
pattern as those above — E.M.]
Present Active, [l. base suna] Present Active. [2. base suno]
1 .
2 .
3.
Sing.
sunami
sunasi
sunati
Plur.
sunama
sunatha
sunanti
Sing.
sunomi
sunosi
sunoti
Remarks.
Plur.
sunoma
sunotha
sunonti, sunvanti
(a) The other Tenses are formed on the base: suna final a being dropped before initial i and
e, as: suneyyami, suneyyasi etc, sunissami, sunissama, sunissasi, etc.
62
(b) V sak, to be able, belongs to this conjugation, but has developed several bases:
sakkunati with the k doubled;
sakkoti, by assimilation (cf. §57) sak + no = sakno, sakko + ti = sakkoti.
Similarly, there is a form sakkati obtained by the same process:
sak + na = sakna, sakka + ti = sakkati; and still another form occurs, with short a:
sakkati
(c) Vap, to attain, with prefix pa (pa + ap = pap), shows 3 forms: pappoti, papunati,
papunoti. Vgah, to take, seize has for [its] base: ganha with metathesis (ill, p.35):
ganhami, ganhasi, etc.
(d) We have already said that the n is very often de-lingualised (cf. §376, d). That is to say,
many of the roots belonging to the 4th Conjugation form their bases according to the 9th
Conjugation of Sk. verbs, by adding na to the root. For instance from V ci, to collect, to
heap, we have: cinati, to gather; ocinati, ocinati, to pick up, to gather.
Remark that the base may be with short a as well as with long a and that this is the case
with many of the roots of this conjugation, cf. sancinati, sancinoti, sancinati, to
accumulate.
(e) From Vbhu we have a verb abhisambhunati and abhisambhunoti, to obtain. The root of
this verb is said by some grammarians to be Sk. VbhrT, but this is most improbable. Some
native grammarians give a root sambhu, found only in the Dhammapada, not perceiving it
is merely a compound of prefix sam + Vbhu.
Fifth Conjugution.
§402. Vdhu to shake; base dhuna, (377).
Active.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
dhunami
dhunama
dhune
dhunamhe
dhunasi
dhunatha
dhunase
dhunavhe
dhunati
dhunanti
dhunate
dhunante, dhunare.
Remark.
(a) Other Verbs belonging to this class are:
Vjna, ja, na, to know, base: jana.
Vas, to eat, base : asna.
V mun = V man, to think, base: muna.
(b) The student will have remarked that the 4th and 5th Conjugations very often
interchange their bases. This is owing to the false analogy of Sk. roots.
Sixth Conjugation.
§403 Vkar, to make, to do, base karo (378).
Present.
Sing.
plur.
1 .
karomi
karoma
2.
karosi
karotha
3.
karoti
karonti
Remarks.
(a) There are several bases of the root Vkar as: karo, kara, kubb; the conjugation of this
verb, as already said (378, a) will be given in full in the chapter on Defective Verbs.
Vtan, to stretch, base: tano (strong); weak base = tanu.
Present Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing.
1. tanomi tanoma tanve*
2. tanosi tanotha tanuse
3. tanoti tanonti tanute
*cf. §27 [re: the permutation of the vowel into the semi-vowel
(b) The roots belonging to this Class are very few.
Plur.
tanumhe
tanuvhe.
tanvante*
"v"]
§7th Conjugation.
§404. The roots of the 7th Conugation, as has been remarked above (379), have two bases:
one in e and one in aya, which are conjugated exactly like the roots of the 1st Conjugation,
3rd Class, (See 393).
63
Irregular Bases.
Some roots form their Special bases according to none of the above given rules; and they
are in consequence called Irregular. The principal are here given.
V gam, to go
Special base gaccha.
\/yam, to restrain
Special base yaccha.
\/guh, to hide
Special base guhe.
V dha, to hold
Special base daha, dhe (391).
■sj da, to give
Special base dajja.
Vja,jan, to be born
Special basejaya.
Vpa, to drink
Special base piva.
Vdaps, to bite
Special base dasa.
V dhma, to blow
Special base dhama.
Vvyadh, ( = vadh)
Special base vadha.
V sad, to sit
Special base slda.
Vtha, to stand
Special base tittha.
Vis, to wish
Special base iccha.
Vv ad, to speak, say
Special base vajja, vajje, vada, vade.
Vmar, to die
Special base miya, miyya, mara.
Vgah to take, seize
Special base gheppa*
Vgam, to go
Special base ghamma, gaggha.*
Vjir, to gow old, decay
Special base jiya, jiyya.
Vdis, das to see
Special base dakkha, daccha*
*These forms are given by the Saddanlti and the Akhyatapadamala. They are regularly
conjugated like gaccha: ghammami, ghammasi ghammati;, etc,, ghagghami ghagghasi
ghagghati; etc. ghammeyya, gagghe, gaggheyya, etc. The bases dakkha and daccha from
Vda, Vdis are formed on the false analogy of the future base, which we shall see when
treating of the future. Most of the changes noticed above correspond to similar changes
which occur in the 1st, 4th and 6th Conjugations of Sanskrit verbs.
The Aorist
§405. The Aorist is the only true past tense in Pali. The Personal Endings of the Imperfect
and those of the Aorist have become hopelessly mixed up and the native grammarians are
at a loss to differentiate between the Imperfect and the Aorist; but the Aorist has generally
superseded the Imperfect. There are many anomalies which the student cannot possibly
understand without a slight knowedge of Sanskrit grammar; he need not however, be
detained by these considerations just now. The usual Endings of the Imperfect have
already been given (381); much will be achieved if he, for the present, devotes his attention
to the following paragraphs.
§406. The Aorist is supposed to be formed from the root but as a matter of fact, it is formed
indifferently either from the root or from the base.
§407. The desinences (endings) of the Aorist are:
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing.
1. ap, p, ip, a, a. imha, imha. a.
2. i, o, a. ttha. se.
3. a, i, T. up,ipsu, u a, a
Plur.
imhe.
vhap.
tthurj, atthup.
Remark.
(a) The student will remark, on comparing the above Endings with those of the Imperfect,
that it is difficult to make out the Imperfect from the Aorist (the blending of Imperfect and
Aorist is well known to students of Comparative Philology); the only criterion is, that the
Imperfect is generally formed on the Special Base, and the Aorist, on the root. But even
this is not an absolute criterion, and the fact remains that these two tenses can scarcely be
differentiated.
(b) Of the above Endings, however, the most commonly used and most distinctively
Aoristic are:*
Sing. Plur.
1. ip imha, imha.
2. i ittha.
3. i ipsu, (isup).
*[cf. Mason, 1868, ch. 7, where the list of endings for the Aorist (following Kaccayana) has
only a few in common with this chart provided by Duroiselle. The notion of what is
"commonly used" depends largely on the corpus of texts taken to be definitive, and
Duroiselle seems to have work empirically from a broader range of texts than other
authors in establishing these norms — E.M.]
(c) The nasal of ap is often omitted, and a alone remains.
(d) The Aorist of the great majority of verbs is formed with the desinences given in (b).
64
§408. The Aorist may be divided into three types:
(i) Radical Aorist.
(ii) Stem or Base Aorist.
(iii) Sigmatic Aorist.
Remarks.
(a) As its name indicates, the Radical Aorist is formed directly from the root.
(b) The Stem Aorist is formed on the Special Base.
(c) The Sigmatic Aorist is distinguished by an s that comes between the root and the
personal endings given in (§407, b).
(i) The Radical aorist.
§409. This Aorist is not very common. We will give a few examples. Let it be first
remarked that the Aorist may also take the augment a before it, as does the imperfect.
§410. from \/gam, and Vga and Vgu (subsidiary forms of Vgam,) to go, we have:
(a) Sing.
Plur.
1 .
agag, agama, agamig
agumha
2.
aga, agama
aguttha
3.
aga, agami
agug, agamig su.
(b) Vas, to be(With augment a)
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
asig
asimha.
2.
asi
asittha.
3.
asi
asug, asigsu.
§411. Vtha.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
atthag
atthamha.
2.
attho
atthattha
3.
attha
atthag su, atthug.
Remark.
For the doubling of initial th see §33.
§412. From V kar we find: akarj (1st singular), no doubt formed on the analogy of: aka (1st,
2nd and 3rd singular); aka being itself from the Vedic form: akar, the loss of the r is
compensated by the lengthening of the final a.
In the 1st singular we also have: akarag, akarig.
In the plural: 2. akattha; 3. akarug, akaru, akarigsu.
§413. Vhu (a form of Vbhu) to be.
3rd singular: ahu, ahu, and before a vowel, ahud.
1st plural: ahumha; 3rd plural: ahug.
§414. Vda.
1st singular: ada, which is also 2nd and 3rd singular.
In the plural we find: 3rd adurj, adagsu, adasug.
§415. The augment a is not inseparable from the Aorist, so that we meet with such forms
as: ga = aga, etc.
(ii) Stem Aorist.
§416. As has already been said, this aorist is formed on the stem or base, not on the root.
The augment may or may not be retained.
V pa, base: piva, to drink.
Sing.
1. pivig
2. pivi
3. pivi
For the Reflective;
Sing. Plur.
1. pive pivimhe
2. pivise pivivhag
3. piva, piva pivu, pivug, pivigsu, pivisug.
§417. The great bulk of Primitive Verbs (369) form their Aorist according to the above
(piva); it is therefore extremely common, both with and without the augment; let it be
stated once for all that this augment is of much more frequent occurence in prose than in
poetry; in the latter its retention or rejection is
regulated by metrical exigencies. We will
now give a few more examples:
Vbhuj, to eat base: bhunja
Vgam, to go, base gaccha
Sing. Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1. bhunjig bhunijimha
gacchig
gacchimha,
bhunjimha
gacchimha.
2. bhunji bhunjittha
gacchi
gacchittha
3. bhunji bhunjimsu
gacchi
gacchig su
ganchi
Plur.
pivimha
pivittha
pivigsu
65
(iii) Sigmatic Aorist
§418. Sigmatic Aorist is formed by inserting s between the radical vowel or the vowel of the
base and the personal endings given above (407, b).
§419. So that we obtain the following desinences:
Sing. Plur.
1. sip ( = s + irj). simha ( = s + imha).
2. si ( = s + i). sittha ( = s + ittha).
3. si( = s + i). sug( = s + ug).
§420. As will be readily understood, this formation of the Aorist is used with roots ending
in vowels, and the s is inserted to join the endings to the root or to the base. It will be seen
lower down, however, that they are added also to some roots ending in a consonant when
the s becomes assimilated to that consonant.
§421. The sigmatic desinences are used mostly with the Derivative Verbs, principally the
Causative Verbs (See: Derivative Conjugation [§478]), which end in the vowel e. The verbs
of the 7th Conjugation, which also end in e, form their Aorist in the same way.
Examples.
(Causative Verbs).
§422. Vha, to abandon, Causative base: hape. Vtas, to tremble, Causative base: tase.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. hapesig hapesimha tasesig tasesimha
2. hapesi hapesittha tasesi tasesittha
3. hapesi hapesug tasesi tasesug
Remarks.
In the 3rd plural the form in igsu is also frequent: hapesigsu. tasesigsu.
(Verbs of the 7th conjugation).
§423. Vcur, to steal, base: core.
Sing.
1. coresig
2. coresi
3. coresi
coresigsu
Vkath, to tell, base: kathe.
Plur. Sing,
coresimha kathesig
coresittha kathesi
coresug kathesi
kathesigsu
Plur.
kathesimha
kathesittha
kathesug
Remarks.
(a) To the base in aya endings given in (407, b) may be added directly without the Insertion
of sigmatic s, so that we have also:
Sing. Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1. corayig
corayimha
kathayig
kathayimha
2. corayi
corayittha
kathayi
kathayittha
3. corayi
corayug
kathayi
kathayug
corayig su
kathayig su
(b) This holds good for the Causative Verbs which have also a base in aya.
§424. The Sigmatic Aorist desinences are placed after some roots which do not belong to
the 7th conjugation or to the derivative verbs:
(i) After roots ending in a vowel, with or without the augment a. [For example:]
V da, to give: adasig, adasi, adasimha, etc.
Vtha, to stand: atthasig, atthasimha, etc.
Vha, to abandon: ahasig, ahasi, ahasimha, etc.
Vsu, to hear, assosig, assosi, assosimha, etc.
Vya, to go: yasim, yasi, yasimha, etc.
(ii) After some roots ending in a Consonant, in which case the usual rules of
assimilation (85) are strictly applied.
Remark.
From an illusory Vka ( = Vkar, to do), we find: akasig, akasi, akasimha, etc.
From Vna, to know: annasig, annasi, annasimha, etc.
§425. At a first reading, the student had perhaps better leave unnoticed the few references,
to Sanskrit Grammar which will be found in the next few paragrahs. Fet him merely
assume the forms as they are given: the more advanced student ought, of course, to read
them with attention.
§426. The s (initial) of Sigmatic desinences, as above given (419), assimilates itself to the
last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation:
(a) From Vdis = Sanskrit . Vdrs, we find addakki = Sanskrit adrak-s-is.
The following forms are also found: addakkhl, adakkhi, dakkhi.
(b) From v sak, to be able = Sankrit V sak, we have sakkhi, asakkhi, Sanskrit = sak-
s-is.
(c) Vkus, to revile = Sanskrit Vkrus, gives akkocchi, but akkosi, without the
sigmatic s, is also met with.
(d) Vbhanj, to break, gives Aorist bhajiki.
66
Remark.
The above examples will, I think, be sufficient to make the student understand the nature
of the changes which occur in the formation of the Sigmatic Aorist when the roots end in a
consonant; this consonant is generally s ( = Sanskrit s) and sometimes j. In Sanskrit, final s
( = Pali s) is regularly changed to k before the initial s of verbal endings thus giving the
group ksa, which in Pali becomes kkha. Again, by another rule of Sanskrit phonetics, final j
becomes g, and as no word can end in a mute sonant, this g is changed to its corresponding
surd, that is to k.
This class of the Sigmatic Aorist, however, is not numerous.
SYSTEM OF THE PERFECT.
§427. As has been seen, the perfect system consists of the Perfect tense and the Perfect
Participle. The participle will be treated of in the chapter on Participles.
§428.The Perfect is characterised by the reduplication of the root. The rules have already
been given (372) and should now be read over carefully.
§429. The endings are:
Active.
Sing.
Plur.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
a
mha
i
mhe
2.
e
ttha
ttho
vho
3.
a
u
ttha
re
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in a consonant insert an before the above endings beginning with a
consonant.
(b) The Perfect is of very rare occurence.
§430. [The paradigms Vpac and Vbhu are declined in the perfect as follows:]
V pac, Perfect base: papac. Vbhu, Perfect base: babhuv.
Active.
Active
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
papaca
papacimha
babhuva
babhuvimha
2.
papace
papacittha
babhuve
babhuvittha
3.
papaca
papacu
babhuva
babhuvu
Reflective.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
papaci
papacimhe.
babhuvi
babhuvimhe
2.
papacittho
papacivho.
babhuvittho
babhuvivhe
3.
papacittha
papacire
babhuvittha
babhuvire
THE FUTURE SYSTEM.
§431. This system includes the Future, the Conditional and the Future Participle. The
Participle will be considered in a special chapter.
§432. The Future System has for special characteristic the sign: ssa inserted between the
root and the personal endings.
Remarks.
(a) The Future System is frequently formed on the Present base.
(b) The vowel i is often inserted between the ssa and the root or base; in this case the final
vowel of the root or base is dropped.
(c) When the ssa is added directly to a root ending in a consonant, the same changes which
occur in the Aorist occur also in the Future System, through the assimilation of the initial s
of ssa.
§433. The Personal Endings for the Future are:
Active.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
mi
ma
D
mhe
2.
si
tha
se
vhe
3.
ti
nti
te
nte, re
Remarks.
(a) It will be seen that in the active the endings are the same as those of the present
indicative.(38l)
(b) Before mi, ma and mhe the a of ssa is lengthened.
Examples without connecting vowel i.
§434.
Vi, to go, special base e (390), future base: essa
Active
Reflective
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
essami
essama
essap
essamhe
2.
essasi
essatha
essase
essavhe
3.
essati
essanti
essate
essante
Vm to lead, special base ne
(371, 3) future
base: nessa.
Singular.
Plural.
1 .
nessami
nessama
2.
nessasi
nessatha
3.
nessati
nessanti, etc.
67
1 .
2 .
3.
V tha, to stand.
Singular. Plural,
thassami thassama
thassasi thassatha
thassati thassanti, etc.
Remarks.
In the above, ssa
Again:
1 .
2 .
3.
is added directly to the root; for the shortening of radical a see (§34)
Vda, give.
Singular. Plural,
dassami dassama
dassasi dassatha
dassati dassanti, etc.
1 .
2 .
3.
Examples with the connecting vowel i.
Vbhu, to be, special base: bhava, future base: bhavissa.
Active.
Sing.
bhavissami
bhavissasi
bhavissati
Plur.
bhavisssama.
bhavissatha
bhavissanti
Reflective.
Sing.
bhavissag
bhavissase
bhavissate
Plur.
bhavissamhe
bhavissavhe
bhavisante
Examples with the assimilation of -ssa
Vbhuj to eat. gives bhokkha as future base.
(Sk. Vbhuj = bhok + sya = bhoksya) and we have :
bhokkhati. bhokkhate, bhokkhag, etc.
V chid, to cut, gives: checcha (Sk. V chid = chet + sya = cetsya) then:
checchami, checchasi, checchati etc.
Vdis, to see, gives a future: dakkha; ( = Sans. Vdrs = drak + sya = draksya) from this we find
dakkhati, but more frequently dakkhiti. Similarly from the root V sak to be able,
is obtained sakkhiti.
§435. A double future is also found formed from bases like bhokkha, dakka, which, as has
been just now explained are already future, by adding to them ssa with the connection
vowel -i
Examples.
Vsak, future base: sakkha, sakkhissami, sakkhissasi sakkhissati, sakkhissama, etc.
§436. From hoti, the contracted form of bhavati, to be, we find the following numerous
forms for the future:
Singular
1. hemi, hehami, hohami, hessami, hehissami, hohissami, I shall be.
2. hesi. hehisi, hohisi, hessasi, hehissasi, hohissasi, Thou will be.
3. heti, hehiti, hohiti, hessati, hehissati, hohissati, He will be.
Plural.
1. hema, hehama, hohama, hessama, hehissama, hohissama. We shall be.
2. hetha, hehitha, hohitha, hessatha, hehissatha, hohissatha. You will be.
3. henti, hehinti, hohinti, hessanti; hehissanti hohissanti. They will be.
Vkar. to do, gives:
Sing.
1. kahami, I shall do.
2. kahasi, kahisi, thou wilt do.
3. kahati, kahiti, he will do.
Plur.
kahama, we shall do.
kahatha, you will do.
kahanti, kahinti, they will do.
THE CONDITIONAL.
§437. The Conditional takes the augment a before the root.
§438. The personal endings are as follows:
Active.
Sing. Plur.
1. ssa ssamha
2. sse, ssa, ssasi. ssatha
3. ssa, ssa, ssati. ssagsu
Reflexive.
Sing. Plur.
ssag ssamhase
ssase ssavhe
ssatha ssiqsu
Remark.
The above endings are generally joined to the root or the base by means of the connecting
vowel i.
-.68
V pac, to cook:
Active.
Reflective.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1.
apacissag
apacissamha
apacissag
apacissamhase.
2.
apacisse,
apacissa,
apacissi.
apacissatha
apacissase
apacissavhe.
3.
apacissa,
apacissa,
apacissati.
apacissagsu
apacissatha
apacissigsu.
Remarks.
(a) The conditional may be translated by "if I could cook," or " If I should cook," etc.
(b) The conditional is not very frequently used.
THE PARTICIPLES.
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.
§439. All participles are of the nature of verbal adjectives, and must agree with their nouns,
in number, gender and case.
§440. The terminations of the present participle active are: nta, ag or g; nta and g are
added to the base, ag is added to the root.
Examples.
Root.
Base.
Present. Part.
Active Base.
Vpac, to cook,
paca,
pacag, pacanta,
cooking.
Vkar, to do,
kara,
karag, karonta,
doing.
V chid, to cut,
chinda,
chindag, chindanta,
cutting.
Vbhan, to say,
bhana,
bhanag, bhananta,
saying.
Vbhu, to be,
bhava,
bhavag, bhavanta,
being.
V pa, to drink,
piva,
pivag, pivanta,
drinking.
§441. Verbal bases ending in e (l st Conj. 3rd. Division; 7th. Conj. and causal bases. See
"Derivative or secondary conjugation") which have also another base in aya take only the
termination nta after the base in e, and both ota and g after the base in aya.
Root.
V cur, to steal.
\/kath, to tell.
V nl, to lead.
Vji, to conquer.
Examples.
(1st and 7th Conjugations)
Base. Pres. Part. Act. Base,
core, coraya. corenta, corayag, corayanta.
kathe, kathaya. kathenta, kathayag, kathayanta.
ne, naya. nenta, nayag, nayanta.
je,jaya. jenta,jayag,jayanta.
(Causative.)
Root
Causative Base
Present participle active (base)
V dhar to hold
dhare, dharaya.
dharape, dharapaya.
dharenta, dharayag, dharayanta.
dharapenta dharayag, dharapayanta.
Vmar, to die
mare, maraya,
marape, marapaya,
marenta, marayag, marayanta.
marapenta, marapayag, marapayanta.
V chid, to cut
chede, chedaya.
chedape, chedapaya.
chedenta, chedayag, chedayanta.
chedapenta, chedapayag, chedapayanta.
§442. Bases in na, no, una, uno (4th Conj.) and na (5th Conj.) generally take the termination
nta.
Examples.
Root. Base. Pres. Part. Act. Base.
V su, to hear, suna, suno, sunanta, sunonta.
Vkl, to buy, kina, kinanta.
§443. The stem or base of this Present Participle is in at, or ant as:
Pres Part.
Root. Stem. Nom. Sing. Masc.
Vpac, pacat, pacant. pacag, pacanto.
Vcar, carat, carant. carag, caranto.
Vbhan, bhanat, bhanant. bhanag, bhananto.
§444. The Feminine is formed by adding T to the stems or bases in at and nta.
§445. The Neuter is in g like the masculine.
Examples.
Root.
Stem.
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
Vpac
pacat
pacag
pacat!
pacag.
Vchid
pacant
pacanto
pacant!
pacantag
chindat
chindag
chindat!
chindag.
chindant
chindanto
chindant!
chindantag.
69
§446. These participles are declined like maha (226) in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter.
The Present Participle may often be translated by " when ..., while ..."etc.
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE REFLECTIVE.
§447. The Reflective Participle is formed by the addition of mana to the base. It is declined
like purisa, kanna, and rupag.
Examples.
Root.
Reflective Participle.
Masc. Fem.
Neuter.
Vpac
pacamano
pacamana
pacamanag
Vcar
caramano
caramana
caramanag
Vda
dadamano
dadamana
dadamanag
Vsu
sunamano
sunamana
sunamanag
§448. Another Reflective Participle, much less frequent than the above, is formed by
adding ana to the root. It is declined like that in mana.
Examples.
Reflective Participle.
Root.
Masc.
Fem.
Neuter.
V pac
pacano
pacana
pacanag
V car
carano
carana
caranag
Vda
dadano
dadana
dadanag
Remarks.
As may be seen from the last example, dadana, this participle may also be formed from the
base.
The Future Participle.
§449. The future participle is either active or reflective.
(a) In the active, it takes the endings of the present participle active, nta, g (or ag),
and is declined like maha.
(b) In the reflective, the endings are mana and ana, and it is declined like purisa,
kanna and rupag.
(c) All these endings are added to the future base.
Examples.
(i) Future Participle Active.
Root.
Masc.
Fem.
Neuter.
Vpac
pacissag
pacissatl
pacissag
pacissanto
pacissantl
pacissantag
Vcar
carissag
carissatl
carissag
carissanto
carissanti
carissantam
Vsu
sunissag
sunissatl
sunissag
sunissanto
sunissantl
sunissantag.
(ii) Future
Participle Reflective.
Root.
Masc.
Fem.
Neuter.
Vpac
pacissamano
pacissamana
pacissamanag
Vcar
pacissano
pacissana
pacissanag
carissamano
carissamana
carissamanag
Vsu
carissano
carissana
carissanag.
sunissamano
sunissamana
sunissamanag
sunissano
sunissana
sunissanag.
The Passive Perfect participle.
§450. This participle is very widely used. It is formed from the root by affixing to it the
suffix ta or the suffix na.
Remarks.
The suffix ta is by far the most commonly used in the formation of this participle.
§451. ta is affixed in several ways:
(i) If the root ends in a vowel, it is added directly without any change taking place
in the root.
(ii) When the root ends in a consonant, ta may be joined to it by means of
connecting vowel i.
(iii) When the root ends in a consonant, ta may become assimilated to it according
to the usual rules.
70
Remarks.
At this stage the student ought to read carefully the chapter on Asssmilation (§51).
Examples.
§452. (i) Roots ending in a vowel.
Root.
Vnaha, to bathe.
V bu, to be, become.
VnT, to lead.
Vji, to conquer.
Vci, to collect.
V bhl, to be afraid.
Vya, to go undergo.
V na, to know.
Present.
nahayati, he bathes,
bhavati, he is, becomes,
neti, nayati, he leads,
jeti, jayati, he conquers,
cinati, he collects,
bhayati, he is afraid,
yati, he goes,
janati, he knows.
Remarks.
Pass. Perf. Part,
nahata, bathed,
bhuta, been, become,
nlta, led.
jita, conquered,
cita, collected,
bhlta, afraid, frightened,
yata, gone, undergone,
nata, known.
There are a few exceptions to roots in final a.
V pa, to drink, makes pita, drunk.
V tha, to stand, makes thita, stood, standing.
V dha, to hold, becomes hita, held.
V da, to give, dinna, given.
(ii) Roots ending in a consonant and taking vowel i before ta.
Root.
Vpac, to cook.
V cal, to shake.
Vgah, to take.
Vkapp, to arrange.
Vkhad, to eat.
Vlikh, to write.
Vmand, to adorn.
Vgil, to swallow.
Vkath, to tell.
Present.
pacati, he cooks,
calati; he shakes,
ganhati, he takes,
kappeti, he arranges,
khadati, he eats,
likhati, he writes,
mandeti, he adorns,
gilati, he swallows,
katheti, he tells.
Remarks.
Pass. Perf. Part,
pacita, cooked,
calita, shaken,
gahita, taken,
kappita arranged,
khadita, eaten,
likhita, written,
mandita, adorned,
gilita, swallowed,
kathita, told.
(a) Participles like pacita, calita, etc, are declined like purisa, kanna and rupag.
(b) In the Neuter these participles are often used as nouns:
Vhas, to smile, Passive Perfect Participle: hasita, smiled, Neuter: hasitap, a smile.
Vgajj, to thunder, Passive Perfect participle: gajjitta, thundered, Neuter: gajjitaq,
the thunder.
VjTv, to live, Passive Perfect Participle: jlvita, lived, Neuter: jlvitarj, life.
(iii) ta assimilated to the root.
§453. The suffix ta assimilates, or is assimilated to the last consonant of the root:
Root.
P. P. P.
Rules of Assimilation.
Vbhuj, to eat
bhutta, eaten
(59, a)
V muc, to free
mutta, freed
(59, b)
Vis, to wish
ittha, wished
(59, ii-iii)
Vkas, to plough
kattha, ploughed
(92)
V das, to bite
dattha, bitten
(92)
V dam, to tame
danta, tamed
(67)
Vkam, to proceed
kanta, proceeded, gone
(67)
V rudh, to obstruct
ruddha, obstructed
(63)
Vbudh, to know
buddha, known
(63)
Vlabh, to obtain
laddha, obtained
(63, Remark.)
Vmajj, to polish
mattha (also matta), polished
(59, i)
V muh, to err
mulha, erred, also muddha
(100,101,102)
V ruh, to ascend
rulha, ascended
(100,101,102)
Vlih, to lick
lilha, licked
(100,101,102)
Vjhas, to hurt
jhatta, hurt
(94)
V pat, to fall,
patta, fallen
(62)
Vtap, to burn
tatta, burned
(64, i)
V duh, to milk
duddha, milked
(100)
Roots in r generally drop the r before ta.
Examples.
Root.
P. P. P.
Rules of Assimilation.
Vkar, to make
kata made
(81).
V sar, to remember
sata, remembered
(81).
V mar, to die
mata, dead
(81).
§455. (b) Roots in n generally drop final n before ta.
Examples.
V man, to think mata, thought.
Vkhan, or khan, to dig khata,* dug
Vhan, to kill hata, killed.
* (also: khata, from a collateral form kha = khan, dug.)
§456. (c) sometimes final rj is also dropped.
V gam, to go gata, gone.
V ram, to sport rata, amused, delighted.
;• 71
§457. (d) In a few cases, final r lingualizes the following t, as:
Vhar, to seize, carry; hata, seized, carried.
§458. Pass. Perf. Part, which take na.
The suffix na is much less common than ta, and like it:
(i) It may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i, or
(ii) it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel;
(iii) when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that consonant is
assimilated to n of na, and sometimes the n of na is assimilated to the final
consonant.
Remarks.
na is added generally to roots in d and r.
§459. EXAMPLES OF (i) [viz., the suffix na is connected by permuting the root's vowel]
Root Pass P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
Vsad, to settle sinna, settled (69, ii, iii).
Remarks.
The form sinna is found only for the verb nisldati, to sit down = V sad + ni (prefix); when
V sad is preceded by other prefixes, the Passive Perfect Participle assumes the form; sanna,
as:
sad-ava = Passive Perfect Participle: ava sanna, sunk, settled,
sad + pa = Passive Perfect Participle: pasanna, settled.
(Note that the base of root sad is slda.)
Root Pass P. P.
V chid, to cut chinna, cut
V chad, to cover channa, covered
V da, to give dinna, given
Rules of Assimilation.
(69, ii, iii).
(69, ii, iii).
(69 ii, iii).
In this last example, a of the root has been dropped, and the n doubled to compensate for
its loss; the form datta given. ( = da + ta, with the t doubled to make for the shortening of
a), is found sometimes.
Remarks.
It will be seen from the above four examples that the insertion of i is to a great extent
optional.
\/tar, to cross
tinna, crossed
(83)
V car, to wander
cinna, wandered
(83)
Vkir, to scatter
kinna, scattered
(83)
Remarks.
In these examples, i is inserted and then reduplicated and lingualized according to rule
(83).
§460. EXAMPLES OF (ii) [viz., the suffix na is joined directly to the root]
a/ 1T, to cling to,
Vlu, to cut, reap,
Vkhi, to decay, cease,
-s/gila (gla 113), to be ill,
V ha, to be weak, low,
In the last example, radical a is replaced by T.
lma, clung to.
luna, reaped, cut.
khlna, decayed, (final i is lengthened),
gilana, ill.
hlna, low, wasted, inferior.
§461. EXAMPLES OF (iii) [viz., the suffix na added permuting the root's final consonant]
Root Pass P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
Vbhaj, to break bhagga, broken (57)
Vvij, to be agitated vigga, agitated (57)
In these two examples, final j of the root, having become, against the usual phonetic laws
g, the n of suffix na, is assimilated to it by rule 57 (426, Remark).
Vlag, to adhere lagga, adhered (57)
§462. A few Passive Perfect Participles are irregular, such as: jhama, burnt, from Vjha, to
burn; phulla, expanded, split, from V phal, to expand, split; but these are properly speaking
derivative adjectives used as participles.
§463. Sometimes two forms of the Passive Perfect Participles for the same root are met
with:
Vlag, to adhere,
Vgam, to go,
V da, to give,
Vkas, to plough,
P. P. P. lagga and lagita.
P. P. P. gata and gamita.
P. P. P. dinna and datta.
P. P. P. kattha and kasita.
§464. The participles in ta and na are declined like purisa, kanna and rupap.
72
PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.
§465. The Perfect Participle Active, is formed by adding va to the Passive Perfect Participle.
Root.
\/pac, to cook,
Vbhuj, to eat,
Vkar, to do,
Examples.
P. P. P.
pacita, cooked,
bhutta, eaten,
kata, made,
P.P.A.
pacitava, having cooked,
bhuttava, having eaten,
katava, having made.
Remarks.
(a) These Perfect Participles Active are declined like gunava.
Ex. pacitava, pacitavatl or pacitavantl, pacitavap or pacitavantap.
(b) The P. P. Active is also formed with suffix vT (231), in this case the a before vT is
lengthened to a. They are declined like medhavi, (235) (that is, like dandl nadl and vari as:
pacitavl having cooked; bhuttavl, having eaten.
FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
§466. This participle, also called participle of necessity, potential participle and gerundive,
is formed by adding to the root the suffixes: tabba [see §467], ya [see §468], anlya and Tya.
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in u, u, generally form the Future P. P. from the special base.
(b) This participle is passive in sense, expresses suitability, fitness, propriety and may be
translated by "fit to be..." "must be..." "ought to be.. .""to be..." that which is expressed by
the root.
(c) These participles, like those already treated of, are adjectives and are treated as such;
they are declined like purisa, kanna and rupar).
§467. [The suffix -tabba] is the most common. It is added:
(i) Directly to roots ending in a vowel.
(ii) To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of [the] connecting
vowel i.
(iii) When added directly without [the] connecting vowel i to roots ending in a
consonant, initial t of tabba is assimilated to or assimilates the last consonant of
the root in exactly the same manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect
Participle.
EXAMPLES OF (i). [viz., -tabba added directly to the root]
Root. Future P.P.
V ha, to abandon, hatabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be
abandoned.
V da, to give, databba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be given.
V pa, to drink, patabba, fit to be, that ought to be drunk.
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in i, T, change i, T, to e before tabba:
Root. Future P.P.
yj nl, to lead, netabba, fit to be, that must be led.
Vji to conquer, jetabba fit to be, that must be conquered.
yj i, to go, etabba, fit to be, that must be gone to.
(b) Roots in u, u form the Future P. P. on the Special Base:
Root. Future P.P.
Vbhu, to be, bhavitabba, fit to be, that ought to, that must be.
Vku, to sing kavitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be sung
In the case of root su, to hear, we find the u merely strengthened: sotabba, fit, etc., to be
heard.
EXAMPLES OF (ii) [viz., -tabba added to a root by means of the connecting vowel "i"]
Root. Future P.P.
yj pac, to cook, pacitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be
cooked.
Vkhan, to dig, khanitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be dug.
yj pucch, to ask, pucchitabba fit to be, that ought to be, that must be
asked.
EXAMPLES of (iii) [viz., -tabba added with permutation of the consonant]
Root. Future P.P.
yj gam to go, gantabba, fit, etc., to be gone to(67).
Vkar, to do, kattabba, (80); katabba (82), fit to be done, etc.
Vlabh, to receive, laddhabba, fit etc., to be received(63, Remark).
73
§468. [With the addition of the suffix ya, the] initial y becomes assimilated to the last
consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation (79) Sometimes the
radical vowel is strengthened.
Root. Future P.P. Rules of Assimilation
Vgam, to go, gamma, fit, proper, etc, to be gone to. (71, i.)
V sak, to be able, sakka, able to be done. (71.)
Vkhad, to eat, chew, khajj a, that can be chewed. (71, vi)
Vvaj, to avoid, vajja, that ought to be avoided. (71,74)
Vbhu, to be, bhabba, that ought to be, proper, possible. (77.)
In this last example, the radical vowel u has been strengthened before ya: bhu + ya = bhav +
ya = bhavya = bhabba.
Root. Future P.P. Rules of Assimilation
Vlabh, to obtain, labbha, fit worthy to be obtained. (71.)
Vbhuj, toeat, bhojj a, to be eaten, eatables, food. (71.)
Vbhid, to break, bhijja, to be broken. (71, vi.)
Vlih, to lick, sip, leyya, to be licked, sipped. (98, Remark.)
Vhas, to laugh, hassa, fit to be laughed at. (76.)
\/gah, to take, gayha, that can be taken, seized. (78, iii.)
(a) ya is, in a few cases, cases, joined to the root by means of vowel i. For instance:
\/kar, to do, make, we have:
kariya that ought to be, or can be done, with lengthening of radical a.
kayya, that ought, etc., to be done, with assimilation of final r to ya.
kaylra, that ought, etc, with metathesis (iii).
Vbhar, to support:
bhariya, that ought to be maintained, with lengthening of radical a.
(b) After roots ending in a long initial y of ya is doubled and final a of the root is changed
to e.
Root. Future P.P.
Vha, to abandon, heyya, to be abandoned, that ought to be abandoned.
V pa, to drink, peyya that can, may, or ought to be drunk.
V da, to give, deyya, to be given, that ought to or can be given.
(c) ya is likewise doubled after roots in i, T and the i or T is changed to e.
V nl, to lead, neyya, to be led, that ought to be led.
Vji, to conquer, jeyya, to be conquered that can be conquered.
ANIYA.
§469. The suffix amya is added to the root or to the base.
Root. Future P.P.
V pac, to cook pacanlya, fit to be cooked
Vpuj , to honour puj amya, worthy to bo honoured.
Vkar, to do, make karanlya,* that ought to be made or done.
Vbhu, to be (base: bhava) bhavanlya, that ought to be.
* (Observe that the n is lingualised through the influence of radical r, 83).
The Gerund.
§470. The gerund is formed by means of suffixes: tva, tvana, tuna, ya, and tya. It is
indeclinable and partakes of the nature of a participle.
Remarks.
(a) The suffix tva is most commonly met with; tvana, tuna, and sometimes tunap are used
as substitutes of tva and are met with in poetry much more than in prose.
(b) ya is not so restricted in use as tvana and tuna.
(c) tya which becomes regularly cca (74, iv), is merely a form of ya, initial t being inserted
between the gerundian, suffix ya and a root ending in a vowel.
(e.g. pa + Vi, to depart + ya = pa + i + 1 + ya = petya = pecca having departed, §110).
In Pali ya is added indiscriminately to simple roots or to roots compounded with prefixes;
but, as in Sk. (in which it is never used after simple roots), it is much more common after
compound verbs.
[The Gerund Suffixes] Tva, Tvana, Tuna.
§471. The suffix tva may be:
(i) Joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i.
(ii) The initial t of the suffix is, in a few cases assimilated to the last consonant of
the root.
(iii) The vowel of the root is gunated
(iv) Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before suffixes tva, tvana
and tuna
(v) The final long vowel of a root is shortened before these suffixes.
(vi) The suffixes are added to the special base as well as to the root.
74
Root.
Vpac, to cook,
Vkhad, to eat,
Vlabh, to obtain,
\/n T, to lead,
V chid, to cut,
Vkar, to make,
Vtha, to stand, remain,
V bhl, to fear,
V da, to give,
Vbhuj, to eat,
Vap-pa = pap, to get,
Vji, to conquer,
Examples.
Gerund.
pacitva, having cooked (i).
khaditva having eaten (i).
laddha, obtained (ii) (63, Remark),
labhitva, having obtained, (i).
netva, having led (iii).
chetva, having cut (iii, iv)
katva, having made (iv).
thitva, having stood, remained (i).
bhitva, having feared, fearing (v).
datva, having given (v).
bhutva, having eaten (iv).
patva having got. (iv; v).
jitva, jetva, having conquered (iii).
Remarks.
From root Vtha, we have also: thatva.
From Vda, daditva, daditvana.
From Vkar: katuna, kattuna.
From Vkam, to step, to proceed,: nikkamitva, nikkamituna.
From Vsu, to hear; sutva, sotunap, sunitva, sunitvana.
§472.
[The Gerund Suffixes] Ya, Tya.
(i) ya is used mostly with roots compounded with prefixes.
(ii) In a few cases it is used with simple roots.
(iii) tya is regularly changed cca.
(iv) ya is added directly to roots ending in long a.
(v) ya may be added to the Special Base.
(vi) ya is assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
(vii) ya may be joined to the root or to the base by means of i.
V sic, to sprinkle,
Vja, to know,
Vikkh, to see,
V cint, to think,
Vbhuj, to eat,
V da, to give,
Examples.
nisinciya, having besprinkled, (i, vii)
vijaniya, having known, discerned.(i, v, vii)
samekkhiya, having reflected, (i, vii)
cintiya, having thought, (ii, vii).
bhunjiya, having eaten, (v, ii, vii)
adaya, having given, (i, iv).
Vha, to abandon,
V na, to know,
Vgah, to take,
Vgam, to go,
Vvis, to enter,
V sad, to sit down.
V sad, to sit down,
Vkam, to tread,
Vito go,
Vi, to go,
Vhan, to strike,
Vhan, to strike,
Vhan, to strike,
Vi, to go,
Vhar, to take away,
vihaya, having abandoned, (i, iv).
abhinnaaya, having known, (i, iv).
gayha, having taken, (ii, iii).
gamma, having gone, (vi, 71; ii).
pavissa, having entered, (vi, i).
nisajja, having sat. (vi, 71, 74).
nisldiya, having sat. (i, vii, v). (See 459. Remark).
akkamma, having trodden, (vi, 71, 33, 35)
pecca, having gone, departed, = pa + i + tya. (21, i; 74, iv)
abbisamecca, having comprehended,
abhi + sam + a + i + tya. (21, i).
ahacca, having struck, = a + han + tya, final n being
dropped before initial t. (n, dropped before t).
upahacca, having vexed, = upa + han + tya.
(See last remark).
uhacca, having destroyed, = u + han + tya.
(See last remark).
paticca, following upon, from, = pati + i + tya.
ahacca, having reached, attained, = a + har + tya. (81).
This last should not be confounded with gerund, from Vhan, given above.
Remarks.
(a) Sometimes the gerund having been formed by means of ya, the ya is dropped, the root
alone remaining, as in;
abhinna, having known, = abhinnaya.
patisajikha, having pondered, = patisajikhaya.
anupada, not having clung, not clinging, = anupadaya (an + upa + a + Vda + ya).
(b) Some roots seem to take a compound gerundial suffix, made up of ya and tva, and
joined to the root by means of i, as:
aruyhitva ( V ruh), having ascended.
ogayhitva ( Vgah = gah), having dived = ogayha = ogahitva.
(c) There are some anomalous forms:
disva, from V dis to see = having seen,
datthu = disva.
anuvicca, from Vvid, to know = having known, final d being dropped before tya.
pappuyya, from Vap + pa = pap, to obtain = papayitva.
vineyya. from V nl, having removed,
niccheyya, from Vni = having ascertained.
In these last three examples the y has undergone reduplication.
atisitva, from V sar = Sanskrit sr.(?), having approached, having excelled.
pg.75
(d) The student will have remarked that several forms are met with from the same root, as:
V da, datva, daditva, daditvana, daya.
\/kar, kariya, karitva, katva, katvana, katuna, kattuna.
Vgah, gayha, ganhiya, ganhitva.
Most roots can thus have several forms.
The Infinitive.
§473. The Infinitive is generally formed by means of suffix tug.
§474 The suffixes tave, tuye and taye are also met with, but seldom.
§475. Tug, like the suffix of the P.P.P. (450) may be:
(i) joined to the root or to the base by vowel i.
(ii) to the roots in a, it is added directly.
(iii) roots ending in i, T, change final i, I to e; and roots in u, u, change u, u to o.
(iv) Initial t of tug is assimilated to the last consonant of the root; the last
consonant may also be assimilated to t.
(v) tug is also added to the Special Base.
Examples.
Vpac, to cook,
pacitug, to cook.(i)
Vkhad, to eat,
khaditug, to eat.(i)
Vthar, to spread,
tharitug, to spread.(i)
sj da, to give
datug. (ii)
Vtha, to stand,
thatug (ii)
Vya, to go,
yatug. (ii)
Vji, to conquer,
jetug. (iii)
VnT, to lead,
netug. (iii)
V su, to hear,
sotug. (iii)
V labh, to obtain,
laddhug: to obtain, (iv, 63, remark)
Vbhuj, to eat,
bhottug, to eat, (iii, iv, 59a)
V ap, to obtain + pa,
pattug, to obtain, (iv, 64, i)
Vgam, to go,
gantug, to go. (iv; 67).
Vi, to go,
etug, to go. (iii).
V su, to hear,
sunitug, to hear, (v)
Vbudh, to know,
bodhitug, to know, (i, iii)
Vbudh, to know,
bujjhitug, to know, (i, v) .
V si, to lie down
setug, to lie down. (iii).
V si, to lie down,
sayitug, (v).
Vja, to know,
janitug, to know(v).
V chid, to cut,
chinditug, to cut.(v).
V chid, to cut,
chettug, to cut. (iii, iv; 62, vi)
Tave, Tuye, Taye.
§476. These suffixes are Vedic and but seldom used in Pali; tave, however, is more
frequently met with than the other two.
V nl, to lead,
■si ha, to abandon,.
V nam, to bend,
■si dha, to hold,
V mar, to die,
Vgan, to count,
a/ dis, to see,
nitave, to lead.
vippahatave, to abandon, = vi + pa + ha + tave.
unnametave, to ascend, rise, = ud + nam + e + tave.
nidhetave, to hide, bury, = ni + base dhe (391) + tave.
marituye, to die, Joined by vowel i.
ganetuye, to count. Added to the base gane.
dakkhitaye, to see (cf. §404).
§477. The student will have remarked that several forms for the same root are often met
with.
Remarks.
(a) The Infinitive is used both passsively and actively.
(b) The Dative of nouns in aya is often used with an infinitive sense.
(c) The Infinitive expresses purpose and may be translated by: "for the purpose of, in order
to."
(B) Derivative or secondary Conjugation.
§478. The Derivative Conjugation includes:
(l) the Passive; (2) the Causative;
(3) the Denominative; (4) the Desiderative and,
(5) the Intensive.
§479. It is called the derivative conjugation because the above named five kinds of verbs
are derived from the simple root with a well-defined modification of the sense of the root
itself.
§480. Except for the Causative, Derivative verbs are not conjugated in all the tenses and in
all voices.
(i) THE PASSIVE.
§481. The Passive Conjugation is formed by adding the suffix ya to the root.
§482. The suffix ya having been added and the Passive Base obtained, the Personal Endings
of either the Active Voice or of the Reflective Voice are added to the base.
76
§483. Ya is affixed to the root in three ways:
(i) Directly after roots ending in a vowel.
(ii) To roots in a double consonant, ya is joined by means of i, this i being
lengthened to T. It is also joined by means of i when a root ends in a consonant
that does not generally reduplicate (s, h and r).
(iii) It may be added directly to roots ending in a consonant; in this case the y ofya
becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the Rules of
Assimilation. (70.)
(iv) Ya is also added to the Special Base by means of i, lengthened.
Examples of (i) [viz., Ya directly affixed after roots ending in a vowel],
(a) When ya is added to roots ending in a vowel, the vowel of the root undergoes some
change, especially vowels: a, i and u.
(b) Radical a is changed to I before ya and radical i, u, are lengthened to I, u.
Root.
V da, to give,
V pa, drink,
V dha, to hold,
Vji, to conquer,
V ci, to heap,
Vku to sing,
V su, to hear,
(c) Radical long T and u, remain unaffected:
Vbhu, to become,
Vlu to reap,
VnT, to lead,
Passsve Base,
dlya, to be given,
plya, to be drunk,
dhlya, to be held,
jlya, to be conquered,
clya, to be heaped up.
kuya, to be sung,
suya, to be heard.
bhuya, to have become,
luya, to be reaped,
nlya, to be led.
(d) In some instances, the long vowel before ya is shortened, in which case the y is doubled.
V nT, to lead, nlya, or niyya.
V su to hear, suya, or suyya.
V da, to give, dlya, or diyya.
§484. To the above bases the Active or Reflective Personal Endings being added, we obtain,
for instance from Vji, to conquer, base jiya(or jiyya).
1 .
2 .
3.
Present: Active
Sing. Plur.
jlyami, I am conquered. jiyama, we are conquered,
jlyasi, thou art conquered. jlyatha, you are conquered,
jlyati, he is conquered. jlyanti, they are conquered.
Present: Reflective
Sing. Plur.
1. jlye, I am conquered. jlyamhe, we are conquered.
2. jlyase, thou art conquered. jlyavhe, you are conquered.
3. jlyate, he is conquered. jlyante, they are conquered.
Optative: (l) jiyeyyag.jiyeyyami; (2) jiyetho,jiyeyyasi (3) jiyetha,jiyeyya, etc., etc.
Imperative: (l)jlye, jlyami; (2) jlyassu, jlyahi; (3)jlyataq, jlyatu.
Examples of (ii) [viz., Ya joined by means of i to a root with a double consonant].
Root.
V pucch, to ask,
Vhas, to laugh,
Vvas to live,
Vkar, to make,
V sar, to remember,
V mah, to honour,
Passive Base,
pucchlya, to be asked,
haslya, to be laughed at.
vaslya, to be lived upon,
karlya, to be made.
sarTya to be remembered,
mahlya, to be honoured.
Examples of (iii) [viz., Ya affixed directly after a root ending in a consonant],
Vlabh, to obtain, labbha, to be obtained. (70, 71)
V pac, to cook, pacca, to be cooked. (70, 71)
Vbhan, to speak, bhanna, to be spoken. (70, 71)
Vkhad, to eat, khajja, to be eaten. (70, 71, 34)
Vhan; to kill,hanna, to be killed. (70, 71)
Vbandh, to bind, bajjha, to be bound. (70, 71, 74)
Examples of (iv) [viz., Ya added to a special base by means of ;]
V gam, to go, gacchlya, to be gone to.
Vbudh to know, bujjhlya, to be known.
V is, to wish, desire, icchlya, to be wished for.
§485. Long T, before ya of the Passive, is sometimes found shortened, as: mahlyati or
mahiyati, to be honoured.
§486. It is usual to form the Passive of roots ending in a consonant preceded by long a, by
means of T:
Vyac, to beg = yaclyati;
V aj, to drive + prefix pa = paj, to drive = pajiyati, to be driven.
77
§487. Ya may be added directly after some roots ending a consonant without assimilation
taking place and without the insertion of connecting vowel T; as:
Vlup, to cut, elide = lupya + ti = lupyati, to be elided, cut off.
Vgam, to go = gamya + ti = gamyati, to be gone to.
Remarks.
(a) We have already said that when the T before ya is shortened, initial y is reduplicated by
way of compensation (483, d).
(b) The Perfect, the Aorist, the Future and the Conditional (which four tenses are called:
General Tenses; see, 367), of the Reflective Voice, are often used in a passive sense.
§488. The Passive may assume several forms from the same root:
\/kar, to do, make, gives Passive: karlyati, kariyyati, kayirati (with metathesis),
kayyati (with asssimilation of r, cf. §80).
\/gam, to go, gives; gamiyati, gacchlyati, gamyati.
yj gah, to take, gives: gayhati (metathesis); gheppati, quite an anomalous form.
Vha, to abandon: hayati, hiyati.
§489. Anomalous form of the Passive.
\/vah, to carry, Passive Base = vuyh: vuyhami, vuyhasi, vuyhati, vuyhe, vuyhase,
vuyhate, etc.
\/vas, to live, Passive Base = vuss: vussami, vussasi, vussati, etc.
Vyaj, to sacrifice, Passive base = ijj, to be sacrificed ijjami, ijjasi, ijjati, etc.
Vvac, to speak, Passive Base = ucc: uccami, uccasi uccati, etc.
Vvac, to speak, Passive Base = vucc :vuccami, vuccasi vuccati etc.
§490. Final s of a root, which is not usually susceptible of reduplication is, however,
sometimes found reduplicated as:
Vdis, to see, becomes, dissati, to be seen.
Vnas, to destroy = nassati, to be destroyed.
CAUSATIVE VERBS.
§491. Causal or Causative verbs are formed by adding to the root the suffixes:
(i) aya, which is often contracted to e.
(ii) apaya, which likewise may be contracted to ape
§492.
(i) The radical vowel of the root is gunated or strengthened before these suffixes,
if followed by one consonant only.
(ii) It remains unchanged when it is followed by two consonants.
(iii) In some cases, radical a is not lengthened although followed by a single
consonant.
(iv) Roots in i, T and u, u form their causal from the Special Base.
(v) Other verbs, too, may form the causal from the Special Base.
(vi) Some roots in a take ape, apaya.
Examples.
Root
Vpac, to cook,
yj kar, to do,
Vgah, to take
y/ mar, to kill,
y/ sam, to be appeased,
Vgam, to go
yj chid, to cut,
Vbhuj, to eat
y/ rudh, to hinder,
Vbhid, to break,
yj su, to hear,
Vbhu, to be,
y/ si, to lie down,
yj nl, to lead,
yj pucch, to ask,
y/ dha, to place,
with prefix pi,
y/ da, to give,
yj tha, to stand,
Causative Bases
pace, pacaya, pacape, pacapaya, to cause to cook, (i)
kare, karaya, karape, karapaya, to cause to do. (i)
gahe, gahaya, gahape, gahapaya, to cause to take, (i)
mare, maraya, marape, marapaya, to cause to kill, (i)
same, samaya, samape, samapaya, to cause to be appeased, (iii)
game, gamaya, to cause to go, (iii): we find also; game,
chede, chedaya, chedape, chedapaya, to cause to cut. (i)
bhoje, bhojaya, bhojape, bhojapaya, to cause to eat. (i)
rodhe, rodhaya, rodhape; rodhapaya, to cause to hinder, (i)
bhede bhedaya, bhedape, bhedapaya, to cause to break, (i)
save, savaya, savape, savapaya, to cause to hear, (iv)
bhave bhavaya, etc. (iv)
saye. sayaya, sayape, sayapaya to cause to lie down, (iv, iii)
nayaya nayape nayapaya, to cause to lead, (iv, iii)
pucchape, pucchapaya, to cause to ask. (ii).
pidhape, pidhapaya, to cause to shut. (vi).
pidahape, pidahapaya, to cause to shut, (v, ii).
dape dapaya, to cause to give.
thape, thapaya, to place (vi, with a shortened a-vowel).
-.78
DOUBLE CAUSAL.
§493. There is a double causal formed by adding apape to the root.
Root.
Vpac, to cook,
V chid, to cut,
Vbhuj, to eat,
Examples.
Simple Causal,
pace, pacape, etc.,
chede, chedape, etc.,
bhoje, bhojape, etc.,
Double Causal,
pacapape, pacapapaya.
chedapape, chedapapaya.
bhojapape, bhojapapaya.
Remarks.
The double causal may be translated by "to get to, or, to make to cause to." For instance:
So purisag dasag odanag pacapapeti. "He causes the man to cause the slave to cook the
food." or "He got the man to make the slave to cook the food."
Note that the first accusative or object purisag may be and is often, replaced by an
Instrumentive.
§494 The causative verbs are declined like the verbs in i, 1 of the 1st conjugation, 3rd
Division (393, 385) and like the verbs of the 7th conjugation.(379)
Examples.
Vpac, to cook, causative base pace, pacaya, pacape, pacapaya, to cause to cook.
PRESENT.
Singular.
1. pacemi, pacayami, pacapemi, pacapayami, I cause to cook.
2. pacesi, pacayasi, pacapesi, pacapayasi, thou causest to cook.
3. paceti, pacayati, pacapeti, pacapayati, he causes to cook.
Plural.
1. pacema, pacayama, pacapema, pacapayama, we cause to cook.
2. pacetha, pacayatha, pacapetha, pacapayatha, you cause to cook.
3. pacenti, pacayanti pacapenti, pacapayanti, they cause to cook.
OPTATIVE.
Singular.
1. paceyyami, pacayeyyami, pacapeyyami, pacapayeyyami,
I should cause to cook.
2. paceyyasi, pacayeyyasi, pacapeyyasi, pacapayeyyasi,
thou shouldst cause to cook.
3. paceyya, pacayeyya, pacapeyya, pacapayeyya, he should cause to cook.
Plural.
1. paceyyama, pacayeyyama, pacapeyyama, pacapayeyyama,
we should cause to cook.
2. paceyyatha pacayeyyatha pacapeyyatha, pacapayeyyatha,
you should cause to cook.
3. paceyyug, pacayeyyug, pacapeyyug, pacapayeyyug,
they should cause to cook.
And so on for the other tenses.
Remarks.
(a) The bases in e and pe take the Sigmatic Aorist Endings (418, 419).
(b) The bases in aya take the other Endings (407, b). As, pacesig, pacesi, pacapesig, pacayig,
pacayi, pacapayig, pacapayi, etc.
Causal Passive.
§405. The passive of a causal verb is formed by joining the suffix ya of the Passive to the
Causative Base, by means of i, lengthened to T, final vowel e of the Causative base having
been dropped first. The Causal Passive may be translated by "caused to... , made to do..."
the action expressed by the root.
Examples.
Root.
Simple Verb
Causal
Causal Passive
Vpac, to cook
pacati
paceti,
paclyati, to be caused to cook.
Vbhuj, to eat
bhunjati,
bhojeti,
bhojlyati, to be caused to eat.
Vkar, to do
karoti
kareti,
karlyati, to be caused to do.
Remark.
Connective vowel i may also be found short.
§496. Some verbs, although in the Causative, have merely a transitive sense as:
Vcar, to go, Causative careti, to cause to go = to administer (an estate).
Vbhu, to be, Causative bhaveti, to cause to = to cultivate, practise.
§497. Verbs of the 7th Conjugation form their causal by adding ape or apaya to the base,
the final vowel of the base having first been dropped.
Root.
Base
Simple Verb
Causal Passive
V cur, to steal,
Vkath, to tell,
Vtim, to wet,
core.
kathe.
teme.
coreti, corayati,
katheti, kathayati,
temeti, temayati,
corapeti, corapayati.
kathapeti, kathapayati.
temapeti, temapayati.
79
DENOMINATIVE VERBS
§498. So called because they are formed from a noun stem by means of certain suffixes.
§499. The meaning of the Denominative Verb is susceptible of several renderings in
English; it generally expresses:
(a) "to act as, to be like, to wish to be like" that which is denoted by the noun.
(b) "to wish for, to desire" that which is signified by the noun.
(c) "to change or make into" that which is denoted by the noun.
(d) "to use or make use of' that which is expressed by the noun.
§500. The suffixes used to form Denominative Verbal Stems are:
(i) aya. aya, e, (ii) Tya, iya.
(iii) a. (iv) ara, ala. (These two rather rare).
(v) ape.
§501. The base or stem having been obtained by means of the above suffixes, the Personal
Endings of the tenses are added exactly as they are after other verbs.
Examples.
Noun Stem
Denominative Verbs.
pabbata, a mountain.
pabbatayati, to act like a mountain.
macchara, avarice.
maccharayati, to be avaricious (lit. to act
avariciously).
samudda, the ocean.
sammuddayati, to be or act like the ocean.
nadl, river.
nadiyiti, to do, act like a river.
aranna, forest.
arannlyati, to act (in town) as in the forest.
dhana, riches.
dhanayati, dhanayati, to desire riches.
putta, a son.
puttlyati, to desire, or treat as a son.
patta, a bowl.
pattlyati, to wish for a bowl.
clvara, monk's robe.
clvarlyati, to desire a robe.
dola, a palankin.
dolayati, to desire a, or wish for one's own
palankin.
vlna, a lute.
vlnayati, to use the lute, to play on the lute.
upakkama, diligence, plan.
upakkkamalati, to make diligence, to devise
plans.
gana, a following.
ganayati, to wish for a following or disciples.
samodhana, a connection.
samodhaneti, to connect, join.
sarajja, modesty.
sarajjati, to be shy, nervous shyness.
tanha, craving.
tanhayati, tanhlyati, to crave.
Noun Stem Denominative Verbs.
mettap, love.
mettayati, to love.
karuna, mercy, pity.
karunayati, to pity.
sukha, happiness.
sukhapeti, to make happy.
dukkha, misery.
dukkhapeti, to make miserable.
unha, heat.
unhapeti, to heat, warm.
jata, matted hair,
vijatayati, disentangle, comb out. Tangled
branches.
pariyosana, end.
pariyosanati, to end, to cease.
§502. Denominatives can also be formed from the stems of adjectives and adverbs; as:
dalha, firm, strong,
santap, being good,
atta, afflicted, hurt,
dalhayati, to make firm, strong,
santarati to act well, or handsomely,
attayati, to hurt, afflict.
Remarks.
(a) Suffixes ara and ala are simply modifications of aya.
(b) There is an uncommon way of forming Denominative Verbs from nouns: the 1st, 2nd or
3rd syllable of the noun is reduplicated and the suffix Tyisa or yisa added to the word thus
reduplicated; the vowel u or i may or may not be inserted between the reduplication.
(NiruttidTpanT).
Noun Stem Denominative Verbs.
putta, son,
putta, a son,
kamalarj, flower,
pupputtlyisati, to wish to be (as) a son.
puttittiyisati, to wish to be (as) a son.
kakamalayisati or kamamalayisati or
kamalalayisati, to wish to be (as) a flower.
(c) The Causal and Passive of all Denominatives are formed in the usual manner.
■ 80
DESIDERATIVE VERBS.
§503. As its very name indicates, the Desiderative Conjugation expresses the wish or desire
to do or be that which is denoted by the simple root.
§504. The Desiderative is not extensively used in Pali; however, it is frequent enough to
warrant a careful perusal of the rules for its formation.
§505. The suffix sa is the characteristic sign of this conjugation; another characteristic is
the reduplication of the root according to the rules already given (372). The student ought
first to look carefully over those rules.
Root.
Desiderative Base.
Desiderative Verb.
y/ su, to hear,
sussusa
sussusati, to desire to hear = listens.
(33,372-7c).
Vbhuj, to eat
bubhukkha,
bubhukkhati, to wish to eat. (86, 372-5).
Vtij, to bear,
titikkha,
titikkhati, to endure, be patient. (86,
372-7b).
Vghas, to eat,
jighaccha,
jighacchati, to desire to eat. (89, 372-7a).
V pa, to drink,
pipasa, pivasa
pivasati, to desire to drink. (372-7a).
(pivasa, from the root).
Vkit, to cure,
cikiccha,
cikicchati, to desire to cure, to treat. (88;
372-2).
§506. It will be remarked that the initial s of sa is mostly assimilated.
§507 The bases being obtained, the personal endings are added as usual.
Remarks.
The Causal and Passive are formed in the usual way.
INTENSIVE VERBS.
§508. The Intensive Verbs also called Frequentative Verbs, express the frequent repetition
or the intensification of the action denoted by the simple root. The characteristic of the
Intensive Conjugation is the reduplication of the root according to the usual rules (372).
§509. These verbs are not very frequent in Pali.
Examples.
Root. Intensive Verb.
Vlap, to talk. lalappati, lalapati, to lament.
Vkam, to go. cajikamati, to walk to and fro.
yj gam, to go. jajigamati, to go up and down.
yj cal, to move. cancalati to move to and fro, to tremble.
The personal endings are added as usual.
§510. Vas, to be
1 .
2 .
3.
1 .
2 .
3.
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
1 .
2 .
3.
DEFECTIVE AND ANOMALOUS VERBS.
Present System: Present
Singular. Plural,
asmi, amhi, I am. asma, amha, we are.
asi, thou art. attha, you are.
atthi, he is. santi, they are.
Imperative.
Singular.
asmi, amhi, let me be.
ahi, be thou.
atthu, let him, her, it be.
Plural.
asma, amha, let us be.
attha, be ye.
santu, let them be.
Present Participle.
Active Reflective,
santo, being. samano, being,
santi, being. samana, being,
santaq, being. samanaq, being.
Aorist.
Active Reflective.
asiq, I was, I have been. asimha, asimha, we were, we have been,
asi, thou wast, thou hast been, asittha, you were, you have been,
asi, he was, he has been. asug, asigsu, they were, they have been.
■81
Conditional.
Active Reflective.
§1. assag, if I were or should be. assama, if we were or should be.
§2. assa, if thou wert or should be. assatha, if you were or should be.
§3. assa, siya, if he were or should be. assu, siyug, if they were or should be.
§511. Vhu, to be. (hu is a contracted form of root bhu).
Present System.
Present.
Imperfect.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
homi,
homa.
ahuva,
ahuvamha,
ahuvag,
ahuvamha.
2.
hosi,
hotha.
ahuvo,
ahuvattha.
3.
hoti,
honti.
ahuva, ahuva, ahuvu.
Imperative.
Optative.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
homi,
homa.
heyyami,
heyyama.
2.
hohi,
homa.
heyyasi,
heyyatha.
3.
hotu,
hontu.
heyya
heyyug.
Present Participle.
Masc. honto.
Fern, honti.
Neut. hontag.
Aorist.
Singular.
Plural.
1 .
ahosig,ahug,
ahosimha, ahumha.
2.
ahosi,
ahosittha.
3.
ahosi, ahu,
ahesug, ahug.
The Future has already been given (436).
Infinitive.
Gerund.
Future. P.P.
hotug.
hutva.
hotabbo.
§512. Vkar, to do, make.
The present Active has already been given (403).
Present System: Present.
Reflective.
Singular.
Plural.
§1.
kubbe.
kubbamhe, kurumhe
§2.
kubbase, kuruse.
kubbavhe, kuruvhe.
§3.
kubbate, kurute, kubbati.
kubbante, kurunte.
Optative.
Singular.
Plural.
1.
kare, kubbe, kubbeyya, kareyya,
kayira, kayirami.
kareyyama, kubbeyyama, kayirama.
2.
kare, kubbe, kubbeyyasi, kareyyasi,
kayira, kayirasi.
kareyyatha, kubbetha, kayiratha.
3.
kare, kubbe, kayira, kubbeyya,
kareyya.
kareyyag, kubbeyyag, kayirag
Active
Sing.
1. akara,
akarag.
2. akaro,
3. akara,
Imperfect.
Reflective.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
akaramha.
akarig,
akaramhase.
akarattha.
akarase,
akaravhag.
akaru.
akarattha,
akaratthug.
The Aorist has been given (412).
Imperative.
Active
Reflective/Passive
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
1.
karomi,
karoma.
kubbe,
kubbamase.
2.
kuru, karohi,
karotha.
kurus su,
kuruvho.
3.
karotu, kurutu,
karontu, kubbantu.
kurutag,
kubbantag.
82
Future.
Besides the usual Future in ssami: karissami, karissasi, there is another form given in (436).
Present Participle.
Reflective.
karamano, kurumano, karano, kubbano.
karamana, kurumana, karana, kubbana.
karamanag, kurumanag, karanag, kubbanag.
ture Passive Participle.
io, kariyo, kayiro, kayyo, karaniyo.
Remarks.
All the forms in yira are obtained through metathesis, in kayyo the r has been assimilated.
Present Passive Part.
karlyamano, kariyyamano, kaylramano, kariyamano.
Passive Base.
The Passive Base has several forms:
karlya, kariyya, kariya, kayira.
Active.
Masc. karag, karonto.
Fern, karontl,
Neut. karag, karontag,
Ful
kattabbo, katabb
§513. Vda, to give.
The Present Optative and Imperative have already been given. (395). The student will
remark that some of the tenses are formed directly on the root: the Radical Aorist, the
Sigmatic Aorist, the Future and the Conditional.
Radical Aorist.
Sigmatic Aorist.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
adag,
adamha.
adasig,
adasimha.
2.
ado,
adattha.
adasi,
adasittha.
3.
ada,
adagsu, adug.
adasi,
adasug, adasig su.
Future.
a. From the
Base.
b. From the
Root.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
dadissami,
dadissama.
dassami,
dassama.
2.
dadissasi,
dadissatha.
dassasi,
dassatha.
3.
dadissati,
dadissanti.
dassati,
dassanti.
Conditional.
Sing.
1. adassag,
2. adasse,
3. adassa,
Plur.
adassamha.
adassatha.
adassagsu.
Participles.
(Masculine.)
Present,
dadag, dadanto.
Fut. P.
dadassag.
dadassanto.
Pres. Reflect,
dadamano. dadamana.
P.P.P. Active P.P.
dinno. dinnava.
Fut. P. P.
databbo.
dayo.
Part.
dadamanag.
VERBAL PREFIXES
§514. The Prefixes or Prepositions, called in Pali: Upasagga [cf. the remark to §23] are
prefixed to verbs and their derivatives; they have been, on that account, called Verbal
Prefixes. They generally modify the meaning of the root, or intensify it, and sometimes
totally alter it; in many cases, they add but little to the original sense of the root.
§515. The usual rules of sandhi apply when these prefixes are placed before verbs. When a
prefix is placed before a tense with the augment a, the augment must not change its
position, but remain between the prefix and the root, as; aga + ati = accaga (74, i), and not;
aatiga
§516. These prefixes are as follows:
a - to, at, towards, near to, until, as far as, away, all round.
e.g., fykaddh, to drag, draw = akaddhati, to draw towards, to drag away,
fykir, to pour, scatter = akirati, to scatter all over or around, to fill.
Vcikkh, to show, tell = acikkhati, to point out, tell to (to communicate).
yj chad, to cover = acchadeti, to cover over or all around, to put on clothes (33, 35).
Remarks.
This prefix reverses the meaning of some roots;
y/ da, to give, but adati, to take.
Vgam, to go, base: gaccha = agacchati, to come.
83
ati (before vowel = acc.) beyond, across, over, past, very much, very; it expresses excess,
e.g., Vkam, to step, go = atikkamati (33), to step over to go across, go past, to
escape, overcome, transgress, excell, to elapse.
Vnl, to lead = atineti, to lead over or across, to irrigate.
V car, to act, = aticarati, to act beyond, too much, in excess = to transgress.
adhi (before vowels = ajjh), over, above, on, upon, at, to in, superior to, great, it expresses
sometimes superiority.
e.g., Vvas, to live = adhivasati, to live in, to inhabit.
V gam, to go = ajjhagama, he approached = adhi + augment a + gama(Aorist).
Vbhas, to speak = adhibhasati, to speak to, to address.
anu, after, along, according to, near to, behind, less than, in consequence of, beneath,
e.g., V kar, to do = anukaroti, to do like, viz., to imitate, to ape.
\/kam, to go = anukkamati, to go along with, to follow.
V dhav, to run = anudhavati, to run after to pursue.
Vgah, to take = anuganhati, to take near, beneath = to protect.
apa, off, away, away from, forth: it also implies detraction, hurt, reverence.
e.g., Vc i, to notice, observe = apacayati, to honour, respect; apaciti, reverence.
VnT, to lead = opaneti, to lead away, viz., to take away, remove.
V gam, to go, = apagacchati, to go away.
V man, to think = apamannati, to despise.
api, on, over, unto, close upon. This prefix is very seldom used; it is prefixed mostly to the
roots: Vdha, to put, set, lay, and Vnah, to bind, join. It is moreover found abbreviated to pi
in most instances.
e.g., yj dha, to put, set, lay = pidahati, to cover, close, shut, apidhanag, pidahanag,
pidhanag, covering, lid, cover.
yjn ah, to bind, join = pinayhati, to bind on, join on.
abhi, to, unto, towards, against, in the direction of. It also expresses excess, reverence,
particularity. (Before a vowel = abbh).
e.g., Vgam, to go = abhigacchati, to go towards, approach.
Vkajikh, to desire, abhikajikhati = to desire particularly, to long for, yearn.
Vjal to blaze = abhijalati, to blaze excessively, viz, fiercely.
Vvand, to salute = abhivandati, to salute reverentially.
ava, down, off, away, back, aside, little, less. Implies also: disrespect, disregard.
Remarks.
ava, is often contracted to o.
e.g., Vja, to know = avajanati, to despise. Vhar, to take = avaharati, to take away,
avaharo, taking away.
Vkhip, to throw = avakhipati, to throw down.
Vlok, luk, to look = oloketi, to look down = avaloketi.
ud ( = the u of native grammarians; for the assimilation of final d to the following
consonants see 58, 60, 62, 65. Before h, sometimes final d is lost and the u lengthened.)
Upwards, above, up, forth, out.
e.g., Vkhip, to throw = ukkhipati, to throw up, get rid of; ukkhepanag,
excommunication.
yj chid, to cut = ucchindati, to cut off.
yj tha, to stand = utthahati to stand up, rise, utthanag, rising.
yj har, to take = uddharati (96) to draw out. uddharanag, pulling out.
Remark, ud reverses the meaning of a few verbs
yj pat, to fall = uppatati, to leap up, spring up.
yj nam, to bend = unnamati, to rise up, ascend.
upa unto, to, towards, near, with, by the side of, as, like, up to, (opposed to apa), below, less,
e.g., Vkaddh to drag = upakaddhati, to drag or draw towards, to draw below or
down.
y/ kar, to do = upakaroti, to do something towards unto; viz, to help, upakaro,
help, use; upakaranag, instrument (lit. doing with).
Vkam to step, go = upakkamati, to attack, (lit. to go towards).
ni (sometimes lengthened to nl, and before a vowel = nir) out, forth, down, into,
downwards, in, under.
e.g., Vkam, to go = nikkhamati, to go out, to depart.
yj dha, to place = nidahati or nidheti, to deposit, hide.
yj har, to take = nlharati, to take out.
y/ han, to strike = nihanti, to strike down.
pa, onward, forward to, forth, fore, towards, with. It expresses beginning.
e.g., Vbha, to shine = pabhati to shine forth, to dawn, pabha, radiance.
Vbhu, to be = pabhavati, to begin to be, viz., to spring up, to originate.
Vjal, to burn = pajjalati, to burn forth, to blaze.
pati, pati against, back to, in reverse direction, back again in return, to, towards, near,
e.g., Vbhas, to speak = patibhasati. to speak back, to reply.
Vkhip, to throw = patikkhipati, to refuse, patikkhepo, refusing.
pg. 84
Vkam, to step = patikkamati, to step back, to retreat.
para, away, back, opposed to, aside, beyond.
e.g., Vkam, to go = parakkamati, to strive, put forth effort.
Vji, to conquer = parajeti, to overcome.
pari, around, all around, about, all about, all over. Expresses completeness, etc.
e.g., V car, to walk = paricarati, to walk around, viz,, to serve, honour, paricaro,
attendance; paricca, having encircled ( = pari + i + tya).
V chid, to cut = paricchindati, to cut around, to limit, mark out.
V dhav, to run = paridhavati, to run about.
Vja, to know = parijanati, to know perfectly, exactly.
vi, asunder, apart, away, without. Implies separation, distinctness, dispersion.
e.g., V chid, to cut = vicchindati, to cut or break asunder, to break off, interrupt.
Vja to know = vijanati, to know distinctly, to discern; vijanag, knowing.
\/kir, to scatter = vikirati, to scatter about, to spread.
sam, with, along, together, fully, perfectly.
Vbhuj, to eat = sambhunjati, to eat with.
\/vas, to live = sagvasati, to live together with; sagvaso, living with.
Remarks.
It should be borne in mind that two, and sometimes three, of the above prefixes may
combine. The most common combinations are:
vya, written bya ( = vi + a); vyakaroti, to explain ( Vkar); vyapajjati, to fall away
(pad, to go).
ajjho ( = adhi + 0,0 = ava), ajjhottharati, to overwhelm ( Vthar, to spread),
ajjha ( = adhi + a), ajjhavasati, to dwell in (vas) ajjhaseti, to lie upon ( Vsl).
anupa ( = anu + pa), anupakhadati, to eat into (khad); anupabbajati to give up the
world ( Vvaj, to go).
anupari ( = anu + pari), anuparidhavati, to run up and down (dhav); anupariyati, to
go round and round ( Vya).
anusam ( = anu + sam) anusajigito, chanted together rehearsed; anusancarati, to
cross.
samud ( = sam + ud), samukkagsati, to exalt; samucchindati, to extirpate ( Vchid);
samudeti, to remove ( Vi).
samuda (sam + ud + a) samudacarati, to address, practise ( V car); samudahato,
produced ( Vhar); samudagamo, beginning ( Vgam).
samupa( = sam + upa) samupeti, to approach ( Vi); samupagacchati: to approach,
sama ( = sam + a), samaharati, to gather ( Vhar); samagamo, assembly ( Vgam).
samabhi ( = sam + abhi), samabhisincati, to sprinkle ( Vsinc).
upasam ( = upa + sam) upasagharati, to bring together ( Vhar); upasagvasati, to
take up one's abode in ( Vvas, to live).
Remark.
The student must be prepared to meet with some other combinations; the general
meaning of a word can always be traced from the sense of the several combined prefixes.
§517. It is important to note that the prefixes or prepositions are used, not only with verbs,
but also with verbal derivatives, nouns and adjectives, as: anutlre, along the bank;
adhicittag, high thought; abhinllo, very black.
§518. pari is often written: pali (cf., §72).
§519 pari, vi and sam very often add merely an intensive force to the root.
§520. After prefixes, sam upa, para, pari, and the word pura, in front, Vkar sometimes
assumes the form: khar. E.g. purakkharoti, to put in front, to follow = pura + Vkar:
parikkharo, surrounding = pari + Vkar.
§521. A few adverbs are used very much in the same way as the Verbal Prefixes, but their
use is restricted to a few verbs only. They are:
avi = in full view, in sight, in view, manifestly, visibly. It is prefixed to the verbs:
bhavati ( Vbhu) and karoti ( Vkar). E.g., avibhavati to become manifest,
visible, to appear, be evident; avikaroti, to make manifest, clear, evident; to
explain, show.
antara = among within, between, used with V dha, to put, place; e.g.
antaradhayati, to vanish, disappear, hide; antaradhapeti, to cause to vanish
or disappear.
atthag (adv. and noun) = home; disappearance, disappearing, setting; used with
verbs of going = to set, disappear (of moon, sun and stars). Mostly used
with the verbs gacchati and eti ( Vi), to go. E.g. atthajigacchati, to
disappear, to set; atthameti, to set (of the sun),
patu (before a vowel: patur) = forth to view, manifestly, evidently, used with
bhavati and karoti. E.g. patubhavati, to become manifest, evident, clear, to
appear, to arise; patubhavo, appearance, manifestation; patukaroti, to
manifest, make clear, evident; to produce,
pura, in front, forward, before, used almost exclusively with karoti, (520). E.g.
purakkharoti, to put or place in front, to appoint or make a person (one's)
leader, and thence: to follow, to revere.
alag, fit, fit for, used with verb karoti in the sense of decorating. E.g. alajikaroti, to
adorn, embellish, decorate.
-.85
tiro, out of sight; across, beyond, prefixed to roots kar and dha, in the sense of
covering, hiding, etc. E.g. tirodhapeti, to veil, to cover, put out of sight;
tirodhanag, a covering, a veil; tirokaroti, to veil, to screen; tirokarani, a
screen, a veil.
§522. Prefixes du and su are never used with verbs. (See Chapter on Adverbs), and prefix a
(an), is very seldom so used.
§523. To finish this chapter on Verbs, we will now give the paradigm of a verb fully
conjugated:
Present System.
V pac, to cook, (stem paca).
Present. I cook, etc.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
pacami,
pacama.
pace,
pacamhe.
2.
pacasi,
pacatha.
pacase,
pacavhe.
3.
pacati,
pacanti
pacate,
pacare, pacante.
Imperfect. I cooked, etc.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
apaca,
apacamha.
apacig
apacamhase.
apacag,
apacamha.
apacamhase.
2.
apaco,
apacattha.
apacase,
apacavhag.
3.
apaca,
apacu.
apacattha,
apacatthug.
Imperative. Let me cook etc.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
pacami,
pacama,
pace,
pacamase.
2.
pacahi, paca, pacatha,
pacassu,
pacavho.
3.
pacatu,
pacantu,
pacatag,
pacantag.
Optative.
I should, would, could, can, etc., co
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
1 .
paceyyami,
paceyyama.
paceyyag,
paceyyamhe.
pace,
2.
paceyyasi,
paceyyatha.
pacetho,
paceyyavho.
pace,
3.
paceyya,
paceyyug.
pacetha,
pacerag.
pace,
Present Participle.
Active
Reflective
Masc.
pacag,
pacamano.
pacanto,
pacano.
Fem.
pacati,
pacamana.
pacanti,
pacana.
Neut.
pacag,
pacamanag.
pacantag,
pacanag.
Aorist System.
Aorist (Stem pac).. I cooked, or, I have cooked, etc.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
apacig,
apacimha.
apaca,
apacimhe.
apaci,
apacittha.
apacise,
apacivhag.
apaci,
apacug.
apaca,
apacug.
apaci,
apacigsu.
apacu,
apacigsu.
Remarks.
The augment a may be left out.
1 .
2 .
3.
Perfect System.
Perfect (Stem: papac). I cooked, etc.
Active Voice.
Sing. Plur.
papaca, papacimha.
papace, papacittha.
papaca, papacu.
Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur.
papaci, papacimhe.
papacittho, papacivho.
papacittha, papacire.
Perfect Participle Active. Having cooked.
Active Voice.
Masc. pacitava,
pacitavanto,
pacitavl,
Fem. pacitavatl,
pacitavantl,
pacitavinl,
Neut. pacitavag,
pacitavantag,
pacitavi,
Reflective Voice.
pacitava.
pacitavanto.
pacitavl
pacitavatl.
pacitavantl.
pacitavinl.
pacitavag.
pacitavantag.
pacitavi.
86
Remark.
The Perfect Participle is the same for the Reflective as for the Active Voice. (For formation,
see 465).
Future System.
Future. I shall cook, etc. (Stem: pacissa)
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. Plur.
1 .
pacissami,
pacissama.
pacissag, pacissamhe.
2.
pacissasi,
pacissatha.
pacissase, pacissavhe.
3.
pacissati,
pacissanti.
pacissate, pacissante.
Conditional. If I could cook, etc.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. Plur.
1 .
apacissag,
apacissamha.
apacissag, apacissamhase.
2.
apacisse,
apacissatha.
apacissase, apacissavhe.
3.
apacissa,
apacissagsu.
apacissatha, apacissigsu.
Future Participle.
Active Voice.
Reflective Voice.
Masc.
pacissag,
pacissamano.
pacissanto,
pacissano.
Fem.
pacissati,
pacissamana.
pacissanti,
pacissana.
Neut.
pacissag,
pacissamanag.
pacissantag,
pacissanag.
Infinitive: pacitug.
Gerund: pacitva, pacitvana, pacituna, paciya.
Fut. P.P.: pacitabba, pacanlya.
P.P.P.: pacita.
pg. 87
§524. A Paradigm of Vcur, to steal. Base coraya or core.
1 .
2 .
3.
Present System.
Active Voice
First form, (base, coraya).
Sing. Plur.
corayami, corayama.
corayasi, corayatha.
corayati, corayanti.
Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur.
coremi, corema.
coresi, coretha.
coreti, corenti.
1 .
2 .
3.
1 .
2 .
3.
1 .
2 .
3.
Imperfect. ( from base coraya only).
Sing.
acoraya,
acorayag,
acorayo,
acoraya,
Plur.
acorayamha.
acorayamha.
acorayattha.
acorayu.
Imperative.
First form, (base, coraya).
Sing. Plur.
corayami, corayama.
corayahi, corayatha.
corayatu, corayantu.
Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur.
coremi, corema.
corehi, coretha.
coretu, corentu.
Optative.
First form, (base, coraya).
Sing. Plur.
corayeyyami, corayeyyama.
corayeyyasi, corayeyyatha.
corayeyya, coray eyyug.
coraye.
Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur.
coreyyami, coreyyama.
coreyyasi, coreyyatha.
coreyya, coreyyug.
Present Participle
First form, (base, coraya).
Masc. corayag, corayanto.
Fem. corayati, corayanti.
Neut. corayag, corayantag.
Second form (base, core).
corento.
corenti.
corentag.
Aorist System.
1 .
2 .
3.
First form, (base, coraya).
Sing. Plur.
corayig, corayimha.
corayimha.
corayi, corayittha.
corayi, corayug,
corayigsu.
Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur.
coresig, coresimha,
coresimha.
coresi, coresittha.
coresi, coresug,
coresigsu.
Perfect System.
(The Perfect Tense of these verbs is not generally met with but it would be:
cucorimha, etc).
Perfect Participle Active.
Base coraya.
Base core.
Masc.
corayitava,
coritava,
corayitavanto,
coritavanto.
corayitavl,
coritavl.
Fem.
corayitavatl,
coritavatl.
corayitavantT,
coritavantl.
corayitavim,
coritavinT.
Neut.
corayitavag,
coritavag.
corayitavantag,
coritavantag.
corayitavi,
coritavi.
Future System.
Future.
First form, (base, coraya).
Second form (base, core).
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. Plur.
corayissami,
corayissama.
coressami, coressama.
corayissasi,
corayissatha.
coressasi. coressatha.
corayissati,
corayissanti.
coressati, coressanti.
Conditional.
First form, (base, coraya).
1. acorayissag,
2. acorayisse,
3. acorayissa,
Second form (base, core),
acorayissamha.
acorayissatha.
acorayissagsu.
Future Participle.
Active.
First form, (base, coraya).
Masc. corayissag,
corayissanto,
Fem. corayissatT,
corayissantl,
Neut. corayissag,
corayissantag,
Second form (base, core).
coressag.
coressanto.
coressatl.
coressantl.
coressag.
coressantag.
Pres. Participle Reflective.
Masc. corayamano, corayano.
Fem. corayamana, corayana.
Neut. corayamanag, corayanag.
Infinitive, corayitug, coretug.
Gerund, corayitva, coretva.
P.P.F. corayitabbo, coretabbo
P.P.P. corito, corita, coritag
Reflective.
§525. The Reflective Voice presents no difficulty; it is generally formed on the base in aya
Present.
Imperfect.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. Plur.
1 .
coraye,
corayamhe.
acorayag, acorayamhase.
2.
corayase,
corayavhe.
acorayase, acorayavhag.
3.
corayate,
corayante.
acorayattha, acorayatthug.
Passive Voice
§526. The Passive Voice is formed in the usual way by joining ya to the base by means of
vowel i lengthened to T, the final vowel of the base being dropped before T.
Present.
Singular.
1. coriyami, I am robbed.
2. corlyasi, thou art robbed.
3. corlyati, he is robbed.
Plural.
corlyama, we are robbed,
corlyatha, you are robbed
corlyanti, they are robbed .
And so on for the other tenses.
§527. The Causal and the Denominative Verbs are conjugated exactly like coreti.
pg. 88
§528 The following paradigm will familiarize the student with the changes which take
place in the principal forms of the Verb:
Root
Special
Base
Active
Reflect.
Passive
Causal
Causal
Passive
Vpac,
to cook
paca
pacati
pacate
paccate,
paccati
paceti,
pacapeti,
pacayati,
pacapayati.
paciyati,
pacapiyati.
Vda,
to give
dada
dadati
dadate
diyate,
diyati
dapati,
dapapeti
dapiyati
Vnl,
to lead
ne, naya
neti,
nayati
nayate
niyate,
niyati,
niyyati
nayayati,
nayapeti,
nayapayati
nayapiyati
Vhan,
to kill
hana
hanati,
hanti
hanate
hannate,
hannati
haneti,
hanapeti,
hanayati,
hanapayati
hanapiyati,
hanayiyati
Vkhad,
to eat
khada
khadati
khadate
khajjate,
khajjati
khadeti,
khadayati,
khadapeti,
khadapayati
khadapiyati
khadapiyati
Vlu,
to cut
luna
lunati
lunate
luyate,
luyati
laveti, lavayati
laviyati
Vbhu,
to be
bhava
bhavati
bhavate
bhuyate,
bhuyati
bhaveti,
bhavayati,
bhavapeti,
bhavapayati
bhaviyati
Vlabh,
to get
labha
labhati
labhate
labbhate,
labbhati
labheti,
labhayati,
labhapeti,
labhapayati
labhapiyati
Vsu,
to hear
suna,
suno
sunati,
sunoti
sunate
suyate,
suyati
saveti, sunapeti
saviyati
CHAPTER XI.
INDECLINABLES.
§529. Under the term "indeclinables" are included all those words which are incapable of
any grammatical declension, that is: Adverbs, Prefixes, Propositions, Conjunctions and
Interjections.
ADVERBS.
§530. Adverbs may be divided into three groups:
(i) Derivative Adverbs, formed by means of suffixes.
(ii) Case-form Adverbs.
(iii) Pure Adverbs.
§531. (i) Derivative Adverbs.
(a) These are formed by the addition to pronominal stems, and to the stems of nouns and
adjectives, of certain suffixes.
(b) Under this head come the "Adverbial Derivatives from numerals" given in (279), and
the "Pronominal Derivatives" given in (336). The student ought now to read again these
two classes of Adverbs.
(c) The suffix to (346), is also added to prepositions, nouns and adjectives, to form a very
large class of adverbs; to is an ablative suffix (120) and therefore the adverbs formed with
it have an ablative sense.
(i) From prepositions: abhito, near; parato, further.
(ii) From nouns:
dakkhinato, southerly, on the south;
paclnato, easterly, on the east;
pitthito, from the surface, from the back, etc.,
parato, from the further shore;
orato, from the near shore.
(iii) From adjectives: sabbato, everywhere.
(d) Suffixes tra and tha (346), showing place, are also used with adjectives: annatha or
annatra, elsewhere; sabbatha, everywhere; ubhayattha, in both places.
(e) Suffix da (345), is likewise used with adjectives and numerals: ekada, once; sada =
sabbada, at all times, always.
(f) dhi is used like dha (28, 283): sabbadhi, everywhere.
(g) Suffixes so and sa (122, c, d) likewise form adverbs: bahuso, in a great degree; atthaso,
according to the sense; balasa, forcibly.
(h) iti, (347) is extensively used as the particle of quotation; it is often abbreviated to ti (See
Syntax).
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§532. (ii) Case-form Adverbs.
(a) Some cases of pronouns, and adjectives, are used adverbially.
(b) Accusative Case. This case is very much used adverbially: kip, why?; tap, there; idap
here; yap because, since; from pronouns.
(c) From nouns; divasap during the day; rattip at night; raho, in secret; saccap truly; atthap
for the purpose of.
(d) For adjectives: cirap, a long time; khippap, quickly; mandap, stupidly.
(e) Some adverbs of obscure origin may be classed as the accusative case of nouns or
adjectives long obsolete. Such are:
mitho, mithu, one another, mutually; arap, presently;
sajju, immediately; tunhT, silently;
alap, enough; sayap, in the evening;
isap a little, somewhat; jatu, surely, certainly;
bahi, outside.
The Instrumentive Case.
This case also is much used adverbially.
From pronouns: tena, therefore; yena; because.
From nouns: divasena, in a day; masena, in a month; diva by day; sahasa, suddenly.
From adjectives: cirena, long; dakkhinena, to the south; uttarena, to the north;
antarena, within.
The Dative Case.
The adverbial use of the dative is restricted to atthaya, for the sake of, for the
purpose of; ciraya, for a long time; hitaya, for the benefit of.
The Ablative Case.
The Ablative Case is used frequently in an adverbial sense; especially so is the case
with pronouns: kasma, why?; yasma, because; tasma, therefore; paccha, behind;
after; ara, afar off; hettha, below.
The Genitive Case.
The Genitive Case is seldom used adverbially; from pronouns we have: kissa why?
From adjectives: cirassa, long. From nouns: hetussa, causally.
The Locative Case.
The Locative is very often used adverbially: bahire, outside; dure, far; avidure, not
far; samlpe, santike, near; rahasi, privately, in secret; bhuvi, on earth, on the
earth.
(iii) Pure adverbs
By these are understood the adverbs which are not obtained by derivation and which are
not case-forms ; such are :
kira, kila, they say, we are told that; hi, certainly, indeed;
khalu, indeed; tu, now, indeed;
atha, atho, and, also, then; etc.
na, expressing simple negation; ma, expressing prohibition; ma is often used with the
Aorist. nanu, used in asking questions to which an affirmative answer is expected, nu
used in asking simple questions; no, not; nuna surely, perhaps; nana, variously.
The particle kva, where?
The above particles are called nipata by the grammarians, they number about two
hundred.
Verbal Prefixes; have already been treated of (514).
Inseparable Prefixes.
(a) a, and before a vowel an, not, without, free from.
e.g. abhaya, free from fear; abala, not foolish; apassanto, not seeing; analoketva, without
looking.
(b) du and before a vowel dur, bad, ill, hard difficult.
e.g. dubbanno (33. Remark), ugly, ill-favoured; dubbinlto ill conducted; duddamo, difficult
to tame; duggo, difficult to pass; dujjano, a bad man; dukkaro, difficult to perform;
dujjlvaq, a hard life.
(c) su has the contrary meaning of du :good, well, easy. It implies excess, facility,
excellence.
e.g. subhasito, well-spoken; subahu, very much; sudanto, well-tamed; sukaro, easy
to perform; sulabho, easy to be obtained.
Remarks.
After du, the initial consonant is generally reduplicated; reduplication seldom takes place
after su.
(d) sa, which is used instead of sam, (516), expresses the ideas of "possession, similarity;
with, and; like; including."
e.g. sabhariya, with (his) wife; salajja, having shame, ashamed; sabhoga, wealthy;
savihari, living with: sadevaka, including the worlds of gods.
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Remarks.
The particle sa is the opposite of particle a, an.
Preposition.
§533. It has been seen that Verbal prefixes are properly prepositions and are used with
nouns as well as verbs.
§534. Many adverbs are used with a prepositional force along with nouns. Those of class
(ii) Case form adverbs, are seldom used as prepositions, except perhaps those in to.
§535. Prepositions, or words used prepositionally may govern any case, except the
Nominative and Vocative.
§536. Most of the Verbal Prefixes require the noun to be in one case or other.
§537. The cases mostly used with prepositions or prepositional Adverbs are: the genitive,
the instrumentive and the accusative.
But only a few are used separately from the noun they govern.
For examples see "Syntax of Substantives."
Conjunctions.
§538. Indeclinables distinctly conjunctive are very few. The principal are:
(a) Copulative: ca, and, also, but, even. It is never used as the first word in a
sentence; atha, and, then, now; atho; and also then.
(b) Disjunctive: va, (never at the start of a sentence) uda, uda va, or va ... va, either
or; yadi va, whether; yadi va ... yadi va, whether or; atha va, or else, rather; na va,
or not; tatha pi, nevertheless.
(c) Conditional: yadi sace, if; ce (never at the beginning of a sentence) if; yadi
evarp yajj'evarj, if so.
(d) Causal: hi, for, because; certainly.
Interjections.
Ahaha, alas! oh! aho! ah!;
are, sirrah! I say! here!;
bho, friend! sir! I say!;
marine, why! methinks!;
sadhu, well! very well! very good!
aho vata, oh! ah!;
dhi, dhl, shame! fie! woe!;
bhane, I say! to be sure!;
he, oh!;
General Remarks.
The use of some particles will be given in the chapter on Syntax.
CHAPTER XII.
COMPOUNDS
§539. Declinable stems are frequently joined to one another to form compounds. In the
older language, compounds are simple and rarely consist of more than 2 or 3 stems, but
the later the language (i.e. in the commentaries and sub-commentaries) the more involved
they become.
§540. Compounds may also have an indeclinable as the first member; there are even a few
compounds made up entirely of indeclinables.
Remarks.
The Case Endings of the first member or members of a compound are generally dropped;
only in a few instances are they preserved.
§541. There are six kinds of Compound Words:
(i) dvanda, Copulative or Aggregative Compounds.
(ii) tappurisa, Dependent Determinate Compounds.
(iii) kammadharaya, Descriptive Determinate Compounds.
(iv) digu, Numeral Determinate Compounds.
(v) abyayibhava, Adverbial Compounds.
(vi) bahubbihi, Relative Or Attributive Compounds.
Remarks.
Native grammarians distribute the above into four classes by making. Nos. iii and iv
subdivisions of No. ii, tappurisa; but this classification, through lack of sufficient
distinctness, confuses the student unnecessarily. We shall therefore follow the above
division (54l).
Dvanda (Copulative or Aggregative Compounds).
§542. The members of these compounds are co-ordinate syntatically, in their
uncompounded state; each member would be connected with the other by means of the
conjunction ca, and.
§543. Dvanda Compounds are of two kinds:
(i) The compound is a plural and takes the gender and declension of its last
member.
(ii) The compound takes the form of a neuter singular and, whatever the number
of its members, becomes a collective. This is the case generally with the names of:
birds, parts of the body, persons of different sexes, countries, trees herbs, the
cardinal points, domestic animals, things that form an antithesis, etc.
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Remarks.
The following rules are given as to the order of the members of dvanda compounds:
(a) words in i and u are placed first;
(b) shorter words are placed before longer ones;
(c) T and u (long), are generally shortened in the middle of the compound;
(d) sometimes a feminine noun, in the middle of the compound, takes the
masculine form (candimasuriya) sometimes, or remains unchanged
(jAramaranag).
EXAMPLES OF (i).
samana ca brahmana ca = samanabrahmana, samanas and brahmins.
deva ca manussa ca = devamanussa, gods and men.
devanan ca manussanan ca = devamanussanag, of gods and men.
candima ca suriyo ca = candimasuriya, the sun and the moon.
aggi ca dhumo ca = aggidhuma, fire and smoke.
dhammo ca attho ca = dhammattha, the spirit and the word.
sariputte ca moggallane ca = sariputtamoggallane, in Sariputta and in Moggallana.
EXAMPLES OF (ii).
Note that the compounds which come under no. (ii) sometimes assume the form of the
plural like those of no.(i).
mukhanasikag = rnukhan ca nasika ca, the mouth and the nose,
chavimagsalohitag = chavi ca magsan ca lohitan ca, the skin, flesh and blood,
jaramaranag = jara ca maranan ca, old age and death,
hatthapadag or hatthapada = hattha ca pada ca, the hands and feet,
hatthiassag = hatthino ca assa ca, elephants and horses,
kusalakusalag or kusalakusala = kusalag akusalan ca, good and evil,
vajjimallag or vajjimalla = vajjl ca malla ca, the Vajjians and the Mallians.
§544. The compounds which take the plural form are called: itaritara, because the
members of the compound are considered separately; those that take the neuter singular
form: samahara, because the several members are considered collectively, those that take
either the plural or the neuter, are called: vikappasamahara.
Tappurisa. (Dependent Determinate Compounds).
§545. In these compounds the first member is a substantive in any case but the Nominative
and the Vocative, qualifying, explaining or determining the last member.
Remarks.
(a) The Case-ending of the first member is elided.
(b) In a few cases, the Case-ending is not elided; these compounds are called: alutta
tappurisa.
(c) The a of such words as: raja, mata, pita, bhata, etc, is shortened in the first member.
(d) Generally, a tappurisa follows the gender of the last member.
(i) tappurisa with accusative case, (dutiya tappurisa).
e.g., arannagato = arannag gato, gone to the forest,
sukhappatto = sukhag patto, attained happiness,
saccavadi = saccag vadi, speaking the truth,
kumbhakaro = kumbhag karo; a pot-maker, a potter,
pattagaho = pattag gaho, receiving a bowl,
atthakamo = atthag kamo, wishing the welfare of.
(ii) tappurisa with instrumentive case, (tatiya tappurisa).
e.g., buddhabhasito = buddhena bhasito, spoken by the Buddha.
vinnugarahito = vinnuhi garahito, censured by the wise.
sukahatag = sukehi ahatag, brought by parrots.
jaccandho = jatiya andho, blind by (from) birth.
urago = urena go, going on the breast, a snake.
padapo = padena po, drinking with the foot (root), a tree.
Remarks.
In some tappurisa compounds, a word, necessary to express properly the full meaning, is
altogether elided.
e.g., gulodano = gulena sagsattho odano, rice mixed with molasses,
assaratho = assena yutto ratho = a carriage yoked with horses, a horse carriage,
asikalaho = asina kalaho, a combat with swords.
(iii) tappurisa with dative case (catutthl tappurisa)
e.g., kathinadussag = kathinassa dussag, cloth for the kathina robe,
(this is a robe sewn on a fixed day, each year as a meritorious act.),
sajighabhattag = sajighassa bhattag, rice (prepared) for the clergy,
buddhadeyyag = buddhassa deyyag, worthy to be offered to the Buddha,
rajarahag = ranno arahag, worthy of (lit., to) the king.
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Remark.
(a) In these compounds, the last member designates the object destined for or attributed
to that which is expressed by the first member.
(b) Compounds formed by adding kamo "desirous of" to an infinitive are considered to be
tappurisas in the Dative relation, (nlruttadlpanl, saddanlti).
e.g., kathetukamo = katheturj kamo, desirous to speak,
sotukamo = soturj kamo, desirous to hear,
gantukamo = gantur) kamo, desirous to go.
(iv) tappurisa with ablative case, (pancaml tappurisa).
e.g., nagaraniggato = nagaramha niggato, gone out from town,
rukkhapatito = rukkhasma patito, fallen from the tree,
sasanacuto = sasanamha cuto, fallen away from religion.
corabhTto = corabhlto, afraid of the thief,
papabhlruko = papato bhlruko, fearing sin.
papajigucch! = papato jigucchl; loathing evil.
bandhanamokkho = bandhanasma mokkho, freedom from bonds or fetters,
lokaggo = lokato aggo, greater than the world,
matujo = matito jo, born from a mother.
Remarks.
These express: fear of, separation or going away from, fredom from, etc.
(v) tappurisa with genitive case, (chattha tappurisa).
e.g., rajaputto = ranno putto, the king's son, a prince.
dhannarasi = dhannanarj rasi, a heap of grains.
naditlrarj = nadiya tirarj, the river-bank, (from nadi).
bhikkhunisajigho = bhikkunlnar) sajigho, the assembly of the nuns (from
bhikkunl).
naruttamo = naranarj uttamo, the greatest of men.
Remarks.
(a) tappurisas in the Genitive relation are by far the most common.
(b) Final T and u of the first member are as a rule shortened to i and u respectively.
(c) The word: ratti, night, takes the form rattarj at the end of a tappurisa.
(vi) tappurisa with locative case, (sattani tappurisa).
e.g., arannavaso = aranne vaso, living in the forest,
danajjhasayo = dane ajjhasayo, inclined to alms-giving,
dhammarato = dhamme rato, delighting in the Law.
vanacaro = vane caro, walking in the woods,
thalattho = thale tho, standing on firm ground.
pabbatattho = pabbatasmip tho, standing on a mountain.
Anomalous tappurisa.
(a) Sometimes the first member of a tappurisa is placed last.
e.g., rajaharjso = harjsanar) raja, the swan-king, but also: harjsaraja.
alutta tappurisa.
(b) In these the Case-endings are not dropped:
e.g., pabhajikaro = pabharj karo, making light, the sun.
vessantaro = vessarj taro, crossing over to the merchants (a king's name),
parassapadarj = parassa padarj, word for another, Active Voice,
attanopadar) = attano padarj, word for one's self, Reflective Voice,
kutojo = kuto jo, sprung whence?
antevasiko = ante vasiko, a pupil within, a resident pupil.
urasilomo = urasi (loc.) lomo, having hair on the breast, hairy-breasted.
The student will remark that the case of the first member may be any case but the
Nominative and Vocative.
§546. (iii) Kammadharaya. Descriptive Determinate Compounds
Remarks.
(a) In kammadharaya compounds, the adjective: mahanta assumes the form: maha, and, if
the consonant which follows is reduplicated, the form: maha.
(b) The word: santa, good, being, takes the form; sa (Sk. sat).
(c) The word: puma, a male, rejects its final a.
(d) When the two members of a kammadharaya are feminine, the first one assumes the
form of the masculine.
(e) The Prefix na, not, is replaced by a before a consonant and by an before a vowel.
(f) Prefix ku, meaning bad, little, may become ka before a consonant, and kad before a
vowel.
(g) In their uncompounded state, the two members of a kammadharaya are in the same
case.
(i) The kammadharaya compound (which is also called: missakatappurisa) is divided into
nine classes:
(l) visesanapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the determining or qualifying word is
placedfirst.
e.g., mahapuriso = mahanto puriso, a great man.
mahanadi = mahanti nadl, a large river,
mahabbhayar) = mahantap bhayar), great fear,
aparapuriso = aparo puriso, the other man.
kanhasappo = kanho sappo, a black snake,
nlluppalar) = nllar) uppalar), a blue lotus.
93
(2) visesanaparapada, or visesanuttarapada-kammadharaya; in this, the second member
determines the first.
narasettho = naro settho, the oldest man.
purisuttamo = puriso uttamo, the greatest man.
buddhaghosacariyo = buddhaghoso acariyo, the teacher Buddhaghosa.
sariputtathero = sariputto thero, the Elder Sariputta.
(3) visesanobhayapada-kammadharaya, the two members of which are determinate.
e.g., sltunhag = sTtag (tan ca) unhag, heat and cold,
khanjakhujjo = khanjo (ca so) khujjo, (he is) lame (and) hump-backed,
andhabadhiro = andho (ca so) badhiro, (he is) blind (and) deaf,
katakatag = katag(ca tag) akatag, (what is) done (and) not done.
Remarks.
A word, as for instance, so, he, is generally understood between the two members of these
compounds.
(4) sambhavanapubbapada-kammadharaya; in which the first member indicates the origin
of the second term, or the relation in which the second term stands to the first. In these
compounds such words as: iti namely, thus called; evag thus, called; sajikhato, called,
named; hutva, being are generally understood, in order to bring out the full meaning of
the compound.
e.g., hetupaccayo = hetu (hutva) paccayo, the term (middle term) being, or
considered as, the cause, the term which is the cause or condition,
aniccasanna = anicca iti sanna, the idea, namely, Impermanence,
hinasamato = hino hutva samato, equal in being low, unworthy,
dhammabuddhi = dhammo iti buddhi, knowledge (arising from) the Law.
attaditthi = atta iti ditthi the (false) doctrine of Self.
(5) upama-or upamanuttarapada-kammadharaya, in these compounds, analogy is
expressed between the two terms. The word: viya, like, is understood between the two
members.
e.g., buddhadicco = adicco viya buddho, the sun-like-Buddha.
munisTho = slho viya muni, lion-like-sage, lion-sage,
munipujigavo, sage-bull,
buddhanago, Buddha-elephant.
saddhammaragsi = ragsi viya saddhammo, Light-like-Good Law, the Light of the
Good Law.
Remarks.
The words: adicca, sun, slha, lion; pujigava, usabha, bull; naga, elephant, are frequently
used as in the above examples, to denote: superiority, greatness excellence, eminence, so
that buddhadicco may be translated: the eminent Buddha; munisTho, the great sage;
munipujigavo, the eminent sage, etc.
(6) avadharanapubbapada-kammadharaya, in which the first member specifies a general
term. Native grammarians, in resolving these compounds, insert the word eva, just, even
(but which in these examples cannot be translated into English), between the two terms of
the compounds. In English, these compounds must be translated as if they were in the
Genitive relation.
e.g., gunadhanag = guno eva dhanag, wealth of virtues,
slladhanag = sllag eva dhanag, treasure of morality or of piety,
pannasatthag = panna eva satthag, the sword of wisdom,
pannapajjoto = panna eva pajjoto, the lamp of wisdom,
avijjamala = avijja eva malag, the stain of ignorance.
(7) kunipatapubbapada kammadharaya, the first member of which is: ku, (see f).
e.g., kuputto = ku + putto, a bad son.
kudasa = ku + dasa, bad slaves,
kadannag = kad + annag, bad food,
kapuriso = ka + puriso, a bad man.
kadariyo = kad + ariyo, badly noble, not noble, ignoble, miserly, stingy,
kalavanag = ka + lavanag, a little salt.
(8) nanipatapubbapada-kammadharaya, (see e).
e.g., anariyo = na + ariyo, ignoble.
anlti = na + iti free from calamity, secure.
anumi = na + umi, not having waves, waveless.
anatikkamma = na + atikkamma (gerd.), not transgressing or trespassing,
anatthakamo = na + atthakamo, not wishing for the welfare of.
(9) padipubbapada-kammadharaya, in which the first member is pa, pa or any other prefix.
e.g., pavacanag = pa + vacanag, the excellent word, Buddha's word.
(Native grammarians take pa to be the abbreviation of the word:
pakattho = excellent).
pamukho = pa + mukho (having the face towards), facing, in front of, chief.
vikappo = vi + kappo (thought, inclination), option.
atidevo = ati + deva, Supreme deva or God. (note that deva becomes: devo).
abhidhammo = abhi + dhammo (Law, doctrine), transcending Doctrine.
uddhammo = ud + dhammo, wrong or false doctrines.
ubbinayo = ud + vinayo (Discipline for the monks), wrong Discipline.
sugandho = su + gandho, good smell, fragrance.
dukkatag = du + katag, a bad, sinful act.
94
§547. Nouns In Apposition.
Nouns in Apposition are considered to be kammadharaya compounds:
e.g., vinayapitakag, the Vinaya. Basket (a part of the Buddhist Scriptures),
ajigajanapadag, the Province of Bengal,
magadharatthag, the Kingdom of Magadha.
cittogahapati, Citta, the householder, sakkodevaraja, Sakka, the Lord of gods.
Remark.
Sometimes the last member of a kammadharaya, being feminine, assumes the masculine
form.
e.g., dlghajajigho = dlgha + jajigha (feminine) long-legged.
§548. (iv) digu (Numeral compounds )
There are two kinds of digu:
(i) samahara digu, considered as collective takes the form of the neuter sing in g.
(ii) asamahara digu when the digu does not express a whole, but the objects
indicated by the last member are considered individually, the compound as a rule
taking the form of the plural.
Remarks.
(a) Some words, when last member of a digu, change their final vowel to a, if it be other
than a.
(b) The stems only of the numerals are used as first members.
(i) SAMAHARA-DlGU.
e.g., tilokag, the three worlds (collectively),
tiratanag the three Jewels (collectively),
catusaccag, the four Truths (collectively),
sattahag = satta + ahag (day), seven days, a week,
pancasikkhapadag, the five Precepts (collectively),
dvirattag = dvi + ratti, two nights (remark a),
pancagavag = panca + gavo, (remark a),
tivajigulag = ti + v (inserted, 28) ajiguli, three fingers,
navasatag, nine hundred,
catusahassag, four thousand.
(ii) ASAMAHARA-DIGU,
e.g., tibhava, the three states of existence,
catudisa, the four quarters,
pancindriyani, the five senses = panca + indriyani.
sakatasatani = sakata + satani, one hundred carts,
catusatani, four hundreds.
dvisatasahassani, two hundred thousand, (dvi sata sahassani).
§549. (v) Adverbial Compounds (abyayibhava).
Remarks.
(a) These compounds have for first member an indeclinable (529).
(b) The abyayibhava generally assumes the form of the accusative singular in g, and is
indeclinable.
(c) If the final vowel of the last member is a long a is replaced by ag; other long vowels
(except a), are shortened.
(i) e.g., upagajigag = upa + gajigayag (loc.), near the Ganges,
upanagarag = upa + nagarag, (loc.), near the town,
upagu = upa + gunnag (plural,) close to the cows,
anurathag = anu + rathe, behind the chariot,
yavajlvag = yava + jlva (abl.), as long as life lasts,
antopasadag = anto + pasadassa, within the palace,
anuvassag = anu + vassag, year after year, every year,
anugharag = house after house, in every house,
yathabalag = yatha + balena, according to (one's) power,
pativatag = pati + vatag (acc.), against the wind,
tiropabbatag = pabbatassa tiro, across the mountain,
uparipabbatag = pabbatassa + upari, upon the mountain,
patisotag = sotassa + patilomag, against the stream,
adhogajigag = gajigaya + adho, below the Ganges,
upavadhu = upa + vadhu, near (his) wife,
adhikumari = adhi + kumari, the young girl.
(ii) Sometimes, however, the case-ending is retained; the cases thus retained being
mostly the Ablative and the Locative. But in most cases, the Neuter form is also
met with for the same compound. The Ablative termination may be retained
when the indeclinable is: pari, apa, a, bahi, yava etc.
e.g., yavajiva or yavajivag, as long as life lasts.
apapabbata or apapabbatag, away from the mountain.
bahigama or bahigamag, outside the village.
abhavagga or abhavaggag, to the highest state of existence.
puraruna or purarunag, ( = arunamha pure), before daylight.
pacchabhatta, or pacchabhattag, after meal.
tiropabbata or tiropabbate (loc.) or tiropabbatag,
beyond, on the other side of, the mountain.
anto avTcimhi (loc.), in hell.
anutlre, along the bank.
antaravithiyag (loc.), in the street.
bahisaniyag (loc.), outside the curtain.
95
§550. (vi) Relative or Attributive Compounds, (bahubbihi).
Remarks.
(a) A bahubbihi compound, when resolved into its component parts, requires the addition
of such relative pronouns as: "he, who, that, which," etc., to express its full meaning; a
bahubbihi is therefore used relatively, that is, as an adjective, and consequently, the final
member assumes the forms of the three genders, according to the gender of the noun
which it qualifies. A bahubbihi is equal to a relative clause.
(b) All the Compounds explained above (dvanda, tappurisa, kammadharaya, dlgu,
abyayibhava), become, if used as adjectives, bahubbihi Compounds.
(c) bahubbihi being used as adjectives qualifying nouns, must agree in gender, number and
case with the nouns which they qualify.
(d) It follows from (c) that a bahubbihi may be in any case relation but the Vocative.
The following are the different kinds of bahubbihi.
(1) pathama-bahubbihi, Relative in the Nominative Case.
e.g., chinnahattho puriso = hand-cut man, a man whose hands have been
cut off.
Here, chinnahattho is the bahubbihi qualifying the noun puriso.
lohitamakkhitag mukhag = lohitena makkhitag mukhag, the mouth
besmeared with blood; lohita makkhitag is the bahubbihi.
susajjitag purag, a well-decorated city; susajjitag is the bahubbihi.
(2) dutiya-bahubbihi, Relative in the Accusative Case; that is, the bahubbihi gives
to the word which it determines or qualifies the sense of the Accusative relation.
e.g., agatasamano sajigharamo = imag sajigharamag samano agato, this
monastery the priest came to, the monastery into which the priest came;
agatasamano is the bahubbihi.
arulhanaro rukkho = so naro imag rukkhag arulho the tree into which
the man climbed, arulhanaro is the bahubbihi.
(3) tatiya-bahubblhi, Relative in the Instrumentive Case; in which the bahubbihi
gives to the word it determines the sense of the Instrumentive relation.
e.g., jitindriyo samano = yena jitani indriyani so samano, the samana by
whom the senses have been conquered, jitindriyo is the bahubbihi.
vijitamaro bhagava = so bhagava yena maro vijito, the Blessed One by
whom Mara was vanquished, the Blessed One who vanquished Mara,
vijitamaro is the bahubibhi.
(4) catutthi bahubbihi, Relative in the Dative Case; in which the bahubbihi gives to
the word it determines the sense of the Dative relation.
e.g., dinnasujiko puriso = yassa sujiko dinno so, he to whom tax is given,
dinnasujiko is the bahubbihi.
upanltabhojano samano = so samano yassa bhojanag upanltag, the priest
to whom food is given, upanltabhojano is the bahubbihi.
pg. 96
(5) pancaml-bahubbihi, Relative in the Ablative case; in which the compound
gives to the word determined the sense of the Ablative relation.
e.g., niggatajano gamo = asma gamasma jana niggata, that village from
which the people have departed, an abandoned village, niggatajano is
the bahubbihi.
apagatakalakag vatthag = idag vatthag yasma kalaka apagata, the cloth
from which (the) black spots have departed = a cloth free from black
spots, apagatakalakag is the bahubbihi.
(6) chatthl-bahubbihi, Relative in the Genitive Case; in which the compound gives
to the word it determines the sense of the Genitive relation.
e.g., chinnahattho puriso = so puriso yassa hattho chinno, the man whose
hands are cut off. chinnahattho is the babhubbihi.
visuddhasTlo jano = so jano yassa sTlag visuddhag, that person whose
conduct is pure, a moral person. visuddhasTlo is the bahubbihi.
(7) sattama-bahubblhi, Relative in the Locative Case; that is, in which the
bahubbihi gives to the determined word the sense of the Locative case.
e.g., sampannasasso janapado = yasmig janapade sassani sampannani, a
district in which the crops are abundant, a fertile district, sampannasasso
is the bahubbihi.
bahujano gamo = yasmig game babu jana honti, a village in which are
many persons, a populous village, bahujano is the bahubbihi.
(e) The word determined by the bahubbihi Compound is often understood or
implied and not expressed.
e.g., dinnasujiko (4) = he who receives taxes, a tax collector,
jitindriyo (3) = he who has subdued his senses,
lohitamakkhito (l) = besmeared with blood,
sattahaparinibbuto = dead since a week,
somanasso = joyful (lit., he to whom joy has arisen),
chinnahattho (6) = he whose hands have been cut off.
masajato = a month old (lit., he who is born since one month),
vijitamaro (3) = he who has conquered Mara, the Buddha.
(f ) In some bahubbihi, the determining word may be placed either first or last
without changing the meaning:
e.g., hatthachinno or chinnahattho.
jatamaso of masajato.
(g) Feminine nouns ending in T, u as well as stems ending in tu ( = ta, see, 163,
words declined like sattha,) generally take the suffix ka, when they are the last
member of a bahubbihi; possession is then implied:
e.g., bahukattuko deso = a place in which there are many artisans,
bahukumarikag lculag = a family in which there are many girls,
bahunadiko janapado = a district with many rivers.
Note that long T is shortened before ka; the same remark applies to long
u.
(h) When a feminine noun is the last member of a babubbihi, it takes the
masculine form if determining a masculine noun, and the first member, if also
feminine, drops the sign of the feminine:
e.g., digha jajigha, a long leg; dlghajajigha itthl, a long-legged woman,
but: dlghajajigho puriso a long-legged man.
(i) The adjective maha, may be used as the first member of a bahubbihi:
e.g., mahapanno, of great wisdom, very wise.
(j) Sometimes a is added, to the words: dhanu, a bow, dhamma, the Law, and a few
others, when last members of a bahubbihi:
e.g., gandhivadhanu = gandhivadhanva (27, ii), Arjuna, he who has a
strong bow.
paccakkhadhamma, but also paccakkhadhammo, to whom the Doctrine
is apparent.
§551. The student will have remarked that all the examples given above of bahubbihi, are
digu, tappurisa, kammadharaya, dvanda and abyayibhava, used relatively. To make the
matter clearer, however a few examples are here given.
dvanda used relatively.
e.g., nahatanulitto, bathed and anointed,
kusalakusalani kammani, good and bad actions,
tappurisa used relatively.
e.g., buddhabhasito dhammo, the Doctrine spoken by the Buddha =
Buddhena bhasito dhammo.
sotukamo jano, a person desirous to hear, one desirous to hear,
nagaraniggato, one or he who has gone out of town,
kammadharaya used relatively.
e.g., gunadhano = rich in virtues,
sugandho = fragrant.
khanjakhujjo puriso = a lame and hump backed man.
digu used relatively.
e.g., dvimulo rukkho = a two rooted tree,
pancasatani sakatani = five hundred carts,
sahassaragsi = the thousand rayed = the sun.
abyayibhava used relatively.
e.g., saphala = saha phala, fruitful (lit., having fruits),
savahano maro, Mara with his monture.
niraparadho bodhisatto, the faultless Bodhisatta.
Upapada Compounds.
§552. When the second member of a dutiya tappurisa Compound is a kita noun or Primary
derivative, (see Chapter XIII, Primary and Secondary Derivation), and the first member a
noun in the Accusative relation, the compound is called upapada. Such a compound may
therefore be called indifferently: upapada or upapadatappurisa. or simply: tappurisa.
(niruttidTpanl)
Examples.
atthakamo = atthag kamo, wishing for the welfare of, (kamo is a kita derivative).
kumbhakaro = kumbhag + karo, a pot-maker, a potter, (karo is a kito derivative).
pattagaho = pattag gaho, receiver of the bowl.
rathakaro = rathag karo, carriage maker, cartwright.
brahmacarT = brahmag carl, one who leads the higher life.
dhammannu = dhammag nu, he who knows the Law.
Anomalous Compounds.
§553. A few compounds are found which are quite anomalous in their formation, that is,
they are made up of words not usually compounded together. These compounds must
probably be considered as of very early formation, and be reckoned amongst the oldest in
the language. We give a few examples:
e.g., vitatho = vi + tatha, false, unreal.
yathatatho = yatha + tatha real, true, as it really is.
itiha ( = iti, thus + ha, lengthened to a), thus indeed, introduction, legend.
itihasa ( = iti, thus + ha, indeed + asa, was), thus indeed it was = itiha.
itihTtiha ( = itiha + itiha ) = itiha, itihasa.
itivuttag ( = iti, thus + vuttag P P.P. of vatti, to say), thus it was said; the name of a
book of the Buddhist Scriptures.
itivuttaka ( = iti + vuttag + kasuffix) = itivutta.
annamannag ( = annag + annag), one another.
paramparo ( = parag + para), successive.
ahamahamika ( = ahag, I + ahag + ika suffix), egoism, arrogance, the conceit of
superiority lit., connected with I.
97
Complex Compounds.
§554. Compounds, as above explained, may themselves become either the first or the last
member of another compound, or two compounds may be brought together to form a new
one, and this new one again may become a member of another compound, and so on to
almost any length, thus forming compounds within compounds. These compounds are
mostly used relatively that is, they are bahubbihi. The student ought to bear in mind that,
the older the language is, the fewer are these complex compounds, and the later the
language, the more numerous do they become; it therefore follows that long compounds
are a sign of decay and, to a certain extent, a test as to the relative age of a text.
Examples.
varanarukkhamule, at the foot of the varana tree, is a tappurisa compound in the genitive
relation, and is resolved as follows: varanarukkhassa mule; varanarukkhassa is itself a
kammadharaya compound = varana eva rukkha. It is therefore a tappurisa compound, the
first member of which is a kammadharaya compound.
maranabhayatajjito, terrified by the fear of death, a bahubbihi qualifying a noun
understood, and is a tappurisa in the instrumentive relation: maranabhayena tajjito;
maranabhaya is itself a tappurisa in the ablative: marana bhaya.
slhalatthakathaparivattanag, the translation of the Singhalese Commentaries, is first: a
tappurisa compound = sihalatthakathaya parivattanag, second, another tappurisa: sihalaya
atthakatha = the Commentaries of Ceylon, the Singhalese Commentaries.
aparimitakalasancitapunnabalanibbattaya, produced by the power accumulated during an
immense period of time, the whole is a bahubbihi feminine in the Instrumentive.
We resolve it as:
aparimitakalasancitapunnabala, a tappurisa determining nibbattaya;
aparimitakalasancitapunna, a kammadharaya determining bala;
aparimitakalasancita, a kammadharaya determining purrna;
aparimitakala, a kammadharaya determining sancita;
lastly aparimita is a kammadharaya = a + parimita.
In its uncompounded state, it would run as follows:
aparimite kale sancitassa punnassa balena nibbattaya.
Remark.
The student should follow the above method in resolving compounds.
Changes of certain words in compounds.
§555. Some words, when compounded, change their final vowel; when last members of a
bahubbihi, they, of course, assume the ending of the three genders, according to the
gender of the noun they determine. The most common are here given:
go, a cow, bullock, becomes gu, gavo or gavag:
pancagu, bartered with five cows (pancahi gohi kito); rajagavo the king's bullock
(ranno go); daragavag, wife and cow (daro ca go); dasagavag, ten cows.
bhumi, place, state, stage, degree, storey becomes bhuma:
jatibhumarj, birth place (jatiya bhumi); dvibhumarj, two stages (dvi bhumiyo);
dvibhumo, two storeyed. Ka, is sometimes superadded, as: dvibhumako =
dvibhumo.
nadl, a river, is changed to nada:
pancanadarj, five rivers; pancanado, having five rivers.
ajiguli, finger, becomes ajigula (see, 548, a).
ratti, night, is changed to ratta (see, 548, a); here are a few more examples:
dlgharattarj for a long time (lit. long nights = dlgha rattiyo; ahorattag, Oh! the
night! (aho ratti); addharatto, midnight (rattiya addhag = the middle of the night).
akkhi, the eye, changes to akkha:
visalakkho, large eyed (visalani akkhlni yassa honti); virupakkho, having horrible
eyes, name of the Chief of the Nagas (virupani akkhlni yassa, to whom (are)
horrible eyes); sahassakkho, the thousand-eyed, a name of Sakka (akkhlni
sahassani yassa); parokkhag, invisible, lit., "beyond the eye" (akkhinag
tirobhago).
sakha, (masc.) friend, companion, becomes sakho:
vayusakho, the breeze's friend, fire (vayuno sakha so); sabbasakho, the friend of
all (sabbesag sakha).
atta, self, one's self becomes atta:
pahitatto, resolute, whose mind is bent upon, lit, directed towards (pahito pesito
atta yena, by whom the mind is directed upon); thitatto, of firm mind (thito atta
assa, whose mind is firm).
puma = male, a man, becomes pug, and final g is assimilated to the following consonant
according to the usual rules:
pullijigag, the male sex: manhood, the masculine gender (pug + lingag,
characteristic, sign); pupkokilo, a male cuckoo (pug + kokilo).
-.98
saha, with, is abbreviated to sa, which is placed at the beginning of compounds ka is
sometimes superadded:
sapicuka, of cotton, with cotton, as -sapicukag mandalikar), a ball of cotton,
cotton ball; sadevako, with the deva worlds; saha is used in the same sense:
sahodaka, with water, containing water (saha udaka).
santa, good, being, is also abbreviated to sa (see, 546, b):
sappurisa, a good man; sajjano, well-born, virtuous (sa + jana, a person).
samana, same, similar, equal; is likewise shortened to sa:
sajati or sajatika, of the same species, of the same class (samanajati); sajanapado;
of, or belonging to, the same district (samanajanapado); sanamo, of the same
name (samano namo); sanabhi, of the same navel, uterine.
mahanta, becomes maha (see 546, a).
jaya, wife, takes the forms jani, jar], tudaq*, jayarj, before the word pati, lord, husband:
jayapati, jayampati, janipati, jampati, tudampati, husband and wife.
*The niruttidTpanl has the following interesting note on the word tudag:"yatha ca
sakkataganthesu 'daro ca pati ca dampatl' ti" And lower down: "tattha 'tu' saddo
padapuranamatte yujjati".
Verbal Compounds.
§556. Many nouns and adjectives are compounded with Vkar, to do and Vbhu, to be, or
with their derivatives very much in the manner of Verbal Prefixes.
§557. The noun or adjective stems thus used change final a or final i to T.
Examples.
dalha, hard, firm, dalhikaroti, to make firm,
dalhikaranaq, making firm, strengthening,
bahula, abundant, bahulTkaroti, to increase, to enlarge,
bahullkaranaq, increasing; bahullkato, increased,
bhasma, ashes, bhasmibhavati, to be reduced to ashes,
bhasmibhuto, reduced to ashes.
CHAPTER XIII.
DERIVATION
§558. We have now come to a most important part of the grammar; the formation of nouns
and adjectives otherwise called Derivation.
§559. In Pali, almost every declinable stem can be traced back to a primary element called a
Root.
§560. A root is a primitive element of the language incapable of any grammatical analysis,
and expressing an abstract idea. It is common in European languages to express the idea
contained in the root by means of the infinitive, e.g. Vgam, to go, but it must be borne in
mind that the root is not an infinitive, nor indeed a verb or noun, but simply a primary
element expressing a vague indefinite idea. This indefinite idea is developed out of the
root and is made to ramify into a diversity of meanings, both abstract and concrete, by
means of suffixes.
§561. The roots of the Pali language, with slight variations in form, easily recognizable to
the trained eye, are common with those of Sanskrit and consequently with many of the
roots of the Indo-European Languages.
§562. Every true root is monosyllabic as: Vnas, to perish; Vbha, to shine; Vruh, to grow;
V pac, to cook. Roots which have more than one syllable are the result of (a) the union of a
verbal prefix with the root itself, both having become inseparable in the expression of a
particular idea; for instance: V sajigam: to fight, = sam + gam, lit, to come together, to
close in upon; and (b) of reduplication (372ff) as Vjagar, to be wakeful, from Vgar (Sanks.
Vgr) to awake.
§563. There are two great divisions of Derivation:
(i) kita (krt), or Primary.
(ii) taddhita, or Secondary.
§564. Primary Derivatives are formed from the root itself and Secondary Derivatives from
the Primary Derivatives.
§565. Native grammarians recognise a third derivation, which they call unadi (un + adi),
from the suffix un by which a few words are derived. But the unadi derivation is very
arbitrary, and the connection between the noun and the root is not clear, either in
meaning or in form. These unadi derivatives are included in the kita Derivation; unadi
suffixes are therefore included in the kita-Suffixes and will be distinguished by an asterisk
(*).
99
§566. We shall therefore in the present chapter, treat of Primary and Secondary derivation.
A few hints only will be given on the unadi derivation.
§567. When Suffixes, both primary (kita) and secondary (taddhita) are added to roots,
nouns or adjectives guna (cf. §103-6) frequently takes place; that is, a may be lengthened to
a, and i and u be respectively changed to e and o.
§568. Whenever guna takes place by the addition of a suffix, native grammarians put an
indicatory sign before or after the suffix to show that guna is to take place; this indicatory
sign is generally the letter n and sometimes the letter r. For instance: V cur, to steal, +
suffix na = cora, a thief. Here, the true suffix is a, the letter n being simply indicatory that
guna change must take place; again, Vkar, to do, + na = kara, a doer. But y/ kar + suffix a =
lcara, a doer; in this last example no guna takes place and therefore , the suffix has not the
indicatory sign. This sign is called by grammarians: anubandha. It is therefore clear that
the anubandha or "indicatory sign of guna" is not part of the suffix.
§569. European grammarians as a rule do not note the anubandha, but in this book it will
be noted and put within brackets, and in small type, after the true suffix, thus: (n)a, or ka
(n). the true suffixes will come first, printed in bold type. [The format has been changed
slightly in this edition, as will be seen below — E.M.]
§570. Again, some suffixes are shown by native grammarians by means of some
conventional signs; e.g. nvu is the conventional sign for suffix aka; yu is that for anap.
Such conventional signs will be shown within brackets, after the true suffix, as; anap(yu);
this means that anap is the true suffix, yu the conventional sign used by native
grammarians to represent the suffix anap.
§571. It must be remembered that sometimes even some of the prefixes explained in (514)
undergo guna as: virajja + ka = virajjaka; patipada + (n)a = patipada; vinaya + (n)ika =
venayika.
§572. Before some suffixes, (generally those with the indicatory n final c of the root is
changed to k, and final j to g; as
Vpac + (n)a = paka, a cook
Vruj + (n)a = roga, disease.
§573. The final vowel of a stem may be elided before a suffix.
§574. The rules of sandhi and assimilation are regularly applied.
(i) Primary Derivatives (kita).
§575. As has been said already Primary Derivatives are formed directly from the roots by
means of certain suffixes; these suffixes are called kita suffixes.
§576. The kita suffixes are given below in alphabetical order to faciliate reference.
a- (a) (n) (a). By means of this suffix are formed an extremely large number of derivatives,
some of which take guna and some of which do not. It forms nouns, (substantive and
adjective) showing:
lst-action:
yj pac, to cook + a = paka, the act of cooking;
Vcaj, to forsake + a = caga, forsaking, abandonment;
Vbhaj, to divide + a = bhaga, dividing;
Vkam, to love + a = kama, love.
2nd- the doer or agent:
V car, to roam + a = cara and cara, a spy;
Vhar, to take, captivate, + a = hara, the Captivator, a name of Shiva;
Vkar, to do, make + a = kara, that which does, the hand; also kara, a doer,
maker.
§3rd- abstract nouns of action:
yj kar + a = kara, action, making;
yj kam to step, proceed + a = kama, step, succession, order;
Vkamp, to shake + a = lcampa, shaking, trembling;
Vyuj, to join + a = yoga, joining.
§4th- It forms adjectives:
yj kar + a = kara, doing, making, also kara, causing, making;
y/ car, to walk, roam, cara, walking, roaming, and also cara, do;
y/ plu, to swim, float + a = plava, swimming, floating.
The student will readily understand that the root may be preceded by any prefix:
sam + Vgam + a = sajigama, assembly;
pa + Vvis, to enter + a = pavesa, entrance;
anu + yj sar to go, move, walk + a = anusara, following.
The same remark applies to all the other suffixes.
§577. From the adjectives formed by this suffix (4th), are formed the upapada compounds
(552):
kammakaro = kammap karo (kammap karotT ti), the doer of the act;
kumbhakaro = khumbhap karo (kumbhap karoti'ti), the maker of the pot, potter.
100
§578. Very similar in nature with the upapada compounds are those compounds
which are the names of persons. In our opinion they are purely and simply
upapadas, but Kaccayana has the following rule: "sannayag a nu" that is, to form a
proper name, suffix nu ( = g = Accus. case) is added to the 1st member of the
compound, which is the direct object of the root which forms the 2nd member
and after which the suffix a is added to denote the agent:
arindama, the subduer of his enemies = ari, enemy + g (nu) + Vdam, to subdue + a.
So vessantara, who has crossed over to the merchants, (vessa + g (nu) + V tar, to
cross + a);
tanhajikara, creating desire = tanha, desire + g (nu) + kar + a. The name of a
Buddha.
It will be seen from the above examples that the 1st member is in the Acc. case and is
governed by the 2nd member which is an agent-noun formed by the suffix a.
Remark. The nouns formed by a are masculine: they form the feminine according to rules
(183), and the same applies to the adjectives (197).
abha*- Used to form the names of some animals; the derivation is obscure.
kalabha, or kalabha, a young elephant, from Vkal, to drive, to sound;
usabha, a bull from Vus, (Sk. rs), to go, flow, push;
sarabha, a fabulous eight-legged kind of deer, from Vsar (Sic. sr), to injure, break,
tear;
karabha, a camel, from Vkar, to do.
aka (nv)-forms a numerous class of action-nouns and adjectives with guna of the radical
vowel:
Vkar, to make, do + aka = karaka, making, causing or maker, doer;
V gah, to take, receive + aha = gahaka, taking, receiving, a receiver: sometimes a -y
is inserted between aka and a root ending in a vowel, especially long a:
V da, to give + aka = dayaka, a giver.
Remark.
The feminine of these derivatives is generally in ka or ika.
ala*-forming a few nouns of doubtful derivation from, it is said, the roots:
Vpat, to split, slit; Vkus, to heap, bring together, cut;
Vkal, to drive, sound, throw, etc.; patala, covering, membrane, roof; kusala, that
which is capable of cutting sin, meritorious act.
These nouns are neuter.
an- only a few words are derived from this suffix:
yj raj, to rule + an = raj an, a king, ruler.
Remark.
Nouns in an have the Nom.Sing. in a (156).
ana (yu)- this suffix forms an immense number of derivative nouns and adjectives. The
nouns are neuter, or fem. in a; the adjectives are of the three genders. Guna may or may
not take place; it is however, more common with the adjectives.
Nouns:
Vpac, to cook + ana = pacanag, the cooking; Vgah, to take + ana = gahanag, the
seizing, taking; Vtha, to stand + ana = thanag, a place.
Adjectives:
pa + Vnud, to push, move + ana = panudano, removing, dispelling; Vghus, to
sound + ana = ghosano, sounding; Vkudh, to be angry + ana = kodhano, angry.
The fem. of these adjectives is sometimes in a, sometimes in T.
Fem. V sev, to serve, stay by + ana = sevana, also, sevanag, service, following; Vkar,
to execute + ana = karana, agony, torture.
as- This suffix forms a not very large, but important class of words, which have already
been explained (160); guna sometimes takes place; they are declined like manas (59); their
Nom. Sing, is in o.
Vvac, to say, speak + as = vacas (vaco), speech, word; Vtij, to be sharp + as = tejas
(tejo), sharpness, splendour [or: heat, flame, fire, etc. — E.M.]
ani*-Rarely found, it properly does not form nouns, but a vituperative negative imperative,
with the prohibitive particle a (242, a) before the root, and a dative of the person who is
forbidden to act:
agamani = a + Vgam + ani, you are not to go! as in "paradesag te agamani", "You
are not to go elsewhere!" "te idag kammag akarani (a + Vkar + ani).
avi = vi (tavi)- is used as has already been seen, to form participles (231) so also:
ana (448), also at, ant = nta (440) so that the Perf. Active, the Pres. Active and the
Reflective Participles are considered by native grammarians as coming under
the head of kita Derivatives. The same remark applies to the P.P.P.
dhu- so given by native grammarians is, properly adhu; it forms but a few
derivatives and is only another form of thu = athu (see below).
101
i- forms a large class of derivatives, Masc., Fem. and Neuter, as well as a few adjectives. The
nouns may be agent-nouns or abstract. But the derivation is not always quite clear
(principally of neuter nouns), hence, some grammars include this suffix among the unadi.
Strengthening takes place in a few roots.
Masc.
Vku, to sound sing + i = kavi, one who sings = a poet;
Vmun = man to think + i = muni, one who thinks = a sage.
Fem.
-s/lip, to smear, rub + i = lipi, a rubbing over, writing;
•v/ruc, to shine, to please + i = ruci, light, pleasure.
Neut.
akkhi, eye; aggi, fire, atthi, bone, and a few others, of very doubtful
derivation.
Adj.
\/suc, to beam, glow, burn + i = suci, beaming, clear, pure.
By means of this suffix is formed from Vdha, to bear, hold, a derivative: dhi, which forms
many compounds, mostly masculine:
sam + dhi = sandhi, connection, union (in grammar = euphony);
udadhi, the ocean = uda, water + dhi, holding (uda + V dha + i);
others are:
nidhi, a receptacle (ni + V dha + i);
paridhi, circle, halo (pari + Vdha + i).
Similarly, from, V da to give with prefix a, we obtain: adi ( = a + Vda + i) = and so forth, and
so on, etc, lit. = beginning. The word adi is much used at the end of compounds.
icca (ricca), and iriya(ririya),-are given by Kaccayana as kita prefixes, but in reality they are
not: both are suffixes of the F.P.P. (466); they are found only in the two examples: kicca and
kiriya, (lit., what is to be done) business:
Vkar + icca = kicca (with elision of radical a and of r) Vkar + iriya = kiriya with
elision of radical a and of r).
But the true derivation* is kar + tya = kitya (with elision of ar and insertion of i) = kicca,
according to the usual rules (74).
[*Sans. Vkr + tya = krtya ; kr + ya = krya = kriya.]
ika- is given for the only root:
Vgam, to go: gamika, one who goes.
in = T (ni)- This forms a very great number of derivatives whose stem ends in in, and the
Nom. Sing. I (see 137, 173); they are properly possessive adjectives, sometimes used
substantively. Guna as a rule takes place.
-v/gah, to take, receive + in = gahin (gahi), taking, catching;
V kra + in = karin (karl), doing; papakarl, a sinner:
Vya, to go, yayin (yayl), going; nagarayayl, going to the town;
V da, to give, dayin, (day!), giving, a giver.
Note that a y is inserted between the suffix and the roots ending in a long. The Feminine is
formed according to rules (189).
ina- A few nouns are formed by this suffix; there is no guna:
Vsup, to sleep + ina = supinap (Neut.), a dream, sleep. The derivation of some
nouns and adjectives from this suffix is not apparent and clear, and it is also
classed as an unadi; V dakkh, to be able, skilful + ina = dakkhina, able, southern.
ira-The derivitives from this, nouns and adjectives, are few; there is no guna:
V rue, to shine + ira = rucira, brilliant, beautiful;
Vvaj, to be strong + ira = vajira, thunderbolt.
iya, ittha- are the suffixes used for the comparison of adjectives (238).
isa*-forms a few nouns, mostly Masc., of rather obscure derivation:
V pur, to fill + isa = purisa, a man, person;
Vsun, to oppress + isa = sunisa, an oppressor;
Vil, to shake, come + isa = ilisa, one who shakes;
V mah to be great + isa = mahisa, mighty, a buffalo.
itta* (nitta)- is said to express multitude (?): the root is gunated:
Vvad, to speak, to play (music) + itta = vadittap, the multitude of those that play
music, an orchestra.
This suffix and its derivatives are incomprehensible; but see -tta,-tra where its probable
formation will be explained.
Ivara*-forms a few Neut. nouns of doubtful connection with the roots from which they are
derived:
V ci, to gather, to depend upon + Tvara = clvarap, a monk's garment, that which is
heaped upon or depended upon;
V pa, to drink + Tvara = plvarap, beverage, that which is to be drunk.
pg. 102
ka is added to very few roots which take guna; it forms agent-nouns and adjectives:
Vvad, to speak + ka = vadaka, one who speaks, a musician; playing (adj.);
Vdah, to burn + ka = dahaka, burning (adj.). Note that these two words would be
better derived from suffix aka (see above)
V sukh (Sk. cus) + ka = sukkha, dry, dried up;
Vthu (Sk. stu) to dribble, drop + ka = thoka, a little, ka often takes a connecting
vowel i or u before a root, and forms the suffixes ika, uka (see also).
la generally with connecting vowels: a, or i before it. la is but another form of ra (see also):
Vthu, to be thick, strong + la = thula, thick, fat;
V cap to waver, tremble + (a) la = capala, tremulous, fickle, giddy;
Vpa, to keep, guard + la = pala, a guardian;
Van, to breathe, blow softly + (i) la = anila, wind, breeze.
lana- as well as yana given as primary suffixes, are not at all suffixes; the true suffix is ana,
which is a taddhita suffix (see also).
ma- forms some abstract nouns, agent-nouns, and some adjectives: Vbhl, to fear, be afraid
of + ma = bhlma, terrible, fearful;
Vghar (Sk. ghr) to be warm, to glow + ma = gharma = ghamma, heat, warmth.
(Note the assimilation of r (80);
Vthu, to praise, thoma, praise;
Vdhu, to shake, move hither and thither + ma = dhuma smoke.
This suffix, in Pali, becomes nearly confounded with the next: man, and native
grammarians are often at a loss in choosing between these two suffixes: the reason is that
no word in Pali being allowed to end in a consonant, they have included the stems in "an"
in the vowel declension (152, 156-c, 157-a).
man- (given as ramma as well as man by Kaccayana) forms action nouns, Masc. and Neuter;
in a few cases the noun being both Masc. and Neut.; the stems are in an the Nom, in a, o, or
f) :
Vdhar; to hold, bear + man = dhammo, dhammap, nature, characteristic, duty, the
Law; Vkar + man = kammarj, action, karma (Note the assimilation of r), Vbhl to
fear + man = bhemo, fearful, terrible;
Vkhi, to destroy, make an end of + ma = khemo, secure, peaceful, khemap, safety,
happiness.
Most of the derivatives from man, have migrated to the class of those formed by the last
suffix (ma).
mana- This is the suffix of the Pres. Part. Reflective already seen (447). (See, ana, above).
mi- The number of derivatives from this suffix is very restricted, they are Masc. or Fern.
There is no guna.
Vbhu, to exist, become + mi = bhumi, the earth, ground, a place;
Vu (Sk. v), to roll, turn from side to side + mi = umi (urmi, note the elision of
radical r), a wave.
na- The use of this suffix in forming a certain number of P.P.P. has been explained (458); it
also forms a few nouns; the root takes no guna, but through assimilation, the root is not
always recognisable:
Vvar, to cover enclose + na = vanna (80, 83), colour, external appearance;
V sup (Sk. svap) to sleep + na = soppa ( =Sk. svapna), sleep;
Vphar (also phur =Sk. sphur, sphr), to shake, to make a jerky motion + na = panna
a feather, wing.
From V tas (Sk. trs), tanha, thirst, craving;
Vji, to conquer + na = jina, conqueror.
Connected with this na, are the suffixes ina, una (see also); also: tana, ( =Sk. tna), from this
last is derived the word ratana, gift, blessing, jewel, from Vra, to bestow + tna = tana (note
that radical a is shortened through the influence of the double consonant to tna see 34).
ni- from this we obtain but a few nouns.
Fem. Vha, to quit, forsake + ni = hani, abandonment, loss, decay;
Vyu, to fasten, to unite + ni = yoni, womb, origin, a form of existence.
nu- forms a few words mostly Masc., some abstract and some concrete: Vbha. to shine, to
be bright + nu = bhanu, beam, light, the sun;
V dhe, to drink + nu = dhenu, yielding milk, a milch-cow.
ta 1-This suffix has been explained in the formation of the P. P. P. (450). It also forms a few
concrete nouns:
V du, to go far, to a certain distance + ta = duta, messenger;
Vsu to impel, to set in motion + ta = suta, a charioteer. The student will remark
that even these nouns look very much like P.P.P. (see. 452 remarks). The suffix ita,
also connected with the- P.P.P. (452, ii), forms a few derivatives of doubtful
connection with roots: palita, grey; lohita, red; harita, green, etc.
ta 2 (Sk.- tas)- forms a few nouns
V su to go, pass + ta = sota, a stream;
V su, to hear + tar = sota, the ear.
pg. 103
ta (ritu, ratu) (Sk. tr or tar)- This suffix forms a pretty large number of agent-nouns; See
§162). [I would r]emark that the base is in u, and the nominative in a;
Vma, to measure, mete out (food, etc.) + ta = mata, mother;
Vvad, to speak, say + ta = vatta, one who says, tells, a speaker.
ti- This forms a very numerous class of action nouns, Fern., agent-nouns, and a limited
number of adjectives.
Vbhaj, to divide + ti = bhatti( = bhakti, §426 remark, 59, a), division;
Vkitt, to praise + ti = kitti (with one t dropped), praise;
Fem. -J gam, go + ti = gati (§456), a going, journey.
From Vmuc, mutti, deliverance;
from Vman, to think, mati (§455), thought, etc.
A j. \/ tha, stand, last + ti = thiti, lasting;
\/pad, to go, step + ti = patti (64), going, a foot soldier.
tu 1- This is properly the suffix of the Infinitive, which has become an Accusative (363-i):
but it also forms nouns chiefly Masc., but of the other genders too:
V dha, to lay, put + tu = dhatu, Masc, and Fem., that which lay (at the bottom), a
primary element, a root, principle;
Vtan, to stretch + tu = tantu, a thread, Masc; Vsi, to bind + tu = setu, a tie, bridge,
tu 2- The same as ta (ritu ratu) above.
tra, ta (tran, ta)- forms a large number of derivatives chiefly denoting the agent, and
concrete nouns:
V chad, to cover over + tra, ta = chatrap, chattap, an umbrella (in chatra d has been
dropped to avoid the collocation of three consonants; in chatta it is assimilated);
Vga (a collateral form of Vgap), to move + tra, ta = gattap, limb;
Vnl, to lead + tra, ta = netrap, nettap, the eye, that which leads.
tha- The derivatives from this are not very numerous:
Vga, to sing + tha = gatha, a song, stanza, verse;
Vtar (Sk. tr), to cross + tha = titthap, ford, landing place (with connecting i).
thu and also dhu- give only a few derivatives, and have generally the form atthu, adhu.
Vvip; Vvep, to shake, tremble + thu, dhu = vepathu, vepadhu, trembling;
Vvam to throw up, vomit + thu, dhu = vamathu, vamadhu vomitting.
ra- Forms some nouns and adjectives; there is no guna, mostly found in the forms: ira, ura
(see also), and ara.
bhand Vbhad, to receive, praise, + ra = bhadra, bhadda, (adj.) laudable, good,
worthy;
V dhl, to think + ra = dhlra (adj.) wise, a wise man;
Vbham, to flutter, move in circles + (a) ra = bhamara, a bee.
ri- gives very few derivatives:
Vbhu + ri = bhuri (adj.), abundant, much.
ru- forms some nouns and adj.:
Vbhl, to fear, be afraid + ru = bhlru, timid;
V can, to rejoice in, to gladden + ru = caru (with elision of n), dear, gladsome.
u (ru and u)- Although making a large number of derivatives, substantive and adjectives, as
the connection of the meaning with the root, is, in many, cases, not easily traced, this
suffix is classed with the unadi; guna may or may not take place.
Vbandh, to bind + u = bandhu, a kinsman;
V kar + u = karu, a doer, maker, artisan;
Vtan, to continue, extend + u = tanu, a son;
Vvas, to light up, shine + u = vasu, a gem; good.
uka (nuka)- forms a few nouns and adj. denoting the agent; there is guna;
V pad, to tread, step + uka = paduka (Fem.), a shoe;
Vkar + uka = karuka (Masc.), a maker, artisan.
una- Forms a few derivatives.
Vtar, to cross, pass away + una = taruna, just begun, young, fresh,
V kar, to love, pity + una = karuna, (Fem.) compassion;
a/ pis, to grind, hurt, destroy + una = pisuno (adj.), backbiting, malicious; a tale-
bearer.
u- forms some adj. and nouns mostly Fem.
vid, to know + u = vidu, knowing; vi + V na, to know + u = vinnu, knowing.
ura- A few nouns only.
V und, to wet, moisten + ura. = undura, a rat.
usa,* ussa- The derivatives from this, very few, are doubtful:
V man, to think + usa, ussa = manussa, manusa, man.
va-This, as the suffix of the P.P.A., has already been noticed (§465).
104
ya- This forms Neut. nouns, most of them abstract in meaning. Assimilation takes place
regularly.
Vraj, rule + ya = rajjap, kingship, kingdom;
Vvaj, to avoid + ya = vajjap, a fault, what is to be avoided;
Vyuj, to yoke, harness + ya = yogap, a carriage, conveyance.
It will be remarked that ya is also the suffix of the F. P. P. (§466) which often, in the Neut.
Sing, makes nouns.
yana (see remark under: lana).
Remarks.
(a) The student will have remarked that the participles Pres. Active, Pres. Reflective; the
P.P.P. the Perf Active and the F.P.P. are considered as belonging to the Primary derivation.
(b) Suffixes: tabba, anlya, ya(nya), and icca are by native grammarians called kicca suffixes,
(cf. §466).
§579. (ii)
Secondary Derivatives, (taddhita).
Remarks.
(a) These derivatives are called "Secondary" because they are formed by means of suffixes
from the the "Primary" derivatives explained in the kita derivation above.
(b) Secondary derivatives are also formed from pronominal bases (336).
(c) As in kita, guna may or may not take place.
§580. The following remarks about the meaning of the secondary derivation, should be
well noted:
(i) The great bulk of taddhita suffixes form adjectives from nouns.
(ii) These adjectives are very freely used as substantives, the Masc. and Fem being
generally nouns denoting the agent, while in the Neut they are abstract.
(iii) The final vowel of a word is often elided before a taddhita suffix.
(iv) The guna affects mostly the first syllable of the word to which the suffix is
added.
§581. The following is a list in alphabetical order of the taddhita suffixes.
a (na, and a)- An extremely large number of derivatives are formed by means of this suffix.
It is added to nouns and to adjectives used substantively; these derivatives are essentially
adjectives, used in most cases substantively. They primarily express connection with,
relations with or dependence on that denoted by the "primary derivatives"; this relation is
necessarily of many kinds, as:
(1) patronymics; the Masc. denotes the son of, the Fem., the daughter of and the Neuter
the consanguinity or relation of,
vasittha + a = vasittho, the son of Vasittha,
vasitthl, the daughter of Vasittha,
vasitthap, the relation of Vasittha.
So [too, similarly,] from visamitta + a = vesamitto, the son of Visamitta
vesamitta, the daughter of Visamitta
vesamittap, the relation of Visamitta
manu + a = manavo, the son of Manu,
manavl, the daughter of Manu,
manavap, the relation of Manu,(cf. §110, Remark)
(2) that which is dyed with:
kasava, a reddish-yellow dye + a = kasavo, reddish-yellow, yellow; kasavap, a
monk's robe (which is dyed with such dye).
So [too, similarly,] halidda, turmeric + a = haliddo, yellow, dyed with turmeric.
(3) the flesh of:
sukara, a pig + a = sokarap pork;
mahisa, buffalo + a = mahisap, buffalo's flesh.
As adj. = sokaro, relating to pigs;
mahiso, relating to buffaloes.
(4) belonging to:
vidisa (a foreign country [or, cf. the Davids & Stede dictionary: "an intermediate
point of the compass" — E.M.]) + a = vediso belonging to a foreign country, a
foreigner;
magadha (Southern Bihar) + a = magadho, belonging to, born in, Magadha.
(5) a collection of:
kapota, a dove pigeon + a = lcapoto a group of doves, or, relating to doves;
mayura a peacock + a = mayuro, a group of peacocks;
adj., belonging to, relating to peacocks.
(6) Study, knowledge of, knowing:
nimitta, an omen + a = nemitto, a knower of omens, a fortune teller;
veyya karanap, exegesis, grammar + a = veyyakarano, a grammarian;
muhutta, a while + a = mohutto, one who studies for a while only; also: relating to
a moment, momentary.
(7) The locality in which something or some one is or exists:
sakuna, a bird + a = sakunap, the place wherein birds roost or resort to;
udumbara, a fig-tree + a = odumbarap, a place where fig-trees grow.
(8) Possession of:
panna, wisdom + a = panno, possessing wisdom, wise, a wise man;
saddha, faith + a = saddho, one who has faith, believing, faithful, a believer.
105
aka (naka)- Is said to denote the property of: manussa, a man + a = manussakag, that which
belongs to man, the property of man, human. (See ka).
aya- For this, see ya.
alu- (This is suffix lu, preceded by a (See lu); denotes the tendency, and forms some past
participial adj.
daya, sympathy, compassion + alu = dayalu, compassionate;
abhijjha, covetousness + alu = abhijjhalu, covetous, whose tendency is to be
covetous;
slta, cold + alu sltalu, chilled, cold,
ana (nana)- Forms patronymics:
kacca (a proper name) + ana = kaccano, kaccanl, kacccanap, the son, daughter,
offspring of Kacca;
cora, a thief + ana = corano, coram, coranam, the son, etc.
ana- (given as a kita Suffix in the forms: lana, yana (see kita suffixes above) forms a very
few derivatives;
kalya, and by assimilation kalla, healthy, remembering, thinking of, + ana =
kalyano, kallano, happy, blessed with health, good.
ayana (nayana)- Also forms patronymics:
kacca + ayana = kaccayano, kacayanl, kaccayanap, the son, etc, of Kacca: vaccha +
ayana = vacchayano, vacchayanl, vacchayanap, the son, etc, of Vaccha.
bya- is said to denote: the state of:
dasa, a slave + bya = dasabyap, the state of being a slave, slavery.
dha- Has already been noted (see kita suffixes above).
era (nera)- Patronymics; the final vowel of the word is elided.
vidhava + era = vedhavera, the son of Vidhava; nalika + era = nalikero, the son of
Nalika; samana, a monk + era = samanera, the son, viz. the disciple of the monk, a
novice.
eyya 1 (neyya)- The state or nature of:
alasa, idle + eyya = alaseyyag idleness; sapateyyag, property (lit., one's own
property) = sa, own + pati, master, owner + eyya (note the elision of i in pati).
eyya 2 (neyya)- Patronymics; with guna.
vinata + eyya = venateyyo, the son of Vinata;
mall, a gardener + eyya = maleyya, the gardener's son.
eyya 3- Denotes the nature of, the origin, the place where a thing is made, or a person or
animal reared up.
Pabbateyya, whose place or abode is in the mountain, belonging to mountains =
pabbata + eyya;
suci, purity + eyya = soceyyap, the state of him who is pure, also, purification;
kula, family + eyya = koleyyo, belonging to, reared up in a (noble) family, of good
family;
baranasl, Benares + eyya = baranaseyyap; that which is made in Benares, lit., that
the origin of which is in Benares.
eyya 4- Fitness, worthiness. This is a form of the F.P.P. already explained (cf. §468).
i 1 (ni)- Forms a few patronymics, from nouns in a:
duna + i = doni, the son of Duna;
anuruddha + i = Anuruddhi, the son of Anuruddha;
jinadattha + i = jinadatthi, the son of Jinadattha.
i 2- After the word pura, town, city, indicates that which belongs or is proper to a city:
pori, urbane, polite, affable.
ika (nika)- Is of very wide application and is added after nouns and adjectives; guna
generally takes place. It denotes:
(1) Patronymics:
nadaputta + ika = nadaputtiko, the son of Nadiputta;
jinadattha + ika = jinadatthiko, the son of Jinadattha.
(2) Living by means of:
nava, a boat + ika = naviko, one who goes or lives by means of a boat = a
boatman;
balisa, a fish-hook + ika = balisiko, a fisherman;
vetana, wages + ika = vetaniko, one who lives upon wages, a labourer.
(3) Going by means of:
pada, the foot + ika = padiko, one who goes with his feet, a pedestrian;
sakata, a cart + ika = sakatiko, one who goes in a cart.
(4) Relating to:
samudda, the sea + ika = samuddiko, relating to the sea, marine;
sakata, cart, sakatiko, relating to carts.
(5) Playing upon:
vlna, a lute, veniko, playing upon a lute, lute player (§27, ii, Remark 2);
bheri, a drum, bheriko, a drummer, or, relating to a drum.
(6) Mixed with:
tela, oil, telikag, that which is mixed with oil, oily;
dadhi, curds, dadhikag, that which is mixed with curds, and dadhiko,
mixed with or relating to curds.
pg. 106
ima-
ima-
(7) Making, the maker:
tela, oil, teliko, an oil manufacturer.
(8) Connected with:
dvara, a door, dvariko, one who is connected with a door, a door-keeper.
(9) Carrying upon:
khanda, the shoulder, khandiko, who carries on the shoulder;
ajiguli, finger, ajiguliko, who carries on the finger.
(10) Born in or belonging to a place, or living in a place:
savatthi, savatthiko, of, born in, or, living in Savatthi;
kapilavatthu, kapilavatthiko, of, born, in, or, living in Kapilavatthu.
(11) Studying, learning:
vinaya, the Discipline, venayiko, one who studies the vinaya;
suttanta, a discourse (of the Buddha), suttantiko, one who studies, or
knows Discourses, viz., the Suttapitaka.
(12) That which is performed by:
manasa, the mind, manasiko, mental, and manasikag, the act performed
by mind;
sarira, the body, sarlriko, bodily, corporeal, saririkag, the act performed
by the body.
(13) That which is bartered for:
suvanna, gold, sovannikarj, that which is bartered for gold;
sovanniko, relating to gold;
vattha, cloth, vatthikap, that which is exchanged for cloth;
vatthiko, relating to cloth.
(14) Possession:
dando, a staff, dandiko, one who has a staff, a mendicant;
mala wreath, maliko, one having a wreath;
puttiko, who has sons.
(15) A collection, herd, group:
kedara, a field, kedarikarj, a collection of fields;
hatthi, elephant, hatthikarj, herd of elephants.
(16) Measure:
kumbha, a pot, kumbhiko, containing a big measure, viz., as much as a
pot; kumbhikarj, that which is contained in a pot.
Denotes position or direction in space or time; it also shows relation:
paccha, behind, western, pacchimo hindermost, western;
anta, limit, end; antimo, last, final.
[So too:] majjhimo, middling, from majjha, middle.
This suffix is the same as that noticed in §221 & 222, with connecting vowels before it.
in (ni)- Forms a numerous class of possessive adj., very often used substantively (137); the
stems are in in, and the nominative sing in I;
danda, a staff, dandl, possessed of a staff;
manta, design, plan, mantl, one replete with plans, a minister, adviser;
papa, evil + in = papl, having evil, evil.
ina- A few possessive adj.;
mala, dirt, taint + ina = malina, dirty, tainted.
issika- This is the sign of the Superlative (238).
iya- A few abstract nouns;
issara, lord, chief + iya = issariyarj, dominion;
alasa, lazy, alasiyap, idleness.
Iya- like ima above.
iya, as Iya noticed in (466), is essentially a suffix of the F.P.P. The proper form of the suffix,
it should be noted is: Iya.
T 1 -See in, above.
T 2-Is used after the cardinals from 11 upwards to form ordinals expressing the day of the
month, but also mere ordinals sometimes:
ekadasa, 11 + 1 = ekadasl, the 11th day or simply, the 11th;
catuddasa, 14 + T = catuddasT, the 14th day, or the 14th.
ka (kan)- Is much used to form adjectives, which in Neut. become abstract nouns; besides,
it also forms a certain number of nouns Masc. which, however, are adjectives used as
substantives. Guna often takes place:
rakkha, protection + ka = rakkhako, protecting, a guard;
rakkhana, defence + ka = rakkhanako, a guard;
ramaneyya, pleasurable + ka = ramaneyyako, delightful, ramaneyyakag,
delightfulness.
Forms a limited number of possessive adj.:
putta, son, puttima, who has sons;
papa, evil, sin, papima sinful, evil.
pg. 107
It [viz., the suffix ka (kan)] has a few other meanings;
(1) Collection, group;
rajaputta, prince + ka = rajaputtaka, a group or band of princes;
manussa, man + ka = manussakap, an assembly or group of men.
(2) Diminutives, with, sometimes, a certain amount of contempt implied;
pada, foot, padako, a small foot;
raja, king, rajako, a princeling;
putta, son, puttako, a little son;
luddha, hunter, luddhako, a young hunter.
[An instructive example of Duroiselle's point here: munda (shaven, bare)
becomes mundaka, "a mere shaveling", viz., meaning a shaven-headed
man with "a certain amount of contempt implied" — E.M.]
(3) Not seldom, ka adds nothing whatever to the primary meaning of the word;
kumara, child, young prince + ka = kumarako;
nava, young, junior + ka = navaka.
(4) It is much used after compounds, above all, after bahubblhl, to form
poseessives, but often also redundantly.
(5) The use of ka after numerals has been noticed (cf. §286).
kata- Is considered as a suffix by some grammarians; It is used with prefixes:
ni + kata = nikata, near;
vi + kata = vikata, changed;
pa + kata = pakata, evident, public, clear;
sam + kata = sajikata, narrow.
It will be remarked that kata forms adjectives differing very little or even not at all from
the meaning of the suffix to which it is added. It is probably a form of kata (P.P.P.), from
Vkar, to do, make.
kiya- Forms adj. denoting relation, connection (it is made up, no doubt, of ka + iya):
Andha, the Andhra country + kiya = andhakiya, relating or belonging to the
Andhra country;
jati, birth + kiya = jatikiya, relating to birth, congenital.
la- Forms a few adj. and nouns; it is often preceded by the vowels: i, and u:
bahu, many + la = bahulo, abundant;
vaca, word + la = vacalo, talkative, garrulous;
phena, froth = phenila, frothy, the soap plant, soap;
mata, mother + ula = matulo, maternal uncle;
vatta, a circle + ula = vattulo, circular;
kumbhl, a pot, jar + la = kumbhllo, a crocodile, one who has (a belly like) ajar,
la is another form of ra (see also below.); r and 1 often interchange (47, vi).
lu- For this see: alu above.
ma- Forms ordinals (see 274); ma has sometimes a superlative meaning (see, ima, above),
ima is the suffix ma with preceding vowel i
ma (mantu) (mant)- is much used in forming adj. of possession. It has been explained
already (§220, 221, 222, 223, 224).
maya- With this suffix are formed adjectives denoting made of, consisting of:
suvanna, gold + maya = suvannamaya, made of gold, golden;
rajata, silver + maya = rajatamaya, made of silver.
min = mi- This forms a few possessive adjectives; the stems are in in and the Nominative
Sing in T (see, in and I).
go, cow + min = gomin, (goml) possessing oxen, cattle, a possessor of cattle;
sa, own + min = samin (saml) owner, master, lord.
ml- See last.
ra- From this are made a few adjectives; guna, in some examples, takes place. It is often
preceded by the vowels a and i.
madhu, honey + ra = madhura, sweet, sweetness; [also: intoxicating; flattery.]
sikha, a peak + ra = sikhara, having a peak, peaked, a mountain;
susa, empty, hole + (i)ra = susira, full of holes;
kamma, act, work + ara = kammaro, having or doing work, an artificer, smith.
so- same meaning as ra; medha, wisdom + so = medhaso having wisdom, wise; loma, hair +
so = lomaso, hairy.
si, ssi- See below (vin = vi).
ta- Forms a few nouns and adj. it is a possessive suffix:
pabba, a knot, joint, fulness + ta = pabbata, a mountain, that which has joints or
fulness;
vajika, bent + ta = vajikata, bent, crooked.
tama- Is the suffix used in forming the Superlative. See §238, i.
tana- This suffix forms, from adverbs, a few adjectives:
sva (sve, suve), tomorrow + tana = svatano, of tomorrow, belonging to tomorrow;
sanag (Sk. sana), of old, always + tana = sanantano, ancient, old, perpetual;
nu, now + tana = nutano fresh, new.
pg. 108
tara- As the suffix of the comparative, tara has already been explained (238, i).
ta 1- This suffix forms a numerous class of feminine abstract nouns from adjectives and
nouns, and expresses the state, nature or quality of being that which is denoted by the adj.
or noun.
lahu, light + ta = lahuta, lightness;
sara, pith, marrow + ta = sarata, essence, strength;
ati (prefix ). very, great + sura, a hero + ta = atisurata great heroism.
ta 2- Denotes multitude, collection:
jana, person, man + ta = janata, a multitude of persons, folk, people;
gama, village + ta = gamata, a collection of villages.
[So too:] nagarata, bandhuta etc.
ti- Is used in forming the words expressing decades (see 251).
tta- (Sk. tva). Forms Neuter nouns of the same import as ta (i):
puthujjana, a common man + tta = puthujjanattarj; the state of being a common
man;
buddha, a buddha + tta = buddhattaq, Buddhahood;
atthi he is + tta = atthittaq the state of "he is", existence.
ttana- Used in the same sense as the last (Sk. tvana):
puthujjana + ttana = puthujjanattanaq, state of being a common man;
vedana, sensation + ttana = vedanattanag, sensitiveness.
tya = cca- (Sk. tya). Forms a few adjectives from indeclinables:
ni, in + cca = nicca, inward, inmate, own, eternal, perpetual;
ama, with, at home + cca = amacco, inmate, minister (for tya = cca, see 74).
tha- used in forming the ordinals: 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th. (see 251).
thaq- Makes adverbs from pronominal stems; it has been noticed in (337).
tha- This also has been noticed in (337).
va (vantu)(vant)- This suffix makes a very large class of possessive adjectives.
It is similar in character to ma (mant). See (220).
va- Forms a small number of adjectives:
anna, wave + va = annavo, billowy, also, the ocean;
kesa, hair + va = lcesavo; hairy (a name of Visnu).
vi = vin- Used to form adjectives of possession. The stems are in in, and the Nominative
Sing, in I. It has been explained in (231).
It is used also after some words the stem of which ends in s (158, 160):
tapas (tapo), austerity, devotion + vT = tapassl (tapasvi), austere, a hermit;
yasas (yaso), fame + vi = yasassl (yasasvi), renowned, famous.
Note that initial v of vi is assimilated to final s, thus giving ssT; the suffix as given by native
grammarians is ssT, which the student should assume as being the true suffix.
ya (nya)- This forms a very large class of nouns, mostly Neuter abstract. Guna takes place
in most cases, and assimilation is regular.
alasa, lazy + ya = alasyap, alassaq, laziness;
kusala, skilful + ya = kosallaq, skill, mastery;
pandita, learned, clever + ya = pandiccarj, learning, scholarship;
vipula, broad, large + ya = vepullag development;
samana, equal, same + ya = samanno common, general;
dakkhina, affable + ya = dakkhinno, affable, kind; dakkhinnag affability, kindness.
Roots used as suffixes, (kvi.)
§582. "kvi" is an imaginary suffix denoting that the root itself is to be considered as the
suffix. When a root ends in a consonant, this consonant is elided:
V gam = ga.
Vghan, to kill = gha.
As these form primarily adjectives, they assume, in certain cases, but not always, the
endings of the three genders.
§583. The student must bear in mind that native grammarians include kvi in kita. As,
however, they are used as suffixes added after Primary and Secondary derivatives and
indeclinables, I have preferred to treat them separately.
§584. A list of the principal roots used as suffixes is here given.
bhu- ( Vbhudo be), has generally the meaning denoted by the verb itself:
abhi + bhu = abhibhu, mastering, overcoming, a conqueror (abhibhavi ,to
overcome);
vi + bhu = vibhu, arising, expanding, ruler, lord (vibhavati, to arise, expand);
sam + bhu = sambhu, offspring, progeny;
sambhavati, to be produced, to spring from.
da- ( V da, to give, bestow):
amata, imortality + da = amatado, he who bestows or confers immortality,
conferring immortality; lokahita, the world's welfare + da = lokahitado, bestowing,
or wishing for, the world's welfare.
-. 109
ga- ( Vgam to go):
para, the further shore + ga = parago, gone to the further shore, viz. to Nirvana;
lcula, family + upa, near + ga = kulupago, one who goes near a family, a family
adviser.
gu- (a collateral form of Vgam):
addha, distance + gu = addhagu, going to a distance, a traveller;
para + gu = paragu, as above, parago.
gha- ( Vghan = han [59, note]):
to strike, kill; pati, back, in return + gha = patigho, hatred.
ja- ( Vja, jan, to be bom, produced):
pajika, mud + ja = pajikaja, produced in the mud, a lotus;
anda, an egg + ja = andaja, born from an egg = a bird.
ji- ( Vji, to conquer):
mara, the enemy of Buddha + ji = maraji, conqueror of Mara,
pa- ( Vpa, to drink):
pada,a foot + pa = padapo, drinking by the foot (root), a tree.
pa- ( Vpa, to guard, keep):
go, cow + pa = gopo, cowkeeper.
tha- ( Vtha, to stand; exist):
nava, boat + tha = navattho, stored in a boat;
akasa, the sky, air, + tha = akasattho, standing, resting, abiding in the sky.
kha- ( Vkha, a collateral form of Vkhan, to dig):
pari, round + kha = parikha, that which is dug all round = a moat.
dada- properly the base (371-4) of Vda, but considered as a root by some grammarians, is
used in the same way as da above:
sabbakamadadag kumbhag = an all-desire-granting vessel, a vessel which grants
all desires.
§585. The taddhita suffixes may be classified as follows:
• Patronymics- a, ana, ayana, era, eyya, i, ika.
• Possessive- aka, ika, ima, in = T, ra, (ara, ira), so, ssT, ma(mat, mant), min = ml, va,
va, (vat, vant), vT = vin, ta, ina, la.
• Group, collection, multitude- a, ika, ka, ta.
• State of, quality, abstract idea: bya, eyya, iya, ta, tta, ttana, ta.
• Relation (relating to): a, i, ika, ima, kiya.
The others may be classified as miscellaneous.
§586. It will have been remarked that some suffixes are merely made up of a principal one
which has taken the vowel a or i or u before it. Such are: aka, ika from ka; aya, iya, from ya;
ara, ira, ura from ra; ila from la.
CHAPTER XIV.
SYNTAX. (Karaka).
§587. Syntax, in Pali, does not offer any difficulty for nearly all the relations of the
substantives, adjectives and pronouns which will be explained in this chapter are very
often obviated by compounding them as has already been explained in the chapter on
Compounds. The student who has carefully read and mastered the Compounds has
therefore done much and will understand ordinary prose without too much difficulty.
However, there are peculiar uses of the Cases, without a knowledge of which a thorough
mastery of the language would be impossible; we therefore invite the learner to read
attentively the present chapter.
(i) ORDER OF SENTENCES.
§588. The order of the Pali sentence is very simple in character, compound sentences being
rather the exception than the rule:
(1) Whether the sentence be Simple, Compound or Complex, the predicate must
always come last.
(2) In a simple sentence containing an object, the order is:
(i) Subject;
(ii) object and
(iii) predicate,
[e.g.,] daso kammag karoti, the slave does the work.
(3) Words qualifying the subject or the object come before the subject and the
object respectively, and adverbs before the verb:
etetayo purisa mahantag sirig slghag papunigsu,
these three men quickly attained to great glory.
(4) The conjunctions, pana, but; udahu, or, are used to form compound sentences;
ce, yadi and sace, if, complex sentences.
Remark.
Adverbs of time always come first in the sentence.
110
(ii) THE ARTICLE.
§589. There are no words in Pali corresponding to the English articles; the words eko,
ekacce, "one", "a certain...", are often used in the sense of the indefinite article (cf. §253);
and so, eso, "that", "this", do the function of the definite article: so puriso, the man; sa
itthl, the woman.
Remark.
Substantives not preceded by the above words may, according to the context, be translated
as if preceded by the articles: puriso = a man, or, the man.
(iii) CONCORD.
§590. Concord of subject and predicate.
(1) The predicate may be:
(i) a finite verb: bhikkhu gahapatig ovadi, the monk admonished the
householder;
(ii) a substantive with the verb "hoti" understood after it: yadi ete guna,
if these (are = honti) virtues;
(iii) An adjective with "hoti" also understood: tvag atibalo, thou (art = asi)
very foolish;
(iv) A P.P.P.used as a finite verb; so pi gato, he too went, lit. he too gone.
(2) When a finite verb is used as predicate, it must agree with the subject in
number and person. When there are several subjects of different persons, the
verb is put in the first person plural: so ca tvag aha g gacchatha, he thou, and I go.
Should there be no subject of the first person, the verb is put in the 2nd person
plural: so ca tvag gacchatha, he and thou go.
(3) In the case of an adjective or a P.P.P. taking the place of the predicate, the adj.
and the P.P.P. must agree with the subject in gender and number: so gato, he went;
sa gata, she went; tap gatag, it went; so taruno, he is young; sa taruna, she is
young; tap tarunap, it is young.
(4) But if a substantive stands in the place of a verb, no such concord of gender or
number needs take place; appamado nibbanapadap ( = nibbanassa padapo),
vigilance is the path to Nirvana.
Concord of Adjective and Substantive.
§591. An adjective, or participle (which is of the nature of an adj.) when not compounded
with the noun it qualifies, must agree with it in gender, number and case.
Concord of the Relative and its Antecedent.
§592. The relative must agree with its antecedent in gender, number and person.
(1) The relative may be used by itself, without the noun: yo janati so imap
ganhatu, he who knows let him take this. Note, that in the above the
demonstrative pronoun so is used as a correlative.
(2) The relative is used instead of a preceding noun: ahap ekap upayap janami,
yena amhe ganhitup no sakkissati, I know an expedient by which he will not able
to seize us.
(3) With the noun expressed: yassa purisassa buddhi hoti so mahaddhano ti
vuccati, to whom there is wisdom, he is called very wealthy, he who has wisdom is
said to be very wealthy.
(4) Note that the clause containing the relative is put first; sometimes the clause
containing the correlative is placed first for the sake of emphasis: na so pitayena
putto na sikkhapiyati, he is no father by whom the son is not made to learn.
(iv) SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.
§593. This is properly government, for the term "karaka" expresses the relation between
the noun and the verb, so that any relation existing between words not connected with a
verb cannot be called a karaka; consequently the Genitive and the Vocative are not
considered as cases, for they have no relation whatever with the verb; they are therefore
called akaraka, non-cases.
1. THE NOMINATIVE.
§594. The Nominative is used very much in the same way as in English; it is the subject of
the verb and the latter must agree with it in number and person; see Concord of subject
and predicate (590).
(i) The Nominative is used in apposition: malliko kosalaraja, Mallika, king of
Kosala.
(ii) It is used absolutely in titles of books, that is, it does not take the termination
proper to the nominative; mahajanakajataka, the birth. story of Mahajanaka.
2. GENITIVE.
§595. The true force of the genitive is "of 1 and "-'s" expressing possession.
(i) The genitive therefore is used primarily to denote possession: suvannassa rasi,
a heap of gold; rukkhassa sakha, the branch of the tree.
(ii) In such examples as the above, the genitive is often compounded with the
noun it qualifies: suvannarasi.
(iii) It denotes the whole of which a part only is taken; this is called "partitive
genitive": brahmanag so pandito, he is clever among brahmins; sabbayodhanag
:■ HI
atisuro, the bravest of all warriors; tumhakag pana ekena, but even not one of
you.
(iv) The genitive is used also with words expressing, difference, equality,
inequality: tassa antarag na passigsu, they did not see the (its) difference; sadiso
pitu, the same as (his) father; tulyo pitu equal to his father.
Remark.
In these examples the ablative may also be used: sadiso pitara.
(v) Words meaning, dear or the reverse, take a genitive: sa brahmanassa manapa, she (was)
dear to the brahmin.
(vi) Likewise words denoting: honour, veneration etc.: gamassa pujito honoured of the
village; ranno manito, revered by (of) the king.
Remark.
In these examples the Inst, may also be used: gamena pujito
(vii) Words of: skill, proficiency, etc., and their opposites, govern the genitive: kusala
naccagltassa, clever in dancing and singing.
(viii) It is used with words indicating: locality, time, distance: amhakag buddhassa pubbe,
before our Buddha; gamassa avidure, not far from the village; upari tesag, above
them.
(ix) Believing in or well disposed towards: budhassa pasanno, he has faith in the Buddha.
Remark.
Here the Loc. may also be used: buddhe pasanno.
(x) It is used also with words of remembering or thinking of (with sorrow), pitying,
wishing for, giving or apportioning, honouring, cleaning, filling, fearing and a few
others: matussa sarati, he remembers his mother (with sorrow); na tesa koci sarati,
nobody remembers them; telassa davati, he gives oil; purati balo papassa, the fool is
full of evil; sabbe tasanti dandassa, all fear punishment.
In these examples the Acc. may be used: telag davati.
Remark.
Words of fearing also govern the Abl.: kin nu kho ahag sunakha bhayami? Why should I
fear the dog?
(xi) A genitive with a participle in agreement is called a Gen. Absolute. It generally
denotes some attendant circumstance: tassa bhattag bhuttassa udakag aharanti,
when he had finished his meal they fetched him water.
(xii) Some other relations of the genitive will present no difficulty, as they have their exact
parallel in English.
§596. It will be seen from the remarks above that the genitive is often used instead of the
Accusative, the Ablative, the Instrumentive and the Locative. It is also used adverbially, as
kissa, why? It will also be remarked that whenever the genitive is dependent on a verb, it
is so on account of its being used instead of another case, as in: matussa sarati.
3. THE DATIVE.
§597. The person or object to or for whom, something is given or done, is put in the Dative
case. The Dat. is consequently used also as indirect object with transitive verbs having an
Acc. as direct object.
(i) The Dat., then, expresses the relations which, in English, are usually denoted by the
words to, for: bhikkhussa civarag deti, he gives a robe to the priest; yuddhaya
paccuggacchami; I will set out for battle.
(ii) The Dat. is governed by verbs expressing praise or blame, anger, believing, disbelieving,
assent, envy, pleasure or displeasure, injury, benefit, approval, forgiveness,
salutation, blessing, hatred, abuse, concealing, worshipping, carrying.
Examples:
Buddhassa silaghate, he praises the Buddha;
yadi'hag tassa kuppeyya, if I should be angry with him;
duhayati disanag ogho, the flood has injured the country;
tuyhag saddahami, I believe thee;
svagatag te, hail to thee!
sotthi tuyhag hotu, fare thee well!
khama me, forgive me!
mayhag sapate he swears at or, reviles me;
tassa sampaticchi, he assented to it;
ussuyanti dujjana gunav antanag wicked people envy the virtuous;
tassa atltag ahari, he told him a story;
deva pi tesag pihayanti, even the gods desire them, envy them;
samanassa rocate saccag: truth pleases a monk.
(iii) The Dat. is commonly used with the verb "to be" to express possession: putta me
n'atthi, no sons are to me, I have no sons.
Remark.
When the verb "hoti" is used with the Dat. to express possession, it is generally put in the
singular, even when, as in the above example what is possessed is plural.
112
(iv) The word, alag, enough, fit, governs the Dat.: alar) kukkuccaya, enough of
doubt! alag mallo mallassa, sufficient is a warrior for a warrior! A warrior is match
for a warrior.
(v) The words, attha, object, purpose; hita, benefit, blessing; and sukha, happiness, are used
in the Dat. with the meaning respectively of: for the purpose of, for; for the benefit
of; for the happiness of; and they govern a Gen.: ropanassa atthaya, or,
ropanatthaya, for the purpose of sowing; devamanussanag hitaya, for the benefit of
gods and men; tassa sukhaya, for his hapiness.
(vi) The Dat. may denote the purpose for which, and then governs a Gen: darassa
bharanaya for the purpose of maintaining a wife, for the maintenance of a wife, to
maintain a wife.
Remark.
It will be seen from this example that the Dat. in aya has the force of an Infinitive.
(vii) The Dat. is also used with the verb mannati, to consider, esteem, when contempt is
implied: kalijigarassa tuyhag marine, I consider thee as chaff, a fig for you! jlvitag
tinaya na marine, I do not consider life (so much) as grass, I do not care in the least
for life.
(viii) The place to which motion is directed is sometimes put in the Dat: appo saggaya
gacchati, (only) the few go to heaven; nirayaya upakaddhati, drags down to hell; so
mag udakaya neti, he takes me to the water.
(ix) The Dat. is often used instead of the Accusative, and also of the Locative.
§538
4. THE ACCUSATIVE.
(i) The Accusative Case is generally governed by transitive verbs: rathag karoti, he makes a
carriage; aharo balag janeti, food produces ( = gives strength).
(ii) All verbs implying motion govern the Acc.: nagarag gacchati; he goes to town;
bhagavantag upasajikamitva, having approached the Blessed One.
(iii) Verbs having the meaning of, to choose to name, to call, to appoint, to ask, to make, to
know, to consider, etc. take two accusatives, one a direct object and the other a
factitive or indirect object:
puriso bharag gamag vahati, the man carries the load to the village;
purisag gacchantag passati, he sees the man going
(here gamag and gacchantag are the factitive objects.)
(iv) Causative Verbs likewise govern two Accusatives: puriso purisag gamag gamayati: the
man causes the man to go to the village; acariyo sisag dhammag patheti, the
preceptor causes the disciple to read the Doctrine.
Remark.
In such examples the Instrumentive may be used instead of the factitive object: samiko
dasena (or dasag) khajjag khadapeti. The master causes the slave to eat the food; purisena
(or purisag) kammag kareti, he causes the slave to do the work.
(v) When the roots: Vvas, to live; %/tha, to stand; Vsi, to lie down; Vpad to go step; and
Vvis to enter; are preceded by the verbal prefixes: anu, upa, abhi, adhi, a and ni,
they govern the Acc: gamag upavasati, he lives near the village; nagarag
adhivasanti, they dwell in the village; mancag abhinsldeyya; he ought to sit on the
cot; sakkassa sahabyatag upapajjati, got into companionship with Sakka, she went
to Sakka's heaven.
(vi) The Acc. is used for the Loc.: nadig pivati = nadiyag pivati, he drinks in the river;
gamag carati = game carati he roams in the village.
(vii) The [following] indeclinables [are associated with the accusative case]:
abhito, near, in the presence of, on both sides;
dhi, dhl, Woe! Fie! Shame! as well as the expression: dhi-r-atthu, Woe,
shame be to!
antara, between, on the way;
parito, around, everywhere, on every side;
anu by the side of, inferior;
pati, to, towards, for, near;
pari, around;
upa, inferior to;
antarena, except, without;
abhi, before, [...]
abhito gama vasati, he lives near the village;
dhl brahmanassa hantarag, woe to whom strikes a brahmin!
dhl-ratthu mag putikayag, shame on that foul body of mine!
upayag antarena, without expedient;
mag antarena, excepting me;
antara ca rajagahag, and on the way to Rajagaha;
parito nagarag, around the village;
sadhu devadatto matarag anu, Devadatta is kind to his mother;
anu sariputtag, inferior to Sariputta;
pabbattag anu, by the side of the mountain;
sadhu devadatto matarag pati, Devadatta is kind to his mother;
nadig neranjarag pati, near the river Neranjara;
upa sariputtag, inferior to Sariputta.
(viii) Duration of time is put in the Acc.: divasag, the whole day; tag khanag, at that
moment; ekag samayag, once upon a time.
(ix) Ordinals in the Acc., denote "number of times" dutiyag, for the second time; tatiyag,
for the 3rd time.
113
(x) Distance is also expressed by the Acc.: yojanarj gacchati, he goes one league.
(xi) The Acc. is very often used adverbially: khippag gacchati he goes quickly;
hatthanillehakag bhunjati, he eats "licking his hands."
Remark.
This is called the adverbial accusative.
§599.
5. THE INSTRUMENTATIVE.
(i) The agent by whom or the insutrument with which .an action is performed is put in the
Inst.: cakkhuna rupag passati, (one) sees forms with the eye; hatthena kammag
karoti (one) does work with the hands; dasena kato, done by the slave.
(ii) The Inst, shows cause or reason: rukkho vatena onamati, the tree bends down on
account of the wind; kammuna vasalo hoti, he is a pariah by reason of his work.
The Inst, can therefore be translated by such expressions as: by means of; on
account of; through; by reason of; owing to.
(iii) The conveyance in or on which one goes is put in the Inst.: yanena gacchati, he goes in
a cart; vimanena, gacchigsu they went in a flying mansion; hatthina upasajikamati,
he approached on his elephant.
(iv) The price at which a thing is bought or sold is put in the Inst, kahapanena no detha,
give it to us for a kahapana (a small piece of money); satasahassena kinitva having
bought it for 100,000 (pieces of money).
(v) The direction or route, or the way by which one goes is shown by the Inst.: ta
saladvarena gacchanti, they went by the gate of the hall; kena maggena so gato, (by)
which way did he go?
(vi) It is used to denote infirmity or bodily defects, the member or organ affected being in
the Inst.: akkhina so kano, he is blind of one eye; hatthena kuni, having a crooked
hand.
(vii) Words expressing, birth, lineage, origin, nature are put in the Inst.: jatiya khattiyo
buddho, Buddha is a ksatriya by birth: pakatiya bhaddako, good by nature.
(viii) The Inst, expreses the time in which: divasena patto, arrived in one day; ekena
masena nagarag gacchi, he went to the city in a month.
(ix) Also the time at which: tena samayena, at that time...
(x) It expresses companionship, and is then generally used with the indeclinables, saha or
saddhig, with, together with: nisldi bhagava saddhig bhikkhusajighena, the Blessed
One sat together with the assembly of the monks.
(xi) The expressions "what is the use of," "what use to what benefit by ...", etc., are
expressed in Pali by the Inst, of the thing and the Dat. of the person: kin te jatahi
dummedha, what good to thee, O fool, by matted hair? kin nu me buddhena, what
need have I of Buddha? What do I care for a Buddha?
(xii) The word attho, desire, need, want, takes an Inst, of the object desired or wanted and
a Dat. of the person: manina me attho, I want a jewel (lit., to me is need of, or desire
for, a jewel).
(xiii) alar), enough, governs also this case: alar) idha vasena enough of living here: alag
buddhena, Buddha is sufficient for me.
(xiv) Words denoting "separation" are generally construed with the Inst.: piyehi
vippayogo dukkho, separation from those we love is painful.
(xv) The indeclinables, saha, saddhig, samag, with at: vina, without, except, govern the
Inst.: vinadosena, without fault.
Remark.
saha, sometimes expresses "equality":
puttena saha dhanava pita, a father as rich as his son.
(xvi) Verbs meaning "to convey, to carry, to fetch" etc., take the Inst, of the place of
carrying: sisena darukalapag ucchajigena pannam adaya, taking a bunch of
firewood on her head and greens at her hips...
(xvii) The Inst, is often used adverbially (see above).
(xviii) It is also governed by many prepositions.
§600.
6. THE ABLATIVE.
(i) The primary meaning of the Ablative is that expressed by the word "from"; that is, it
expresses separation; it expresses also many other relations, in which the principal
idea of separation is more or less discernible.
(ii) Separation: gama apenti, they left the village; so assa patati, he fell from the horse.
(iii) Direction from: avTcito upari above the Avici Hell; uddharj padatala, (from) above the
sole of the foot.
(iv) The place "wherein" an action is performed is put in the Abl.; in such cases a gerund is
sometimes understood according to native grammarians, but the student will
remark that these expressions have their exact parallel in English: pasada oloketi,
he looks from the palace, is said to be equivalent to: pasadag abhiruhitva pasada
oloketi, having ascended the palace he looks from the palace.
(v) Measure of length, breadth or distance is put in the Abl: dTghaso navavidatthiyo nine
spans long , yojanag ayamato, a league in length; yojanag vittharato, a league in
breadth.
Remark.
In these examples the Inst, may also be used: yojanag ayamena, yojanag vittharena.
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(vi) That from which a person or animal is warded or kept off is put in the Abl: yavehi gavo
rakkhati, he keeps off the cows from the barley; tandula kake vareti, he wards off
the crows from the rice.
(vii) With verbs meaning to hide, conceal, "the person from whom one wishes to hide is in
the Abl: upajjhaya antaradhayati sisso, the pupil hides himself from his preceptor.
Remark.
In such expressions, the Gen. may also be used: antaradhayissami samanassa gotamasssa, I
will hide myself from the samana Gotama.
(viii) When the verb "antaradhayati" means, to vanish, to disappear, the place from which
one vanishes is put in the Locative: jetavane antaradhayitva, having disappeared
from the Jetavana Monastery.
(ix) But when "natural phenomena" are referred to, the Nom. is used: andhakaro
antaradhayati, darkness disappears.
(x) Verbs meaning "to abstain, to avoid, to release, to fear, to abhor", also govern the Abl.:
papadhammmato viramati, he refrains from sin; so parimuccati jatiya he is released
from existence: corehi bhayami, I am afraid of thieves.
(xi) The Abl. also shows "motive, cause, reason" and can be translated by for, on account
of, by reason of, through , etc.: vacaya marati, he died on account of his speech:
sllato nap pasagsanti, they praise him for his virtue.
Remark.
In these examples, the Inst, may be used as well: sllena pasagsanti.
(xii) It is used with words showing proximity, gama samlpag, near the village.
Remark.
in these examples, the Gen. may also be used.
(xiii) Verbs meaning "to be born, to originate from" etc. govern the Abl.: cora jayati
bhayag, from a thief fear arises.
(xiv) The following indeclinables govern the Abl.: araka, far from, afar, araka tehi bhagava,
far from them is the Blessed One; upari, above, over: upari pabbata, over the
mountain; So: pati, against, instead, in return; rite, except, without; annatra, vina,
without, except; nana, different, away from; puthu and, before a vowel, puthag,
separately, without, except; a, till, as far as; yava, till, as far as; saha, with;
buddhasma pati sariputto, Sariputta takes the place of the Buddha; rite saddhamma,
without the true Doctrine, etc.
(xv) It should be noted that the Abl. is very frequently used, instead of the Inst., Accus., the
Gen. and the Loc., e.g. vinasaddhamma, or vina saddhammag or vina saddhammena.
§601.
7. THE LOCATIVE.
(i) The Locative shows the place in or on which a thing or person is, or an action
performed; it is therefore expressed in English by "in, on, upon, at." kate nisldati
puriso, the man is sitting on the mat; thaliyag odanag pacati; he cooks the food in a
cooking-pot.
(ii) The Loc. shows the "cause, reason, or motive" of an action: dlplcammesu hannante, the
panther is killed for its skin; kunjaro dantesu hannate, the elephant is killed for his
tusks.
(iii) It denotes time when an action takes place; sayanhasamaye agato, he came in the
evening.
(iv) When the pre-eminence of an individual (thing or person) over the whole class to
which he belongs is implied, as well as with adjectives in the superlative degree, the
noun with respect to which such pre-eminence or such superlative degree of
excellence is shown is put in the Loc. or in the Gen.: manussesu khattiyo suratamo,
the ksatriya is the most valiant of men; manussanag khattiyo suratamo; kanha
gavisu sampannakhlratama, of cows, the black one abounds most in milk, or, kanha
gavinag sampannakhlratama.
(v) The following words govern the Loc. and the Gen. as well: saml, an owner, master;
issaro, king, lord; adhipati, chief, lord; dayado, an heir; patibhu, substitute, surety;
pasuto, offspring, child; kusalo, clever, expert; gonesu saml, an owner of oxen, or
gonanag saml, etc.
(vi) Words signifying "to be happy, contented, eager", govern the Loc., as well as the Inst.:
nanasmig ussuko, eager for wisdom, or nanena ussako; nanasmig pasldito, contented with
wisdom, nanena pasldito.
(vii) Words signifying "reverence, respect, love, delighting in, saluting, taking, seizing,
striking, kissing, fond of, adoring," govern the Loc.: papasmig ramati mano, the
mind delights in evil; bhikkhusu abhivadenti, they salute the monks; pade gahetva
papate khipati, took him by the feet and threw him in the precipice; purisag sTse
paharati, struck the man on the head.
(viii) The Loc. is used sometimes to show that one does not take any account of something
or person: rudantasmig darake pabbaji, he left the world in spite of his son weeping.
The Genitive also may be used: rudantassa arakassa pabbaji (See: Locative and
Genitive Absolute).
(ix) The Loc. is employed to denote superiority or inferiority, with the words "upa" and
"adhi" respectively, upa khariyag dono, a dona is inferior to a khari; adhi
brahmadatte pancala, the Pancalas are under Brahmadatta's supremacy; adhi
devesu buddho, the Buddha is above the gods.
(x) It is used to denote "proximity": nadiyag sassag, corn near the river; tassa pannasalaya
hatthimaggo hoti, near his leaf hut there is an elephant-track.
(xi) The Loc. is used absolutely with a participle in the same case as itself (see, Absolute
Construction).
115
(xii) In lexicons, the Loc. is used to signify "in the sense of 1 ; ru sadde, (the root) ru, is used
in the sense of "making noise." [This example is apparently quoted from the
Maharupasiddhi — E.M.]
(xiii) Words denoting "fitness, suitability" govern the Loc.: tayi na yuttap, not fit for thee;
the Gen. is used in the same sense: tava na yuttap.
(xiv) The Loc. is extensively used instead of other Cases, and the student must be prepared
to meet the Loc. where very often he would expect to find some other case. Let him
note that in almost all instances, the Case for which the Loc. stands may be and is,
used:
(xv) The Loc. in used for the Gen, (see, above, v).
(xvi) It is used for the Inst.: pattesu pindaya caranti, they go about with
bowls for their food.
(xvii) It is also used instead of the Dat.: sajighe dinnap mahapphalap,
offering to the Clergy are very meritorious.
(xviii) The Loc. is used for the Ablative: kadalldesu gaje rakkhanti, they
keep off the elephants from the plantain-trees.
(xix) The Loc. is frequently used adverbially; atlte, formerly.
§602.
8. THE VOCATIVES.
The Vocative Case does not require any explanations: it is used exactly as in English.
§603.
9. THE GENITIVE AND LOCATIVE ABSOLUTE.
(i) When a noun or a pronoun in the Locative or Genitive is used with a participle in the
same case as itself, the construction is called, Locative Absolute and Genitive
Absolute respectively. The Locative Absolute construction is met with much more
often than the Genitive absolute. There is also found, now and then, a Nominative
Absolute construction, but far less common than the other two.
(ii) The Locative, Genitive and (sometimes) the Nominative Absolute, may often be
translated by "when, while, since" and sometimes by "although":
tesu vivadantesu bodhisatto cintesi, while they were disputing, the
Luture Buddha thought;
suriye atthajigate, when the sun had set, after sunset;
gavisu duyhamanasu gato, he went when the cows were being milked;
asaniya pi slse patantiya, although the thunderbolt was falling on their
head.
(iii) sati, the Locative singular of santo, Pres, part of the verb atthi, to be, besides having the
above meanings may also often be translated by "if, such being the case":
atthe sati, if there be need;
evap sati, such being the case;
payoge sati, when there is occasion.
With Leminine words, sati is also used, although it should be, satiya (Lem.):
pucchaya sati, if the question be asked; ruciya sati, had he the desire, if he had the
wish.
(iv) The Genitive Absolute is not quite so frequently used as the Loc. Absolute although
found often enough:
sakunakassa gumbato jalap mocentass'eva, even while the fowler was
disengaging the net from the bush;
tesapkilantanap yeva suriyatthajiigatavela jata, while even they were
sporting, it became dusk.
(v) There is also mentioned a so-called Nominative Absolute:
gacchanto bharadvajo so, addasa ajjhutap isip, Bharadvaja having gone
he... etc.,
yaymano maharaja, addasT tantarena ge, as the king was going, he.... etc.
Remark.
The Gen. Absolute is frequently used to show "disregard, contempt", it can then be
translated by "in spite of, notwithstanding". Lor example see above (601, viii).
§604.
(v) SYNTAX OL THE ADJECTIVE.
(i) As has already been said, whenever an adjective is not in composition with another
word, it must agree with the word it qualifies in number, gender and case.
(ii) Adjectives in the comparative degree require an Ablative: sllap eva suta seyyo, virtue is
better than learning.
(iii) Comparison is also expressed by an Abl. followed by an adjective in the positive degree:
madhura pataliputtakehi abhirupa, the people of Madhura are more handsome than
those of Pataliputta.
(iv) It is also expressed by the indeclinable varap, better, with an Abl.: tato varap; better
than that.
(v) When "the better of two" is to be expressed, a Gen. is used with the positive degree:
tumhakap dvinnap ko bhaddako of you two who is the better?
(vi) Superlative adjectives are used with the Gen. or the Loc, for examples see above (601,
section iv).
-. 116
(vi) SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
§605. (l.) Personal Pronouns.
(i) The personal pronouns are used much in the same way as in English, and do not call for
particular remarks, except, perhaps, the enclitic forms of ahap and tvap; (289-b, c; 290, c).
(ii) The enclitic forms of ahap: me and no, and those of tvap: te and vo, are never used at
the beginning of a sentence nor immediately before the particles ca, ta and eva:
detu me, let him give to me; tava va me hotu, be it thine or mine;
kammap no nitthitap, our task is finished;
ko te doso, what is thy fault?
kahap vo raja, where is your king?
(iii) With verbs, the personal pronouns are frequently understood, as the endings of the
tenses clearly indicate also the person as: gacchati (he) goes = so gacchati; gaccheyyami, (i)
should go = ahap gaccheyyami etc.
(iv) The personal pronoun so, sa, tap is also used as a demonstrative and as an article. See
Concord (589). Therefore, so puriso may mean according to the context: the man, or, that
man.
(v) Tasma (abl ), is used adverbially in the sense of "therefore accordingly, thereby": with
the same meanings it is also followed by hi and ti ha ( = iti ha):
tasma hi panna ca dhanena seyyo, and therefore is wisdom better than riches;
tasma ti ha bhikkhave, accordingly, 0 monks!
(vi) The Inst, tena is used with the same meanings as tasma:
tena tap madhurap, therefore, on that account, it is sweet.
Tena followed by hi means "well! very well! all right! well then!":
tena hi khadapessami nan ti, very well, then, I'll make you devour him.
(vii) Nap and enap (295, 300), are used when something or someone already mentioned is
referred to. See (296).
§606. (2.) Demonstrative Pronouns.
(i) eso, esa, etap (298), refer to what is near, and mean "this":
esa itthl, this woman;
nirupakaro esa, this (fellow) is useless.
The same remarks apply to ayap and asu, this.
Remark.
esa is often used for eso, sa for so.
(ii) The neuter etad ( = etap, 302), is used with the verb hoti and the Gen. of the person, and
the expression is then equivalent to "to think":
tassa etad ahosi, he thought...(lit = of his this was).
§607. (3.) The Relative.
(i) We have already explained the Relative (592); only a few of its most important peculiar
uses need be mentioned here:
(ii) Yo (311) is used with the Indefinite koci (319): yo koci, whoever, anyone; yap kind,
whatsoever, anything. See (314-a, b).
(iii) The Neut. Sing, yap is frequently used adverbially in the sense of "as; that, because,
since, seeing that, If, when "tap bahup yap pi jlvasi, it is much that thou livest.
(iv) The Inst, yena is used as an adverb, meaning "whereby, by which, for which, because":
yena nap ganhissami, by which I shall catch him.
(v) When motion to a definite place is expressed, yena, where, is used with tena, there:
yena bhagava, ten'upasajikati, he went to Buddha (lit. where was Buddha there he
approached).
(vi) Yasma (Abl.), is used in the sense of "because" and is then generally followed by tasma,
therefore; yasma tvap najanasi tasma balo'sl ti, because thou doth not understand,
therefore art thou a fool.
§608. (4.) The Interrogative.
(i) The interrogative pronoun ko (316), may be used by itself or with a noun or pronoun:
ko pana tvap, who art thou?
ke ete, who are these?
ka darika, which girl?
(ii) kena (Inst.) used with attho and the Dat. of the person, forms such expressions as "what
do you want?" etc,:
kena te attho, what are you in need of?
(iii) kena (Inst.) kasma (Abl.) and kissa (Gen.) are used adverbially with the meaning of
"why? wherefore?"
117
(iv) kip is much used with the Inst, to express "what is the use of?"
kip me jlvitena, what is the use to me of life?
§609. (5.) The indefinite.
The indefinite pronoun (319), does not present any peculiarity: ma idha koci pavisi, let
nobody enter here; kind bhayap, any danger.
(vii) REPETITION.
§610. To express "plurality, totality, distribution, variety, multiplicity," etc., words are
sometimes repeated:
tesu tesu thanesu in various places;
tap tap kathaya mana, saying this and this,
yo, thus repeated means "whoever, whatever, whichever":
yap yap gamap, whatever village;
itara ten'eva niyamena ya ya. kind katheti tassa tassa upari kacavarap chaddesi,
and in this way the other (woman) threw the refuse on whomsoever said
anything;
so ditthaditthamanusse jlvitakkhayap papeti, he kills all whom he sees;
gatagatatthane, in every place;
yena kena, by whatever ...;
ubbahlyati so so, every one is put to flight.
(vii) SYNTAX OF VERBS.
§611.
(i) The Concord of the verb with its subject has already been noticed (590, 1st).
(ii) The Present Tense denotes an action taking place now, a fact existing at the present
time:
so bhayati, he is afraid;
sa pacati, she cooks.
(iii) The present tense often expresses the continuance of an action and is equivalent to the
present progressive: sa gabbhe nisldati, she is sitting in her private room.
(iv) Habit, custom and general truths are expressed by the present tense:
sabbe maranti, all (men) die;
bhikkhu sllap acarati: a monk practises virtue.
(v) The present is sometimes used with a future signification: kip karomi, what shall I do?
(vi) The present is extremely frequent in narrations when recounting past events as if they
were actually happening, this is called the Historical Present:
so pancamanavakasatani sippap ugganhapeti, he taught five hundred young men
(lit. he teaches).
(vii) When no interrogative particle is used, interrogation is sometimes expressed by
placing the present tense at the beginning of the sentence:
socasi tvap upasaka, grievest thou, 0 layman?
Remark.
Other tenses may also be used in the same way to mark interrogation.
THE PAST TENSE.
§612. Perfect, Imperfect and Aorist.
(i) The Perfect and the Imperfect tenses present no difficulty, they are as a rule used in the
sense of a general past, and they do not require any notice. Let it be borne in mind,
however, that the Perfect is but seldom used; that the Imperfect, though more frequent
than the Perfect, does seldom differ from it in meaning and last, that the Aorist has
generally displaced these two tenses and superseded them.
(ii) The Aorist is the principal past tense in Pali and is therefore extensively used; it
expresses indefinite past time, but also includes the Present day. The Aorist may be
translated by the Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite (See 405):
catuppadu pi ekap sThap rajanap akapsu, the quadrupeds made a lion king;
mukhe pahari, struck him on the mouth;
kena karanena rodi, why did you cry?
brahmano elakena saddhip vicari, the brahmin walked about with the goat.
(iii) The indeclinable ma is used with the Aorist to express prohibition:
elaka, ma bhayi, 0! goat, fear not!
ma puna evarupap akasi, do not do so again;
tata, ma garni, dear son, do not go.
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THE FUTURE TENSE.
§613. (i) The Future expresses simple futurity:
ahag gacchissami, I shall go;
te marissanti, they will die.
(ii) The future is also used as a mild form of the Imperative, when courteously giving a
command:
tvag tassa bandhanag dantehi khadissasi, cut his bonds with thy teeth.
(iii) The future is used to express simple condition, with the particles ce, sace and yadi:
yadi tvar] yagug pacissasi ahag pivissami, if thou wilt cook the gruel, I shall drink
it;
so tan ce labhissati, tena saddhig gaccha, if he gets it, go with him.
(iv) bhavissati, the 3rd. pers. sing, of bhavati, to be, is often used in the sense of "it must be
that....":
cora pathamag neva bherisaddag sutva issarabheri bhavissati ti palayitva, the
theives on first hearing the beating of the drum, (said) "It must be the drum of an
official" and fled;
ayag me putto bhavissati, he must be my son.
(v) bhavissati preceded by the negative particle na may be translated by "it cannot be":
nayag issarabheri bhavissati. This cannot be an official's drum.
(vi) janissami, the 3rd. pers sing of janati, to know, is often used idiomatically in the sense
of "I'll see":
hotu, paccha janissami, let it be, I'll see (to it) afterwards.
THE OPTATIVE.
§614 (i) The Optative expresses "probability, capability, fitness, assent or permission,
command, wish, condition" and is also used in laying down rules and precepts.
(ii) Fitness:
tvag tattha gaccheyyasi, you should go there. [Examples follow:]
(iii) Wish:
ahag imag tumhakag bhajetva dadeyyag, I would divide and give it to
you, but...
(iv) Command:
tvag pana ito patthaya ovadanusasaniyag dadeyyasi, but thou hence
forward, give us instructions and admonitions;
udarena nipajjeyyasi, lie on thy belly.
(v) Probability:
api ca nama gaccheyyami, I may go.
(vi) When expressing condition, it is usually preceded by ce, sace or yadi, if:
sami, sace imaya velaya tava sapattag passeyyasi kin ti tag kareyyasi?
Lord, if, at this time thou should see thy enemy, what would thou do to
him?
(vii) To express supposition, the word yatha is sometimes used with the Optative:
yatha maharaja kocideva puriso padlpag padlpeyya, were, maharaja, a
man to light a lamp...
(viii) Assent:
tvag idani gaccheyyasi, thou may now go.
THE CONDITIONAL.
§615. The Conditional expresses an action unable to be performed on account of some
impediment in the way of its execution:
so ce tag yanag alabhissa agacchissa, he would go if he could get that vehicle;
bho satthavasino, sace esa rukkhamule cajikamanatapaso ajja nabhavissa, sabbe
mahavilopag patta abhavissatha, 0! merchants, had not today this ascetic been
walking to and fro at the foot of this tree you should all have been completely
pillaged.
THE IMPERATIVE.
§616. (i) The Imperative is used in giving commands:
tena hi, gaccha, very well, go!
(ii) It expresses entreaty:
bhante bhagava apposukko viharatu, Lord, let the Blessed One now live free from
cares.
(iii) Benedictions, blessings:
vassasatag, jiva, may you live a hundred years!
(iv) With ma prefixed, the Imperative 2nd person expresses simple prohibition (see Aorist
612, iii):
ma evag karotha, do not do so!
(v) The Imperative 3rd person sing, of bhavati, to be, is often used idiomatically, with the
meaning of "very well":
hotu, ahag janissami, very well I'll see (to it).
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THE INFINITIVE.
§617. (i) The Infinitive shows "purpose, motive intention". It is used actively as well as
passively.
uyyanapalo chaddetup up
Pali Grammar by Charles Duroiselle
Anónimo